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Sammendrag Artikkelen er en kritisk lesning av tekster og bilder på internett av griser av den såkalte iberiske rasen som beiter i eikeskogene i Spania. Den iberiske svinekjøttindustrien har vokst raskt siden århundreskiftet, og den høyeste kvaliteten av skinker spekes fra griser som fetes opp på eikenøtter i skogen i minst i to måneder før de slaktes. Veksten i næringen sammenfalt med utviklingen av World Wide Web 2.0, og spekeindustriens interesser preger fortellingene om skogsbeitene på nettet. I tekst og bilder fremstilles beitemarkene som den iberiske grisens opprinnelige og naturlige habitat, og relasjonen mellom grisen og eika, mediert gjennom nøttene, fremmes som den dominerende relasjonen i beitet. Følgelig settes mange andre arter og mangfoldet av relasjoner som konstituerer skogsbeitene til side eller utenfor fortellingene. Den kritiske lesningen er gjort fra en flerartsantropologi og bekrefter enkelte fellestrekk ved fortellinger om domestisering og menneskelig utvikling som antroposentrismer og jordbruk som vendepunkt. I artiklene argumenteres det imidlertid for at fortellingene om skogsbeitene representere en spesifikk konfigurasjon av mennesket som naturens mester. Menneskene forestilles som voktere av naturlige arter og som foredlere av naturlige prosesser. Som foredlere av naturlige prosesser skaper de økologisk bærekraftig vekst for alle arter, nærmest som en skogbeitenes «usynlig hånd». I tillegg viser artikkelen fra et historisk perspektiv at artenes relative posisjon i det sosioøkologiske systemet skogsbeitene utgjør, endrer seg kontinuerlig over tid og at grisens signifikante posisjon i dag er nyvunnen og unik.

Hydrological processes were investigated since the year 2000 in a semiarid rangeland with disperse cover of evergreen holm oaks. In this article results are presented on the spatial variation of rainfall in the catchment using a network of 6 raingauges. Results are also presented on soil water dynamics, which were studied under different vegetation covers and varying soil depths. Furthermore, the temporal variation of runoff generation in the basin outlet is reviewed, taking into account different timescales. The following results can be highlighted: Spatial variation of rainfall in the catchment at annual or monthly scale was low. However, large dispersion exists in the case of individual rainstorms, when the differences between the 6 raingauges varied strongly, both for daily values as well as maximum intensities. Events with high spatial variation are presumably related with small, localized storms, particularly those of high intensity and short duration, and those showing low variation are probably of frontal origin. Soil moisture presented seasonal patterns clearly dependent on factors such as rainfall or evapotranspirative demand. Spatial distribution of soil moisture was mainly affected by physiographic terrain characteristics and vegetation covers. Generally, in dry hydrological years, soil moisture was lower beneath than beyond the tree canopies, while the opposite was observed in wet years. Dry situations increase the intensity and duration of soil water deficits, enhance the evaporative demand and increment water storage capacity by covers. Channel flow in dehesas depends highly on the antecedent moisture conditions and particularly on the water content of the sediment-filled valley bottoms. If these areas become saturated, high amounts of runoff are produced during rainfall events. Under high intensity rainstorms Hortonian overland flow is rapidly generated on hillslopes producing a quick channel response. Interannual runoff variation is very high, the more frequent low rainfall years provoke very low total water flow, contrasting with less frequent years of above average rainfall, which are the ones producing high total runoff. It can be concluded that the hydrological dynamics in Mediterranean rangelands with a disperse tree cover are complex, both regarding soil water and catchment runoff, being highly variable in time. Future changes in land use or climate could affect notably the hydrological dynamics of the catchment, and hence similar upland basins. For example, a notable increase of tree cover would reduce water availability of pasture plants, particularly during dry years. A decrease of annual rainfall amounts and/or increased drought intensities, as a consequence of climate change, would enlarge periods of soil moisture deficit for pasture plants, as well as a reduction of runoff.

BalanoTrees, a nursery created by Joan Montserrat and Francesc Ribera specialized in the selection and production of oaks that bear sweet acorns, has been locating and cataloging oaks that bear sweet acorns across the Iberian Peninsula and on the island of Mallorca for five years. The idea that acorns were an important food source in human history and proto-history is generally accepted today but explanations as to why they were abandoned vary; some stressing the presumed difficulties in their cultivation and others the ideological component represented by cereal agriculture in developing central states. Reviving interest in acorns-as-food has gained considerable momentum in the recent past and, in this context, the Iberian Peninsula’s historical dehesa model has attracted much attention. The present paper explores different aspects of the acorn-as-food, starting with a not-sosimple question: what is a truly “sweet acorn”? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As shown in the literature, preserving ecological balance in the Spanish dehesa has traditionally depended on the exploitation of its potential for multifunctionality. Given the increasing number of ecological, climatic, economic and cultural change processes threatening its integrity, new public goods valued by society or the reinvention and revalorisation of existing public goods is, once again, required to contribute to dehesa management in this dynamic context. Historically, humans and 'wild asparagus' (Asparagus acutifolius L.), have cohabited within this agro-silvo-pastoral system, establishing a mutually beneficial relationship, since wild asparagus proliferates in the mosaic of forest, shrubs, crops and fields that characterize the dehesa. In addition, this species shows a positive response to collection, which has increased in the last four decades. In the past, food and nutritional values were the most important factors accounting for human interest in wild asparagus. Currently these reasons have been superseded by social and symbolic motives. Today, wild asparagus is the most relevant wild edible plant for various types of users in the dehesa, while gathering events have become a remarkable social phenomenon. In this paper, we describe how wild asparagus is exploited by different users and offer an explanation for its continuing relevance in the dehesa agro-ecosystem, and its revalued importance for rural communities in southern Extremadura (Spain). