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Riparian areas around streams are those areas in which biological communites are directly influenced by the stream. The size of protected riparian areas and their conservation has become a controversial topic after changes implemented in the Brazilian Forest Code (BFC): a set of laws that regulates the size of Permanent Protection Areas (PPA). Here, we investigate the influence of distance from water bodies on bat-species and guild composition in a lowland Amazonian rainforest. Our hypotheses were that bat assemblages would change depending on the distance to the water body and that the abundance of herbivorous bats (frugivorous and nectarivorous) would be greater in areas close to water. Bats were captured with mist-nets in 24 riparian and 25 non-riparian plots within a trail grid in an old-growth terra-firme forest, northeast of Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. Each plot was sampled three times in a total of 7056 net-hours. We captured 1191 bats, comprising 51 species. We used model selection based on AIC (Akaike Information Criterion) to compare linear and piecewise regressions to estimate the ecological thresholds for different bat assemblages. Piecewise models with one breakpoint were more parsimonious than linear models for abundance data, and the species and guild composition of animalivorous and frugivorous bats. Animalivorous-bat abundance increased from the stream to about 181 m, and frugivorous-bat abundance decreased within 50 m of the stream. The patterns of guild abundance suggest that frugivorous bats may need greater access to streams than animalivorous bats. The most conservative model suggests that most of the variation in bat composition occurs close to the stream and extends to up 114 m from the banks. Therefore, the 30 m wide strip of riparian forest protected by Brazilian law would maintain a relatively small fraction of bat-species assemblages in Ducke Reserve, and is insufficient to represent most of the assemblage-composition variation within the riparian zone. The suggestion to reduce the width of the protected riparian zone from 30 to 15 m for streams smaller than 10 m wide, as is under discussion, would likely be prejudicial for bat assemblages.

We studied the long-term effects of different selective-logging intensities on the stem-less palm Astrocaryum sociale in a central Amazonian forest 90 km north of Manaus. The experiment consisted of three blocks of 24 ha, each divided into six 4 ha plots in which the treatments were allocated randomly. Each block had a control plot. Within each block, commercial timber was logged with intensities of 44%, 50% and 67% of basal area in 1987, 1988 and 1993 respectively. Stem-less palms in each plot were measured in 1996 and 2016. The number of individuals decreased slightly from 3229 in 1996 to 2997 in 2016, and there was an increase in the proportion of large palms. The degree of change in size structure was related to time since logging (p = 0.012), which also affected the total number of leaves (p = 0.0001), the sum of all leaf lengths (p = 0.01) and the number of adults (p = 0.056). The volume of timber extracted and in standing dead trees was not related to size-structure change. In the control block, the number of individuals changed slightly during the study period. As the different cutting intensities had little, if any, effect of the size-structure of this understory palm up to 30 years after logging, management concessions can contribute to the conservation of some elements of palm biodiversity.

Our aim is to assess how environmental and social variables are associated with COVID-19 mortality among countries and in the first and second waves among Brazilian states. We show that social isolation was not significantly, or was positively associated with COVID-19 mortality, which probably reflects people staying at home in the high mortality periods. The magnitude of temperature effects in Brazil varied depending on whether or not Index of Human Development was included in the regression analyses, but higher temperatures consistently reduced per capita deaths among countries. Availability of hospital bed capacity or intensive-care units had no detectable effect on mortality among countries, and within Brazil there was a positive relationship with excess deaths and a negative relationship with deaths per case during the second wave. Counterintuitively, mean age was negatively associated with deaths among Brazilian states, but was positively associated with mortality among countries. Mortality tended to be higher in states and countries with greater urbanization. Overall, the relationships of mortality-curve flatness, social isolation, temperature and hospital infrastructure with COVID-19 mortality were much weaker than is often assumed or are opposite in sign to the predictions, indicating that more complex models are needed to confront future epidemics.

The Belo Monte hydroelectric dam on the Xingu River has the third largest generating capacity of any hydroelectric dam in the world. We conducted surveys of crocodilians (Caiman crocodilus, Paleosuchus trigonatus) by boat in the Xingu River at the site of the dam prior to (2013-2015), and after filling (2016-2017). While the number of C. crocodilus sighted decreased with increasing water level, there was no difference in numbers prior to, and after reservoir filling. The number of P. trigonatus was unaffected by both water level prior to and after reservoir filling. Reservoir filling had little effect on the number of crocodilians using the forest around the Xingu River reservoir. Most crocodilians seen in forest surveys were P. trigonatus, both before and after reservoir filling, but C. crocodilus was recorded occasionally in the forest. It seems that most Amazonian crocodilians are sufficiently generalist to adapt to the new conditions created by the construction of dams, at least in the short-term. However, there may be long-term collateral effects on crocodilian populations from dams, due to as deforestation and improved access for hunters.

