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In trying to more broadly define outcome in the efficient long-term treatment of patients with schizophrenia it is necessary to consider not only a reduction in psychopathological symptoms but also a successful psychosocial reintegration. Thus, a more exact assessment of psychosocial functioning is needed. Since the GAF (Global Assessment of Functioning) scale and the SOFAS (Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale) are less operationalized and confuse psychosocial facts with psychopathological symptoms, the Personal and Social Performance (PSP) scale was developed [Morosini, P.L., Magliano, L., Brambilla, L., Ugolini, S., Pioli, R. (2000). Development, reliability and acceptability of a new version of the DSM-IV Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale (SOFAS) to assess routine social functioning. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 1001, 323-329.] containing the four main areas "socially useful activities, personal and social relationships, self-care, as well as disturbing and aggressive behaviour". Validation of the PSP scale was conducted in a sample of 62 patients with acute schizophrenia. Rating instruments were PSP, GAF, SOFAS, PANSS, CGI, and Mini-ICF-P (Mini-ICF-Rating for Mental Disorders). The results showed good reliability with alpha=.64-.84, high test-retest reliability as well as good inter-rater reliability for the PSP scale. Furthermore, PSP proved good validity with high correlations to GAF (r=.91), SOFAS (r=.91), and Mini-ICF-P (r=-.69). The hypothesis that more critically ill patients would show lower scores on PSP than lesser ill patients was only confirmed for PANSS negative symptoms. Thus, the findings prove the PSP scale to be a reliable and valid instrument for assessing social functioning of patients with schizophrenia during the course of treatment as well as in the acute state.

Die Auftritte von Politikern, Unternehmern und Verbandsvertretern in Talkshows sind Musterbeispiele fur Kommunikation. Die Diskutanten gehen inhaltlich auf verschiedene Fragen wie Steuerpolitik oder Familienpolitik ein, indem sie Standpunkte darstellen, die in der Regel schon bekannt sind. Es kommt ihnen vor allem darauf an, welchen Eindruck sie bei den Zuschauern hervorrufen. Wer erscheint als glaubwurdiger, kompetenter oder vertrauenswurdiger? Der Kommunikator will nicht nur informieren, sondern auch einen bestimmten Eindruck beim Empfanger der Botschaft erzeugen, der fur seine Ziele forderlich ist. Kommunikation dient also dazu, die Wahrnehmung des Empfangers zu beeinflussen – dies ist damit auch ein zentrales Erfolgskriterium von Kommunikation.

As mentioned above, our discussion of the contributions to this book was organized not on a chapter-by-chapter basis but with an integrative perspective in mind. Our aim was to suggest commonalities and differences that emerge across the contributions, relate the results to the framing approach, and point to related meta-theoretical approaches in an attempt to put the theoretical approach of Lindenberg (this volume) to solidarity and prosocial behavior in perspective.

In this chapter three different paths that lead to compassion are considered: one path is based on principles of conditioning and reinforcement, the second path has its origin in observational learning and modelling, and the third path starts with the prosocial personality. As will be described below in more detail, I assume that compassion and prosocial behaviour are closely linked with each other. From this the implication follows that individual and social influences that enhance compassion also tend to increase prosocial behaviour.

Der sozialpsychologische Beitrag zum Verstandnis von Organisation und Kommunikation, der in diesem Kapitel dargestellt wird, liegt in den Bereichen soziale Wahrnehmung, Einstellung, Gruppen, Intergruppen-Beziehungen. Diese Themen werden im Folgenden unter dem Blickwinkel von Nonprofit-Einrichtungen behandelt. Einerseits ist die Einheit der Analyse das Individuum, andererseits geht es aber auch um das organisationale System und seine Beziehung zu anderen Organisationen. Die Betrachtung umfasst auf Rollen bezogenes Verhalten, Stimmung und Bindung an die Organisation, Spannungen zwischen Mitgliedern unterschiedlicher Organisationen sowie Kommunikationsprozesse.