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dehesa is the most widespread agroforestry system within the European Union and provides an important set of provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services. However, these systems have been in decline for a number of years, to a great extent because of their lack of profitability. Among the different options available to add value to agroforestry systems such as the dehesa and make them more profitable, the development of brands that would help consumers identify the products they generate is one of the most promising alternatives. In this way, the value of dehesa products would be enhanced and the revenue obtained from them increased. However, whilst such products are locally appreciated, a challenge exists in so far as neither national nor international consumers are able to identify dehesa products and therefore they are not willing to pay a premium for them. In this context, the creation of an umbrella brand covering the products derived from the dehesa is considered to be useful for boosting revenues in dehesa systems. This piece of research used a qualitative approach combining discussion groups with projective techniques during a series of workshops to identify relevant branding concepts and imagery for dehesa products. The findings showed that the term dehesa is recognised and appreciated by consumers, although it is associated with traditional and expensive products. It was also found that in order to make the brand more attractive to more consumers -especially younger consumers-additional concepts such as "sustainability" and "socially-responsible" production need to be incorporated in the branding. Imagery displaying forests and other environmental motifs were found to be the strongest graphical means of depicting these concepts within the brand design. It is considered that these findings could help enhance the demand and revenues associated with dehesa products and sustain the benefits they provide for the environment and for society. • Development of a brand covering agroforestry products could help enhance revenues in extensive farms. • The brand could help consumers identify the benefits farms provide for environment and society. • The brand needs to include additional concepts such as "sustainability" and "socially-responsible". • Imagery displaying forests and other environmental motifs should be included in the design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mediterranean oak-dominated agro-silvo-pastoral systems of southwestern Europe (called montado in Portugal and dehesa in Spain) are semi-natural, savannah-style High Nature Value farmlands (HNVfs) shaped by centuries of anthropogenic (e.g., cultivation, grazing) and natural (e.g., drought) disturbances. Therefore, changes in grazing and precipitation may alter their vegetation composition and ecosystem properties and impact upon their long-term viability. We quantified the responses of soil organic carbon (SOC) and plant taxonomic and functional trait diversities to cattle grazing and inter-annual changes in precipitation across three open-woodland sites within the montado landscape in Alentejo, southern Portugal. The sites are characterised by the presence or absence of cattle grazing and different amounts of mean annual precipitation (ranging from semiarid to dry subhumid). Three different precipitation periods were used: a shorter autumn-to-spring period and longer 12- and 18-month periods before sampling. Specific leaf area, plant height and seed mass were used to estimate single-trait community weighted means and a multi-trait measure of community functional diversity (Rao's Q). SOC and plant species richness responded negatively to the presence of cattle grazing but positively to increase in precipitation (and its interaction with cattle grazing), while trait-based measures were largely unresponsive to cattle grazing and precipitation (though RLQ analysis revealed strong controls of the environmental variables on plant life cycle, growth form, leaf phenology and dispersal strategies). SOC was most responsive to longer-term (18-month) changes in precipitation, whereas plant species richness was most responsive to shorter-term (autumn-to-spring) changes in precipitation. These results suggest that different components of plant diversity respond differently to external drivers in montado HNVfs, while the response time of soil properties may be longer than that of plant taxonomic diversity. • We assessed three sites in oak woodlands under different amounts of precipitation. • Taxonomic and functional diversity respond differently to grazing and precipitation. • Plant species richness is most responsive to autumn-to-spring precipitation. • Soil organic carbon is most responsive to 18-month changes in precipitation. • Soil organic carbon responds negatively to grazing but positively to precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Holm oak is a key tree species in Mediterranean ecosystems, whose populations have been increasingly threatened by oak decline syndrome, a disease caused by the combined action of Phytophthora cinnamomi and abiotic stresses. The aim of the present study was to produce holm oak plants that overexpress the Ginkbilobin-2 homologous domain gene (Cast_Gnk2-like) that it is known to possess antifungal properties. Proembryogenic masses (PEMs) isolated from four embryogenic lines (Q8, E2, Q10-16 and E00) were used as target explants. PEMs were co-cultured for 5 days with Agrobacterium EHA105pGnk2 and then cultured on selective medium containing kanamycin (kan) and carbenicillin. After 14 weeks on selective medium, the transformation events were observed in somatic embryos of lines Q8 and E2 and a total of 4 transgenic lines were achieved. The presence of the Cast_Gnk2-like gene on transgenic embryos was verified by PCR, and the number of transgene copies and gene expression was estimated by qPCR. Transgenic plants were obtained from all transgenic lines after cold storage of the somatic embryos for 2 months and subsequent transfer to germination medium. In an in vitro tolerance assay with the pathogen P. cinnamomi, we observed that transgenic plants were able to survive longer than wild type.

Mediterranean oak savanna is composed of a mixture of scattered oak trees, crops, pasture, and shrubs. It is the most widespread agroforestry landscape in Europe, and its conservation faces multiple threats including water scarcity, which has been exacerbated by global warming and greater climate variability. Evapotranspiration (ET) can be used as a proxy of the vegetation water status and response to water shortage conditions, providing relevant information about the ecosystem stability and its hydrological dynamics. This study evaluates a framework to estimate ET at multiple spatial and temporal scales and applies it to the monitoring of the oak savanna vegetation water consumption for the years 2013–2015. We used a remote sensing-based energy balance model (ALEXI/DisALEXI approach), and the STARFM data fusion technique to provide daily ET estimates at 30 m resolution. The results showed that modeled energy balance components compared well to ground measurements collected by an eddy covariance system, with root mean square error (RMSE) values ranging between 0.60 and 2.18 MJ m−2 d−1, depending on the sensor dataset (MODIS or Landsat) and the flux. The daily 30 m ET series generated by STARFM presented an RMSE value of 0.67 mm d−1, which yielded a slight improvement compared to using MODIS resolution or more simple interpolation approaches with Landsat. However, the major advantage of the high spatio-temporal resolution was found in the analysis of ET dynamics over different vegetation patches that shape the landscape structure and create different microclimates. Fine-scale ET maps (30 m, daily) provide key information difficult to detect at a coarser spatial resolution over heterogeneous landscapes and may assist management decisions at the field and farm scale.

The objective of this work is to provide new insights about the effect of soil water deficit on the vegetation of Mediterranean oak savanna. The evolution of evapotranspiration (ET) and vegetation water stress over this ecosystem, in the Iberian Peninsula, has been monitored for fifteen years through the application of a remote sensing thermal-based energy balance model. The Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) has been applied, on a monthly timescale from January 2001 to December 2015, using input satellite and meteorological reanalysis databases. The model performance has been evaluated under these conditions by comparison with field measurements. The estimation of energy fluxes yielded reasonable agreements with observations (RMSD=14-20 W·m–2 for the radiative fluxes and RMSD=26-29 W·m–2 for the turbulent ones) and have led to characterize the main drought events occurred during the study period, and to quantify their effects on the vegetation coverage and production. The most generalized and severe events (2004/2005 and 2011/2012) and their impact on different vegetation strata, oaks and grasslands, are further analyzed.

Abstract Mediterranean oak savannas, such as Spanish dehesas, are multiple resource‐limited ecosystems found in semiarid regions which are key contributors to interannual variability of the global carbon (C) budget. Interactions between nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) cycles are expected to play a major role in overall ecosystem function as anthropogenic N deposition shifts ecosystems from N to P limitation, leaving unknown how increased N availability might influence C uptake. Therefore, the fate of N additions in dehesas is important for understanding global C cycling. Using a 15N tracer experiment within fertilized (N or N + P) plots of a Holm oak dehesa, we tested the effects of ecosystem spatial heterogeneity (habitat), P addition, and time on the fate of added N. We expected that open pasture areas would retain more of the added N in biological components due to greater N limitation, that the addition of P would enhance N retention in biological components relative to N alone, and that added N would shift from being within the microbial biomass immediately after addition to being predominantly within plants at the beginning of the following growing season. We found that open pasture plots with N only had the greatest label recovery seven months after the start of the experiment, supporting the idea that open pasture was more N‐limited than under‐canopy areas. However, soil was the largest sink for added N, regardless of habitat, treatment, or time. Our results suggest that abiotic fixation of N may play an important role in modifying the effects of N deposition in dehesas.

In Spain, natural and managed cork oak woodlands are severely affected by decline caused by the root rot oomycetes Phytophthora cinnamomi and Pythium spiculum. The need for environmental-friendly disease management makes the use of resistance inducers a suitable option. As the use of phosphite is prohibited in Spain, trunk injections of fosetyl-aluminium were tested in a seminatural cork oak woodland (dehesa). Sixty cork oaks in three different defoliation classes (asymptomatic, slight, and moderate defoliation) were selected for fosetyl- aluminium or control (water) trunk injections, and periodically checked for defoliation and presence of both pathogens in roots and rhizosphere soil. Three years after treatments, fosetyl-aluminium injection significantly decreased defoliation in treated cork oaks in comparison with water-injected controls, regardless of the initial defoliation class considered. Changes in inoculum density in the rhizosphere or presence of the two pathogens in roots were not significantly dependent on treatment. However, a trend to a lower presence of pathogens in roots of treated oaks was observed with increasing soil inoculum densities. Fosetyl-aluminium, a phosphonate fungicide registered in the European Union, was experimentally proved to protect cork oaks against root rot caused by P. cinnamomi and Py. spiculum, even exhibiting a therapeutic effect on preexisting infections. This effective measure can therefore be used to fight against this highly destructive disease in seminatural woodlands and in protected natural ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mediterranean oak savannas, such as Spanish dehesas, are multiple resource-limited ecosystems found in semiarid regions which are key contributors to interannual variability of the global carbon (C) budget. Interactions between nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) cycles are expected to play a major role in overall ecosystem function as anthropogenic N deposition shifts ecosystems from N to P limitation, leaving unknown how increased N availability might influence C uptake. Therefore, the fate of N additions in dehesas is important for understanding global C cycling. Using a 15N tracer experiment within fertilized (N or N + P) plots of a Holm oak dehesa, we tested the effects of ecosystem spatial heterogeneity (habitat), P addition, and time on the fate of added N.We expected that open pasture areas would retain more of the added N in biological components due to greater N limitation, that the addition of P would enhance N retention in biological components relative to N alone, and that added N would shift from being within the microbial biomass immediately after addition to being predominantly within plants at the beginning of the following growing season. We found that open pasture plots with N only had the greatest label recovery seven months after the start of the experiment, supporting the idea that open pasture was more N-limited than under-canopy areas. However, soil was the largest sink for added N, regardless of habitat, treatment, or time. Our results suggest that abiotic fixation of N may play an important role in modifying the effects of N deposition in dehesas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry systems, in which trees are integrated in arable or pasture land, can be used to enable sustainable food, material, and energy production (i.e. provide provisioning ecosystem services) whilst reducing the negative environmental impacts associated with farming. However, one constraint on the uptake of agroforestry in Europe is a lack of knowledge on how specific agroforestry designs affect productivity. A process-based biophysical model, called Yield-SAFE, was used: (1) to quantify the food, material and biomass energy production of four contrasting case study systems in Europe in a common energy unit (MJ ha−1), and (2) to quantify how tree density determined the supply of provisioning ecosystem services. The Yield-SAFE model was calibrated so that simulated tree and crop growth fitted observed growth data for reference monoculture forestry, pasture, and arable systems. The modelled results showed that including trees in pasture or arable systems increased the overall accumulated energy of the system in comparison with monoculture forestry, pasture, and arable systems, but that the accumulated energy per tree was reduced as tree density increased. The greatest accumulated energy occurred in the highest tree density agroforestry system at all the case study sites. This suggests that the capture of environmental resources, such as light and water, for obtaining provisioning services is most effective in high density agroforestry systems. Further modelling should include tree canopy effects on micro-climatic and the impact this has on pasture, crop, and livestock yields, as well as the impact of tree density on the economic value and management of the different systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changes in land use are common in Mediterranean areas and are reported as having produced changes in the intensity of soil erosion. Dehesas are rangelands with a disperse tree cover, widespread in the south‐western part of the Iberian Peninsula and similar ecosystems are also common in other areas with a Mediterranean climate. The aim of the present study is to analyse temporal and spatial variations of soil erosion rates estimated along three hillsides, located in two farms (Buitrera and Parapuños) in southwest Spain. To understand the temporal variation, soil erosion rates were studied in light of land use‐management changes that took place during the last few centuries. Results indicate very low erosion rates prior to the 18th century in both farms. In Buitrera, a first increase of soil loss rates was identified during the period 1831‐1897, amounting to 7.4 t ha‐1 y‐1. A further increase took place during the 20th century, reaching a mean erosion rate of 29.1 t ha‐1 y‐1. In Parapuños, data points to a significant increase from 1881 onwards, with an estimated mean erosion rate of 18.5 t ha‐1 y‐1. Those increases were presumably connected with an intensification of land use, such as cultivation and excessive livestock populations. Regarding spatial variation, the bare surface and the erosive power of run‐off along the hillsides accounts for 76% of the soil erosion rates dispersion. At a local scale, the variability of erosion rates could not be explained, because of (i) uncertainty related to the micromorphology of the past soil surface and (ii) the role of tillage erosion in the past. However, the results obtained offer valuable data on the temporal and spatial variation of erosion rates in dehesas at the hillslope scale and a similar approach could be used for other rangelands with a disperse tree cover. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dehesas constitute land use surface with more presence in Extremadura region, with more than 1,2 million hectares quantified. By this way, this paper aims to determine dehesa surfaces and how they are composited through the analysis of their elements. This is possible due to the use of data from the Land Use/Land Cover Information System from Spain. Moreover, it has been extracted information about dehesa surfaces and compare them with the SIGPAC data. Additionally, it has been presented an analysis about the changes suffered in the reference period 2005-2014. Finally, applying Annual Exchange Rate, it has been detected that dehesa surfaces are losing by 7.000 hectares in the reference period although they are the main land use-land cover in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the breeding of Iberian hog in the Province of Salamanca, the relations between the territory and cultural heritage are analysed. Breeding conditions are well-adapted to the local ecosystem of pastureland with holm oaks, known as monte hueco or dehesa. Meat processing, for example the production of Iberian chorizo, is based on folk knowledge. The long historical past of pig rearing is embedded in a sustainable agro-sylvo-pastoral landscape and in a local culture related to the production of ham and sausages. This way of life is reflected in paintings, photographs, folklore and literary texts, which show the intense relationship of the people of Salamanca with their territory, landscape and traditions, as well as its asset as a touristic -gastronomic resource. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We tested the effect of abiotic factors and human influence on the distribution of Oak Decline. • We estimated its potential geographic distribution in central-western Spain. • Oak Decline distribution was explained by land use and abiotic stress conditions. • Northern and central part of the study area had higher probabilities of Oak decline. • Forestry practices are required to prevent a possible expansion. In the Iberian Peninsula, Oak Decline (hereafter, OD) is becoming a serious and frequently occurring disease in Mediterranean oaks. Decline processes seem to involve multiple biotic and abiotic factors, which combine to reduce the vigour of oak trees often causing death. However, the exact causes of its extension are still unknown and therefore, given the ecological, economic and social relevance of these trees in Mediterranean countries it is crucial to develop tools that allow us to anticipate its occurrence and to reduce its expansion. In this sense, the present work aims to (i) unravel the relative role of environmental factors on the distribution of one of the most important phenomena that threat the biodiversity of the Iberian oaks, and (ii) to produce a spatially explicit model of OD risk, to assist conservation managers dealing with this phenomenon. To this, we have used a dataset of OD foci gathered during the period 2015–2017 by the program "Methodology for the inventory and monitoring of oak masses affected by the decline of oak in the southwest of Castilla y Leon" (this region is beginning to suffer the damages of this disease). In total, 68 locations were used to assess relationships with environmental factors (topographic conditions, abiotic stress conditions and human influence) using maximum entropy models (hereafter, MaxEnt) and variance-partitioning. OD distribution seems to be principally influenced by land-use (mainly dehesas), followed by dryer areas and areas with low slope gradients facing south or southeast. The resulting model has been used to produce a detailed OD risk map in central-western Spain. Our modelling approach may contribute to inform conservation planning and to establish the adequate management policy for Iberian oak dehesas , by helping to identify regions where the risk of OD is high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Spain, Quercus open woodlands are animal ranching systems of organic production seriously threatened by the exotic pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi. The root disease it causes kills thousands of oaks annually. Effective disease management needs to integrate different techniques, and the use of a resistance inducer such as fosetyl‐Al can play a key role, because the use of potassium phosphite is prohibited in Spain. In a woodland where the pathogen recently arrived, 60 holm oaks in three different defoliation classes (asymptomatic, slight and moderate defoliation) were selected for trunk injection with pressurised capsules containing 4% of commercial fosetyl‐Al or water (controls). Holm oaks were checked periodically for defoliation and presence of the pathogen in roots and rhizosphere soil. Three years after treatments, defoliation was significantly lower in oaks treated with fosetyl‐Al, which even increased canopy cover, in comparison with control oaks, independent of the initial defoliation class considered. Chlamydospore density in rhizosphere soil, as well as the presence of the pathogen into the roots, was not significantly influenced by fosetyl‐Al treatments, although a trend to a lower presence of P. cinnamomi in roots was observed in treated oaks at every soil inoculum density detected. This study has shown that fosetyl‐Al, a phosphonate registered as a fungicide in the European Union, provides protection to holm oaks against P. cinnamomi, even exhibiting a therapeutic effect on pre‐existing infections. Consequently, this effective measure should be considered as part of the integrated approach to control this highly destructive pathogen in holm oak woodlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we explore ways of improving the field performance of oak plantations for the regeneration of open woodlands in Mediterranean environments. Using the