Part I Introduction 1. Responsibility as a fundamental human phenomenon - Hans-Werner Bierhoff and Ann Elisabeth Auhagen Part II. Basic Issues and Domains of Responsibility 2. Philosophical foundations of responsibility - Dieter Birnbacher 3. Responsibility - a biological perspective - Robert A. Hinde 4. Toward a broader psychological foundation for responsibility - who, what, how - Kelly G. Shaver and Deborah A. Schutte 5. An attributional approach to perceived responsibility for transgressions - extensions to child abuse, punishment goals and political ideology - Bernard Weiner 6. Responsibility in everyday life - Ann Elisabeth Auhagen 7. Denial of responsibility - Leo Montada Part III. Applications of Responsibility 8. Responsibility and technology - Hans Lenk and Matthias Maring 9. Responsibility and ecological behaviour - a meta-analysis of the strength and the extent of a causal link - Florian G. Kaiser, Urs Fuhrer, Olaf Weber, Thomas Ofner and Evelina Buhler-Ilieva 10. Responsibility appraisals of health protection - Elisabeth Kals 11. Responsibility in work organisations - L. Alan Witt 12. Responsibility and altruism - the role of volunteerism - Hans-Weber Bierhoff 13. Responsibility and reactions to the disadvantaged - Manfred Schmitt, Barbara Reichle and Jurgen Maes Part IV. Perspectives 14. Responsibility at the Beginning of the Third Millennium - Ann Elisabeth Auhagen and Hans-Weber Bierhoff

Im Sommer des Jahres 1999 war die deutsche Bundeswehr zum ersten Mal in ihrer Geschichte an einer kriegerischen Auseinandersetzung beteiligt. Unter dem Oberkommando der NATO flog die deutsche Luftwaffe Einsatze gegen militarische Ziele im ehemaligen Jugoslawien. Dieses kriegerische Engagement wurde durch die NATO damit begrundet, militarische Mittel seien die einzige Moglichkeit, die fortwahrenden Menschenrechtsverletzungen gegen die im Kosovo lebenden Albaner und die Vertreibung aus ihrer Heimat zu stoppen.

Der Diskurs uber Solidaritat lasst sich auf zwei Traditionen zuruckfuhren (Nissen, 1999): Eine Quelle liegt in der theologischen Betrachtung, in der der Opfertod von Jesus als Ausdruck der Solidaritat Gottes mit den Menschen interpretiert wird. Diese Sichtweise wird von der katholischen und der evangelischen Kirche gleichermasen als Norm des Handelns vertreten. Diese Denkrichtung verankert Solidaritat somit in christlichen Werten und betrachtet sie als Richtschnur der Sozialethik. In Gegensatz zu dem wertorientierten Ansatz in der Theologie steht die zweite Quelle des Begriffs der Solidaritat, die auf eigenen Interessen beruht. Dabei handelt es sich um die gewerkschaftlich-politische Bereitschaft von Arbeitnehmern, ihre Interessen gemeinsam zu vertreten, um Benachteiligungen und niedrige Lohne zu bekampfen. Insofern kann hier auch von einer Kampfsolidaritat gesprochen werden (Bayertz, 1998).

This review examines recent books on altruism and prosocial behaviour. Psychological approaches, biological approaches, and economic approaches are covered. The list of variables known to influence prosocial behaviour includes situational determinants, motivational orientations, and personality variables. Psychological theories emphasizing norms, cost-benefit calculations, and developmental factors have been used successfully to explain prosocial behaviour. Attention is given to models of helping and social and therapeutic treatment programmes. Genetic variables in prosocial behaviour are also reviewed.

Sixty-three subjects judged the behaviour of one of two fictitious stimulus persons by means of five different types of explanation which corresponded with specific psychological theories. These types of explanation based behaviour on adaptation to external conditions, reward/punishment, fulfilment of role expectations, effects of unconscious motives and the imitation of models. The explanations were evaluated on graphic rating scales as to their truth and convincingness. Two-way analyses of variance with repeated measures on one factor showed significant main effects for type of explanation and interaction effects of stimulus person × type of explanation for both dependent variables. The results are discussed in the light of studies done so far in implicit personality theory.

This study investigates the possibility that results of within-subjects studies tend to be design-specific. In a study of impression formation 3×3 row-by-column designs were presented to two groups of judges. The first design (standard-design) included high. Medium, and low levels of the independent variables. The second design (comparison design) included a high/medium/low variation of one independent variable and a high/medium/high variation of the second variable. The judges were asked to reproduce informations. They received relevant informations (which should be reproduced) and additional informations (which were irrelevant for their task). The pattern of results is different within the two designs. While the standard-design reveals a significant main effect for the relevant information, the comparison-design reveals an additional interaction effect between relevant and irrelevant information. The results are attributed to the fact that the design itself is a stimulus.

Um mit einer Erfahrung als Radiohorer zu beginnen: In einer Sportsendung wird von einem Sportverein fur Bewohner der Bodel-schwingh’schen Anstalten in Bethel berichtet. Die sportliche Aktivitat bedeutet fur einige der Patienten eine — wenn auch geringe — Hoffnung. Der Verein wird von unbezahlten Helfern, die bei der Psychiatrischen Anstalt beschaftigt sind, aufrechterhalten. Die Vereinsmitglieder haben es nicht leicht: Der Reporter weist darauf hin, wie er erlebt hat, das Fusballspieler des Vereins auf einem Fusballplatz von Zuschauern als „die Bloden von Bethel“ begrust wurden.