evergreen, sclerophyllous holm oak species (Quercus ilex L. subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.), we analyzed the effects of the outplanting date (October vs. February), vegetation competition (weeding vs. untreated), the environmental conditions imposed by the outplanting site, and the interactions between all these factors. For test purposes, 3 blocks of 200 one-year-old holm oak nursery-grown seedlings were set up in four sites in SE Spain (Becerra, Mágina, Jarosa and Hinojosa). Half of each block (plot) was weeded to prevent competition from other vegetation. In each plot (weeded or not) half of the seedlings were outplanted in October 2019 and the other half in February 2020. In total, 2400 holm oak seedlings were planted to be monitored over the course of two growing seasons. Survival and growth-related parameters such as height, root collar diameter, number of leaves and total and fractional aerial biomass were recorded. Weeding was shown to be the most important factor affecting both survival and seedling growth, especially in sites with a milder autumn and winter, and a long, intense summer, such as Jarosa and Hinojosa. In colder locations, however, October outplanting was more advantageous, especially if accompanied by weeding (Becerra and Mágina). In cases where competition from native species is not controlled, it would be advisable to plant in October, in terms of both survival and development of the seedlings, especially in colder sites. In general terms, the best option was outplanting in October plus weeding, while the worst option was outplanting in February with no weeding. This study provides new tested recommendations on how to improve the success of oak plantations in different Mediterranean environments. [Display omitted] • Oak plantations (Quercus spp.) have a poor field performance in the Mediterranean. • Weeding, outplanting date and site were evaluated over two growing seasons. • Weeding is highly recommended, especially in warmer sites. • October outplanting showed better results than February outplanting. • Interactions between weeding and outplanting date and site were found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Climate change is threatening ecosystem functioning and sustainability worldwide. In silvopastoral systems, ongoing warmer and drier conditions could impact productivity and quality of pastures (in terms of protein content and digestibility), with important economic consequences. However, the extent to which climate change could alter other nutritional traits with a potential role in livestock nutrition and production, such as essential fatty acids and amino acids, is a question that remains poorly known. We designed a field manipulative experiment of increased temperature (+2–3 °C) and rainfall exclusion (−30%) aimed to evaluate the influence of forecasted climate variations on the yield and nutritional composition of pastures (i.e. proteins, lipids, fibers, amino acids, fatty acids and digestibility) in a Mediterranean silvopastoral system. To test whether scattered trees typical of these ecosystems could buffer the effects of higher aridity, experimental plots were installed under trees and in open grasslands. First, we found that plant communities under tree canopies were less productive but exhibited higher quality than those located in open grasslands, likely due to the shade and higher soil fertility provided by trees. Both climatic stressors had a significant influence on pasture productivity and nutritional composition. Thus, pastures subjected to rainfall reduction produced less biomass with higher content in nitrogen, proteins, essential amino acids and lipids, likely as a mechanism of plant tolerance to water stress. In contrast, warming increased plant productivity and enhanced the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, likely mediated by alterations in plant community composition. Finally, our results suggest that trees might slow the impact of climate change on productivity and specific amino acids in pasture. These results could be also applied for the design of management strategies to ensure the ecologic and economic value of silvopastoral ecosystems under future climate scenarios. [Display omitted] • Habitat type had a significant influence on protein and lipid composition of pastures. • Drought decreased plant biomass but enhanced its nutritional quality. • Warming increased plant biomass with higher unsaturated fatty acids. • Warming had a stronger impact on plant species composition than drought. • Trees could mitigate the effect of climate change on productivity and amino acids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assesses the effects of environmental traits and landscape management on the biodiversity of saproxylic beetles from “dehesas” located in Sierra Morena Mountains (Córdoba, Southern Iberian Peninsula). The dehesa is an open savanna-like landscape with mature/old trees scattered on a pasture cover where both living and dead wood are of great importance for the maintenance of macroinvertebrate fauna. The study was carried out in five plots, with different environmental features and management. A total of 137 branches belonging to the four main tree species present in the area were collected, classified, and kept under four different thermal conditions. From January to June 2019, the adult emergences were followed. A total of 466 saproxylic specimens of 31 species were obtained, 5 of them included in red lists of protected fauna. Two Bostrichidae species (Lichenophanes numida Lesne and Scobicia pustulata Fab.) and two Cerambycidae (Chlorophorus ruficornis Oliv. and Trichoferus fasciculatus Faldermann) are included in the “European Red List of Saproxylic Beetles”; and the Clerid Tillus ibericus Bahillo de la Puebla, López–Colón and García–Paris, is included in the “Red Book of Invertebrate of Andalucía”. Differences were observed regarding the diversity and abundance among the plots and among the tree species from which the beetles emerged. Simple regression analyses revealed negative relationships between tree density/Buprestidae, livestock/Bostrichidae, and land use/Cerambycidae. Multivariant logistic regression analysis did not find significant relationships among environmental traits and saproxylic diversity. Results confirmed that dry wood was a main resource for the maintenance dehesas’ biodiversity because it constitutes an ecological niche exploited by a significant set of saproxylic beetles belonging to the Bostrichidae, Buprestidae, and Cerambycidae families, in addition to other guilds of species, mainly Carabidae and Cleridae, which feed on the above-mentioned groups. Our results also support that increasing environmental temperature accelerates the development of Buprestidae, but this effect was not evident for the Bostrichidae species.

The Spanish dehesa and its Portuguese correspondance (montado) are Mediterranean agrarian-forestrypastoral systems projecting an outstanding landscape whith big heritage values. On them loom new or renewed threats that compromise their future at a time (the current) with an increasing social and institutional revaluation of these landscapes. Its nomination as an Unesco cultural landscape can provide a powerful tool to deal with these threats, but requires the clarification of certain questions related to the scales. This paper delves into the dehesa outstanding universal value and offers some clues to support their possible incorporation into the Unesco World Heritage List. Analysis undertakes at the level of types of landscape, but some criteria are advanced for the selection of concrete and representative areas capable of integrating a nomination as a serial property.