Wenn die sozialen Hinweisreize das Datenmatrix der Eindrucksbildung darstellen, dann sind die Inferenzen so etwas wie Rechenprogramme. Im ersten Kapitel waren schon Beispiele dafur genannt worden, das die Personenwahrnehmung auf Schlusfolgerungen beruht. In dem Abschnitt uber implizite Personlichkeitstheorien wurde dargestellt, wie von einer Eigenschaft auf andere Eigenschaften geschlossen wird, z.B. von den Eigenschaften ‘warm’ und ‘kalt’ auf Eigenschaften, die ebenfalls auf der Dimension ‘sozial gut - sozial schlecht’ (s. Fig. 2) liegen. In dem Abschnitt uber den Halo-Effekt wurde die Abhangigkeit unter verschiedenen Urteilsdimensionen der Personenwahrnehmung diskutiert.

Prosocial behavior implies an interaction of at least two persons: the helper (A) and the recipient of help (B). Therefore, prosocial responses have to be understood in the context of social interaction in general.

This paper is intended to elucidate conceptual similarities between attitude change and suggestibility. In particular, we ask whether the tendency to retain an initial expectation is related to the tendency to comply with demands which suggest a biased sensory perception. We begin with a discussion of studies on the phenomenon of belief perseverance which is a paradigmatic example for the tendency to retain an initial expectation although contradictory evidence is available. In addition, we discuss briefly some studies on suggestibility with special emphasis on secondary or sensory suggestibility. In the empirical part we describe an experiment which was intended to answer some of the questions which are raised in the first part.

Altruistische Einstellungen und altruistisches Verhalten sind zweierlei. Der Einflus sozialer Wunschbarkeit auf Aussagen uber hilfreiches Verhalten bringt es mit sich, das Personlichkeits-bzw. Einstellungsmase fur Altruismus nicht immer valide Verhaltensindikatoren sind. Daher sind die zahlreichen Versuche, Skalen zur Erfassung individueller Unterschiede in altruistischen Personlichkeitsfaktoren zu ermitteln, kein Ersatz fur empirische Studien, in denen konkrete Formen der Hilfeleistung erfast werden.