This paper tracks the evolution of the area covered by the dehesa in Sierra Morena from the mid 20th century to the present day, in an attempt to identify those areas in which traditional land uses still hold sway and others in which new land uses are appearing in relation to emerging business activities. These new uses have brought about an important transformation in the landscape of the dehesa, which in some areas is being replaced by other more profitable forms of land use, in particular with olive groves. In many areas where the dehesa still exists, livestock farming has been replaced by hunting, which has led to internal changes in the structure of the dehesa with an increase in scrubland. Another emerging land use is tourism-related activities, which many farmers now use to complement their income from livestock and which help preserve the traditional landscape of the dehesa.

Science-based sustainable management of agroforestry and silvopastoral systems is essential for their maintenance in a changing world. Using bibliometric and network analyses, we characterized how research is addressing the ecological and socio-economic dimensions of sustainable management of cork oak (Quercus suber) silvo pastoral systems, Mediterranean ecosystems of high nature conservation and socio-economic value. We retrieved publications on cork oak from the Web of Science. More than 60 countries contributed with research on this system. Retrieved papers addressed a great diversity of topics and were published in a variety of journals, highlighting the multidisciplinary character of cork oak research. Research grew exponentially after the 1990's, possibly stimulated by the establishment of the European Forest Ecosystem Research Network. Our analysis shows that most research priorities identified for the Mediterranean region are being well addressed in cork oak systems, although research on the interactions between ecological and socio-economic components remains underrepresented. Less research has been published in North Africa compared to Europe, which is worrisome because it hosts a large area of cork oak that faces major sustainability challenges, often different from those prevailing in Europe. Our study shows that, despite constraints, the global scientific community is contributing to fill relevant knowledge gaps on the sustainability of cork oak systems across their range. Bibliographic and network analyses proved effective to uncover patterns, gaps, and potential constraints on cork oak scientific research and can be easily used to analyze research in other agroforestry and silvopastoral systems worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil moisture has a direct influence on biomass production, food security, and ecosystem functioning, thus resources management in water‐limited environments could be improved if feedbacks between water and vegetation were fully understood. This study tries to define the sensitivity of annual pastures under the influence of different vegetation covers to soil water availability during two contrasting growing seasons, dry and wet. For this reason, soil water content was continuously monitored during two complete hydrological years using capacitance sensors, which were gathered in soil moisture stations located in open grasslands and beneath tree canopies. Pasture growth was recorded by measurements of its height and by biomass cuts. The study was conducted on three private farms located in savanna‐like ecosystems of Spain (dehesa) with Mediterranean climate. Results highlighted the importance of the topsoil (first 15 cm) as the main layer for water supply of natural grasses. Soils below canopies registered longer and more intense water deficits than those located in grasslands. This was reflected in biomass growth, given that when growing conditions were dry, pasture yield decreased more than 40% in grasslands and more than 50% below tree canopies. The studied ecosystems occupy millions of hectares in Spain and Portugal and present a canopy cover up to 40%. If dry episodes become more frequent in the present century due to climate change, important surface, especially under trees, could become drier, less productive, and therefore more prone to land degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand what is driving spatial flux variability within a savanna type ecosystem in central Spain, data of three co-located eddy covariance (EC) towers in combination with hyperspectral airborne measurements and footprint analysis were used. The three EC systems show consistent, and unbiased mass and energy fluxes. Nevertheless, instantaneous between-tower flux differences i.e. paired half hourly fluxes, showed large variability. A period of 13 days around an airborne hyperspectral campaign was analyzed and proved that between-tower differences can be associated to biophysical properties of the sampled footprint areas. At high photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) net ecosystem exchange (NEE) was mainly controlled by chlorophyll content of the vegetation (estimated through MERIS Terrestrial Chlorophyll Index (MTCI)), while sensible heat flux (H) was driven by surface temperature. The spatial variability of biophysical properties translates into flux variability depending on the location and size of footprints. For H, negative correlations were found with surface temperature for between-tower differences, and for individual towers in time, meaning that higher H was observed at lower surface temperatures. High aerodynamic conductance of tree canopies reduces the canopy surface temperature and the excess energy is relieved as H. Therefore, higher tree canopy fractions yielded to lower surface temperatures and at the same time to higher H. For NEE, flux differences between towers were correlated to differences in MTCI of the respective footprints, showing that higher chlorophyll content of the vegetation translates into more photosynthetic CO 2 uptake, which controls NEE variability. Between-tower differences of latent heat fluxes (LE) showed no consistent correlation to any vegetation index (VI), or structural parameter e.g. tree-grass-fraction. This missing correlation is most likely caused by the large contribution of soil evaporation to ecosystem LE, which is not captured by any of the biophysical and structural properties. To analyze if spatial heterogeneity influences the uncertainty of measured fluxes three different measures of uncertainty were compared: the standard deviation of the marginal distribution sampling (MDS), the two-tower-approach (TTA), and the variance of the covariance (RE). All three uncertainty estimates had similar means and distributions at the individual towers while the methods were significantly different to each other. The uncertainty estimates increased from RE over TTA to MDS, indicating that different components like space, time, meteorology, and phenology are factors, which affect the uncertainty estimates. Differences between uncertainty estimates from the RE and TTA indicate that spatial heterogeneity contributes significantly to the ecosystem-flux uncertainty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides a list of specific indicators that will allow the managers of dehesa farms to assess their sustainability in an easy and reliable way. To this end a Delphi analysis has been carried out with a group of experts in agroforestry systems and sustainability. A total of 30 experts from public institutions, farming, research bodies, environmental and rural development associations, agricultural organizations and companies took part in the study which intended to