I Conflict, Power, and Justice.- 1 Cooperation, Conflict, and Justice.- Cooperation-Competition: Initial Studies of Distributive Justice.- Conflict and Bargaining Studies: Conditions for Establishing a System of Justice.- Distributive Justice.- Experimental Studies of the Effects of Different Systems of Distributive Justice.- The Choice of Distribution System.- The Sense of Injustice.- Some Conclusions.- References.- 2 Justice and Power: An Exchange Analysis.- Power as a Determinant of Reward Distributions.- Power as a Determinant of Reactions to Injustice.- An Exchange Analysis and Some Preliminary Evidence.- Perceptions of Fairness in Exchange Networks.- The Perceived Origins of Inequality and Reactions to Injustice.- Concluding Comments: From Interpersonal to Intergroup Relations.- References.- 3 Justice Considerations in Interpersonal Conflict.- A Glance at the Literature.- Interpersonal Conflict: Definition, Delimitation, and Analytic Approach.- Interpersonal Justice.- Justice Considerations in Interpersonal Conflict: Conditions of Occurrence and Effects.- At the Intra-Individual Level: Justice Thoughts.- At the Interindividual Level: Justice Statements.- Justice Conflict.- Types and Psychological Concomitants of Justice Conflict.- The Justice Dispute.- Significance of Justice Conflict for the Outcome of the Primary Conflict.- Conclusions.- The Role of Different Justice Motivations.- Concluding Remarks.- References.- 4 Power and Justice in Intergroup Relations.- Justice and Power.- Private Problems and Public Issues.- The Effects of Power.- Endorsement, Authorization, and Legitimation.- Revolutionary Mobilization.- The Symbols of Justice.- Conclusion.- References.- II Theoretical Perspectives on Justice.- 5 Justice Ideology and Social Legitimation: A Revised Agenda for Psychological Inquiry.- Overview.- Personhood and Justice.- The Personhood Ideal.- Justice.- Enlarging Personhood.- Toward an Objective Base for Justice.- Bases of Legitimation.- Critique.- Caretaking and Receiving.- Vulnerability to Ideology.- Psychology and the Reproduction of Injustice.- Conclusion.- References.- 6 The Experience of Injustice: Toward a Better Understanding of its Phenomenology.- Retrospective Reports on Experiences of Injustice.- Procedure.- Results.- Discussion.- Role-Playing Investigation 1.- Role-Playing Investigation 2.- Categories of Cognitions and Feelings.- Objectivity of Coding.- Results.- Discussion.- Conclusion.- References.- 7 Thinking about Justice and Dealing with One's Own Privileges: A Study of Existential Guilt.- The Concept of Existential Guilt.- Coping with One's Own Privileges: An Empirical Study.- Sample.- Research Instruments.- Cognitive Analysis of Inequality and Existential Guilt.- Distributive Justice and Existential Guilt.- The Role of Perceived Control.- Felt Responsibility for and Attitude toward the Disadvantaged.- Belief in a Just World and Existential Guilt.- The Moderating Role of Centrality of Justice.- A Predictive Model for Existential Guilt.- Discriminating Existential Guilt from Empathie Distress.- Criterion Group Validity of Existential Guilt.- Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8 Rethinking Equity Theory: A Referent Cognitions Model.- Levels of Referent Outcomes.- Effects of Referent and Likelihood Cognitions.- Levels of Justification.- Distributive and Procedural Effects.- Context Effects.- Summary and Conclusion.- References.- III Norms and Justice.- 9 Social Context and Perceived Justice.- Justice in Interpersonal Relations: Equity or Equality.- Equity versus Equality and Response to Reward Allocation.- Gender Differences Revisited: Response to Equity and Equality.- The Other Way Around.- Just World, Expectations, and Scripts.- Summary.- References.- 10 Levels of Interest in the Study of Interpersonal Justice.- Levels of Interpersonal Justice Phenomena.- Specific Domains.- The Justice Motive.- Justice Principles as Different Forms of Social Interdependence.- Determination of Value and Perception of Inputs.- Postscript.- References.- 11 The Need Principle of Distributive Justice.- Traditional Theoretical Perspectives.- Consideration of Needs in Allocation Situations: Conclusions from Experiments.- Need Satisfaction as the Basis of Distributive Justice.- Prototypes of Relationships and Transaction Principles.- Empirical Findings.- Conclusion.- References.- 12 Group Categorization and Distributive Justice Decisions.- Reward Distribution Behavior as Reasoned Action.- Target Characteristics as Mediators of Norm Salience: A Role-Theory Analysis.- Group Categorization as a Mediator of the Influence of the Norm of Equity on Reward Distributions to Workers.- Supervisors' Pay Allocations when Outgroup Norms are Unknown.- Supervisors' Pay Allocations when Beliefs Exist about Workers' Relevant Norms.- Implications of Reasoned-Action-Role-Theory Approach for Past and Future Work.- References.- 13 Children's Use of Justice Principles in Allocation Situations: Focus on the Need Principle.- Cognitive Developmental Models of Distributive Justice.- Investigations into Concrete Allocation Behavior.- Studies of Distributive Justice.- Differentiation between Just and Unjust Aims.- Preschool Children's Preferences for Justice Principles.- Primary School Children's Preferences for Justice Principles.- Encouraging the Consideration of Need.- Summary and Concluding Remarks.- Distinguishing Just from Unjust.- Preference for Equality.- Instability in the Preference for Equality.- Children's Social Knowledge.- The Need Principle.- References.- IV Applications of Justice Research.- 14 Two Rotten Apples Spoil the Justice Barrel.- Methods.- Subjects.- Procedures.- Results.- Preliminary Analyses.- Testing the Hypotheses.- Additional Analyses.- Discussion.- References.- 15 Justice as Fair and Equal Treatment before the Law: The Role of Individual Versus Group Decision Making.- Implicit Psychological Assumptions in the Law.- Equality before the Law as a Minimum Standard.- Equality before the Law as a General Desideratum.- Procedures to Ensure Equality before the Law in Legal Decision Making.- Individual versus Group Decision Making in the Legal Process.- Examples from a Comparative Legal Analysis.- Decision Making by Jurors, Juries, and Judges: Social Psychological Evidence.- Sentencing Councils and their Effects on Equal Treatment before the Law.- Method.- Results.- Discussion.- Conclusions.- References.- 16 The Psychology of Leadership Evaluation.- Factors Influencing Leadership Evaluations.- Research.- The Evaluation of Legal Authority.- The Evaluation of Political Authority.- Other Research.- Implications.- The Meaning of Procedural Justice.- When Is Procedural Justice Important?.- References.- 17 When Expectations and Justice Do Not Coincide: Blue-Collar Visions of a Just World.- Questioning the Contentment of the Disadvantaged.- Equity and Exchange.- Relative Deprivation.- Self-Blame and the Disadvantaged.- Hypotheses.- Method.- Subject Sample.- Locus of Control.- Political Ideology.- Videotape.- Expected, Satisfying, and Perfectly Just Pay-Plan Designs.- Results.- Political Profile.- Visions of a Perfectly Just World.- Discussion.- Limited Visions of Perfect Justice: Why?.- Cognitive Limits of Imagination.- The Generation of Radically Different Just World Views.- References.- 18 The Distributive Justice of Organizational Performance Evaluations.- Distributive Justice in the Context of Performance Appraisal.- Channels of Influence in Appraisal Systems.- Performance Appraisal and Organizational Justice.- A Taxonomy of Organizational Performance Evaluations as Outcomes.- The Input-Defining Function of Organizational Performance Evaluations.- Performance Evaluations as Ultimate and Penultimate Outcomes: Research Evidence.- Using Performance Evaluations to Qualify Reactions to Monetary Outcomes.- Using Performance Evaluations to Qualify Reactions to Job Titles as Outcomes.- Implications.- Implications for Conceptualizations of Distributive Justice.- Implications for Organizational Theory and Practice.- References.- Author Index.

Nachdem die Altruismusforschung in den ersten Jahrzehnten sozialpsychologischer Forschung keine Rolle spielte, wurde sie in den siebziger Jahren zu einem der zentralen Bereich innerhalb der Sozialpsychologie (Bierhoff, 1982). Zwei Fragestellungen stehen im Mittelpunkt der gegenwartigen Diskussion: Unter welchen Bedingungen reagieren potentielle Helfer altruistisch auf die Notlage einer anderen Person? Wie beantworten die Hilfeempfanger den Erhalt einer Wohltat?

Contemporary research on fairness and justice has focused on the situational determinants of the relationship between performance and reward. Social psychologists have emphasized the influence of contributions of the group members on the reward distribution. In contrast to this major interest area in justice studies, the influence of the reward allocation on the inferred input level of the group members has received relatively little attention.

If social cues are taken as the data matrix of impression formation, inferences represent the computer programs. In the first chapter examples of inferences in person perception were given. Inferences based on implicit personality theories from one trait to other traits were demonstrated, for instance, drawing conclusions from the traits warm and cold about traits that are also located on the socially good-socially bad dimension (see Figure 3). With reference to halo effects, interdependencies between various judgmental dimensions of person perception were discussed.

In diesem Kapitel besteht nicht die Moglichkeit, einen ausfuhrlichen Uberblick uber Skalierung und Datentheorie zu geben (s. Coombs, 1964; Dunn-Rankin, 1983; Orth, 1974; Torgerson, 1958). Stattdessen beschranke ich mich auf eine Darstellung, die in Ausschnitten Probleme und Moglichkeiten der Messung der Personenwahrnehmung beschreibt.

5 Klassen sozialer Interaktion werden im Zusammenhang mit sportlichem Verhalten besprochen: Pseudokontingenz, asymmetrische Kontingenz, reaktive Kontingenz, wechselseitige Kontingenz und umspringende Kontingenz. In diesem Rahmen werden Prozesse sozialer Einflusnahme dargestellt. Einige Klassen sozialen Verhaltens (Kooperation, Fuhrerschaft und hilfreiches Verhalten) werden ausfuhrlicher analysiert, um die Nutzlichkeit des vorgeschlagenen Ansatzes zu verdeutlichen.

Person perception is of great importance in everyday life and human science. Judgment of other people's characteristics and intentions is important for suc cessfully planning actions within a social environment. Questions about the formation of impressions and causal attributions are central to social psychology and the study of diagnostic judgment formation. The field of per son perception deals with questions of how impression formation proceeds, what characteristics and intentions are attributed to other people, and how preformed schemata and stereotypes influence people's first impressions. Research on person perception developed rapidly after the Second World War. In the 1950s the precision and accuracy of person perception received special interest, but the problems concerning whether an individual's assessment of another personality is exact or not could not be solved. Another approach, which began in the 1940s and was derived from the Gestalt psychological tradi tion, dealt with impression formation based on selected social cues. This ap proach, which proved to be very useful, had considerable influence on both the research methods and the theoretical orientation of the research work. On the one hand, by using a combination of individual cues (like physical characteris tics) researchers tried to ascertain how an impression of a person was formed. On the other hand, the Gestalt psychological orientation led to an interest in the process of person perception, which in the last 10 years has concentrated on questions concerning information reception and processing."