design a set of sustainability indicators adapted to dehesa agroforestry systems. The experts scored 83 original indicators related to the basic pillars of sustainability (environmental, social and economic) through a two-round procedure. Finally, 24 indicators were selected based on their importance and the consensus achieved. From an environmental point of view, and in line with its significance for dehesa ecosystems, it has been observed that “Stocking rate” is the indicator with greater relevance. Within the economic pillar, “Farm profitability” is the most important indicator, while regarding the technical indicators “Percentage of animal diet based on grazing” is the one that got the highest score. Finally, the “Degree of job satisfaction” and the “Generational renewal” were the most relevant labor indicators. It is considered that the Delphi approach used in this research settles some of the flaws of other sustainability models, such as the adaptation to the system to be studied and the involvement of stakeholders in the design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Iberian dehesas undergo lack of tree recruitment and abandonment of marginal areas. • Data mining methods were used to build maps predicting areas of tree recruitment. • Afforestations performed with UE aids in Extremadura were spatially analysed. • Afforestations hardly discriminated the areas prone to natural regeneration. • Spatial models could be used in decision making to detect suitable locations. Abstract Iberian silvopastoral systems known as dehesas in Spain and montados in Portugal are undergoing a spatially polarized process by which many of the main areas lack tree recruitment, whereas marginal lands suffer abandonment and shrub encroachment. These ongoing processes should be considered when designing afforestation measures and policies. We analyzed the temporal tree dynamics in 800 randomly selected plots of 100 m radius in dehesas and treeless pasturelands of Extremadura by comparing aerial images taken in 1956 and 2012. Based on this data, spatial models that predict areas prone to undergo or lack natural tree recruitment were developed using three data mining algorithms: MARS (Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines), Random Forest (RF) and Stochastic Gradient Boosting (TreeNet, TN). A number of 51 candidate environmental, physical and land use and cover spatial variables were used as predictors in models, from which the main 15 were selected. The statistical models developed were deployed to the spatial context of the rangelands in Extremadura and, separately, to the afforested areas performed under the UE First Afforestation of Agricultural Land program between 1992 and 2013. The percentage of area predicted as prone to tree recruitment was calculated in each case. The three data mining algorithms used showed high fitness and low misclassification rates. Although the drivers and patterns of the different models were similar, outstanding differences were observed among models attending the area prone to tree recruitment. A model ensemble was also produced as a map of agreement reflecting the majority vote among models. Despite these differences, when maps of the model results were related to the afforested surfaces, the three algorithms pointed to the similar conclusion, i.e., the afforestations performed in the studied rangelands barely discriminated between areas that already showed or lacked natural tree regeneration. In conclusion, data mining technics are suitable to develop high-performance spatial models of vegetation dynamics. These models are useful to help policy design, decision-making and assessment about the implementation of afforestation measures and could be used to improve the spatial targeting of future programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica is the property of Universidad de la Rioja, Servicio de Publicaciones and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Complutense de Ciencias Veterinarias is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Whilst numerous studies have examined the environmental benefits of introducing additional trees within wood pasture systems few studies have assessed the impact on farm profitability. This paper describes a model, called Forage-SAFE, which has been developed to improve understanding of the management and economics of wood pastures. The model simulates the daily balance between food production and the livestock demand for food to estimate annual farm net margins. Parameters in Forage-SAFE such as tree cover density, carrying capacity, and type of livestock can be modified to analyse their interactions on profitability and to identify optimal managerial decisions against a range of criteria. A modelled dehesa wood pasture in South-western Spain was used as a case study to demonstrate the applicability of the model. The results for the modelled dehesa showed that for a carrying capacity of 0.44 livestock units per hectare the maximum net margin was achieved at a tree cover of around 53% with a mixture of Iberian pigs (28% of the livestock units) and ruminants (72%). The results also showed that the higher the carrying capacity the more profitable the tree cover was. This was accentuated as the proportion of Iberian pigs increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change will impact forest ecosystems, their biodiversity and the livelihoods they sustain. Several adaptation and mitigation strategies to counteract climate change impacts have been proposed for these ecosystems. However, effective implementation of such strategies requires a clear understanding of how climate change will influence the future distribution of forest ecosystems. This study uses maximum entropy modelling (MaxEnt) to predict environmentally suitable areas for cork oak (Quercus suber) woodlands, a socio-economically important forest ecosystem protected by the European Union Habitats Directive. Specifically, we use two climate change scenarios to predict changes in environmental suitability across the entire geographical range of the cork oak and in areas where stands were recently established. Up to 40 % of current environmentally suitable areas for cork oak may be lost by 2070, mainly in northern Africa and southern Iberian Peninsula. Almost 90 % of new cork oak stands are predicted to lose suitability by the end of the century, but future plantations can take advantage of increasing suitability in northern Iberian Peninsula and France. The predicted impacts cross-country borders, showing that a multinational strategy, will be required for cork oak woodland adaptation to climate change. Such a strategy must be regionally adjusted, featuring the protection of refugia sites in southern areas and stimulating sustainable forest management in areas that will keep long-term suitability. Afforestation efforts should also be promoted but must consider environmental suitability and land competition issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Early acorn sowing in December or January is recomemded. • Weed control highly improved survival success and seedling growth. • Selection of mother tree with high germination potential is important. • Large acorns improved emergence, survival and growth. • Seeding success was lower in drier sites and drier years. Little is known about the effectiveness of direct acorn seeding when subjected to different environmental conditions, but without the interference of acorn predation. In order to assess and improve its success, a total of 2400 holm oak acorns from 20 mother trees were sown in three blocks across four sites from southern Spain. Each block was divided into two subplots, in one of which weed competition was mechanically controlled over the study period. Acorns were weighed, protected by a seed shelter, and sown at four different dates between December 2019 and March 2020. Emergence, survival and growth were registered until November 2021. In this last sampling, the aboveground biomass was harvested. Emergence varied from 53.7% of acorns sown in December to 29.4% of those sown in March while survival success after two growing seasons was 27.1% for acorns sown in December as compared to 9.2% of acorns sown in March. Survival success clearly decreased at a higher rate over time in non-treated subplots (12.7%) as opposed to those where the weeds were controlled (22.5%). Emergence, growth, and survival success were highly dependent on the site and the mother tree from which the acorn came. The mass of the emerged acorns was higher than the mass of those that did not emerge. The mean acorn mass of each mother tree was positively correlated with the germination rate and emergence of the seedlings, and with the survival of emerged seedlings and final survival success. In conclusion, we recommend selecting large acorns, sowing early (December), controlling weed competition over time, and selecting mother trees with high germination potential. Seeding success will be lower in drier sites and drier years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iberian pig production has its own quality regulation, which defines different handling and feeding systems for this breed. These differences influence production costs, market price and environmental impact. The most extensive system of fattening Iberian pigs is based on foraging acorns in a silvopastoral system named dehesa , and consumers usually associate the Iberian pork with this system, although nowadays more intensive systems are dominant due to their productivity and management simplicity. The aim of this study is to assess the Carbon Footprint (CF) of the different Iberian pig production systems using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. This study is based on data collected from 19 Iberian pig farms producing nursery growers (≤25 kg, 2 farms), pre-finished pigs (100–110 kg, 3 farms) and 3 types of finished pigs (150–175 kg), including free-range fattened pigs (17 farms), outdoor intensively fattened pigs (2 farms) and indoor intensively fattened pigs (2 farms). The CF was calculated with a "cradle to farm gate" approach using the kg of live weight (kg LW) as functional unit, and including C sequestration in soils and biomass, which was calculated by field monitoring in a selection of measuring points. The average CFs of the final products were 9.2 ± 2.5 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for nursery growers, 5.6 ± 2.42 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for pre-finished pigs, −5.6 ± 6.5 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for free-range fattened pigs, 3.1 ± 1.5 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for outdoor intensively fattened pigs and 7.7 ± 0.3 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 for intensively fattened pigs. The main C sinks of the dehesa system (trees and soil) sequestered an average of 3.18 t CO 2 eq ha−1 year−1. This C sequestration, averaging −10.2 ± 6.7 kg CO 2 eq kg LW −1 in free-range pig production, offsets 223% of the GHG emissions in those systems, which resulted in a negative CF (net CO 2 sequestration). There was a direct relationship between CF and pig stocking rate, leading to strongly negative CF values on those farms with the lowest pig stocking rates. • C sequestration offsets life cycle GHG emissions in free-range pig production. • A direct relation between extensification and reduced C footprint is identified. • The CF contribution of the growing phase is the highest one for all pig products. • Feed inputs are the first source of GHG emissions for all pig products. • Free-range grazing for finishing in an agroforestry system highly reduces pig CF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study employs life cycle assessment (LCA) for the calculation of the balance (emissions minus sequestration) of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in the organic livestock production systems of dehesas in the southwest region of Spain. European organic production standards regulate these systems. As well as calculating the system’s emissions, this method also takes into account the soil carbon sequestration values. In this sense, the study of carbon sequestration in organic systems is of great interest from a legislation viewpoint. The results reveal that the farms producing meat cattle with calves sold at weaning age provide the highest levels of carbon footprint (16.27 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq)/kg of live weight), whereas the farms with the lowest levels of carbon emissions are montanera pig and semi-extensive dairy goat farms, i.e., 4.16 and 2.94 kg CO2eq/kg of live weight and 1.19 CO2eq/kg of fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM), respectively. Enteric fermentation represents 42.8% and 79.9% of the total emissions of ruminants’ farms. However, in pig farms, the highest percentage of the emissions derives from manure management (36.5%−42.9%) and animal feed (31%−37.7%). The soil sequestration level has been seen to range between 419.7 and 576.4 kg CO2eq/ha/year, which represents a considerable compensation of carbon emissions. It should be noted that these systems cannot be compared with other more intensive systems in terms of product units and therefore, the carbon footprint values of dehesa organic systems must always be associated to the territory.

Presentamos en este artículo una cartografía del espacio ocupado por las dehesas maestrales de la Orden de Alcántara en La Serena (Badajoz) durante los siglos XV-XVIII. La misma ha sido elaborada a partir del vaciado de la toponimia histórica procedente de diversas fuentes de los siglos XVI y XVIII y su posterior contraste con las series cartográficas actuales (MTN25 y MTN50). Junto a una metodología para el desarrollo de estudios del paisaje basada en el uso de SIG, ofrecemos una estimación de la superficie total de las dehesas (108.511,87 ha) y del promedio de sus densidades ganaderas (0,28 UGM/ha) durante la primera mitad del siglo XVI. Los resultados obtenidos permiten cuestionar la orientación ganadera de estas dehesas como consecuencia directa de la pobreza de los suelos. En su lugar proponemos que el adehesamiento guarda relación con el modelo jurisdiccional desarrollado en el maestrazgo de Alcántara durante la Edad Media. [fr] Cet article présente une cartographie de l’espace occupé par les dehesas du maître de l’Ordre d’Alcantara dans La Serena (Badajoz) pendant les XV3 et XVIII3 siècles. Elle a été élaborée à partir de la recherche de la toponymie historique issue de diverses sources des XVI3 et XVIII3 siècles, et de son contraste postérieur avec les séries cartographiques actuelles (MTN25 et MTN50). L analyse propose une méthodologie pour l étude du paysage basée sur l’usage de SIG, ainsi qu une estimation de la surface totale des dehesas (108.511,87 ha) et de la moyenne de sa densité d’élevage (0,28 UGM/ha) au cours de la première moitié du XVI3 siècle. Les résultats obtenus permettent de mettre en cause l dée selon laquelle l’orientation d’élevage de ces dehesas serait la conséquence directe de la pauvreté des sols. En revanche, l étude révèle que l’adehesamiento est plutôt lié au modèle juridictionnel développé dans les domaines d’Alcantara pendant le Moyen Âge.