COVID-19 and its control constitute an example of a complex system, and most humans are poorly prepared to deal with complex systems. Here we show that government, some scientists and part of the news media did not recognize or ignored data that were freely available about the course of the epidemic in Brazil, and that this led to false conclusions and fatal decisions. The second wave of mortality did not originate in Manaus; Christmas and New Year celebrations that occurred long after the second wave started were not its primary cause; and social distancing accelerated rather than retarded the onset of the second wave. Had these facts been appreciated earlier, it would have been obvious that the only viable strategies were to reinforce the health system and obtain vaccines at any cost, and this might have saved between a quarter and half a million lives.

The chapter gives an introductory overview on the biology of the 11 species of crocodilians inhabiting the Americas. Geographical distribution is broadly discussed in the light of biogeographical and evolutionary origins. As a broad generalization, crocodilians are morphologically, genetically, and ecologically conservative and show a high dispersal ability, which together complicate the delimitation of species boundaries. Furthermore, distinct clades of crocodilians are a result of environmental selection for different adaptive characteristics. Gene flow occurs between clades, but distinct morphological varieties are sometimes a result of environmental filters. Thus, many taxa of crocodilians can be considered ecological species. Reproductive characteristics, such as nest-site choice and female reproductive output, influence reproductive success and thus population trends, so we discuss reproductive and habitat characteristics in the light of conservation genetics. Finally, the status of crocodilians is discussed both in terms of past hunting pressure and current conservation and management initiatives. In general, crocodilians can look after themselves if they have sufficient habitat, but some species are critically endangered by hunting, even though much of their original habitat remains intact. Conservation actions must be applied locally, taking into account threats and dispersal between source and sink populations. Given the difficulty of studying the dispersal of crocodilians by direct observation in most places in Latin America, the definition of effective management units will depend on genetic studies that can be linked to economic or conservation goals.

To determine the effect of rivers, environmental conditions, and isolation by distance on the distribution of species in Amazonia. Location: Brazilian Amazonia. Time period: Current. Major taxa studied: Birds, fishes, bats, ants, termites, butterflies, ferns + lycophytes, gingers and palms. We compiled a unique dataset of biotic and abiotic information from 822 plots spread over the Brazilian Amazon. We evaluated the effects of environment, geographic distance and dispersal barriers (rivers) on assemblage composition of animal and plant taxa using multivariate techniques and distance- and raw-data-based regression approaches. Environmental variables (soil/water), geographic distance, and rivers were associated with the distribution of most taxa. The wide and relatively old Amazon River tended to determine differences in community composition for most biological groups. Despite this association, environment and geographic distance were generally more important than rivers in explaining the changes in species composition. The results from multi-taxa comparisons suggest that variation in community composition in Amazonia reflects both dispersal limitation (isolation by distance or by large rivers) and the adaptation of species to local environmental conditions. Larger and older river barriers influenced the distribution of species. However, in general this effect is weaker than the effects of environmental gradients or geographical distance at broad scales in Amazonia, but the relative importance of each of these processes varies among biological groups.

Large-bodied predators are well represented among the world's threatened and endangered species. A significant body of literature shows that in terrestrial and marine ecosystems large predators can play important roles in ecosystem structure and functioning. By contrast, the ecological roles and importance of large predators within freshwater ecosystems are poorly understood, constraining the design and implementation of optimal conservation strategies for freshwater ecosystems. Conservationists and environmentalists frequently promulgate ecological roles that crocodylians are assumed to fulfil, but often with limited evidence supporting those claims. Here, we review the available information on the ecological importance of crocodylians, a widely distributed group of predominantly freshwater-dwelling, large-bodied predators. We synthesise information regarding the role of crocodylians under five criteria within the context of modern ecological concepts: as indicators of ecological health, as ecosystem engineers, apex predators, keystone species, and as contributors to nutrient and energy translocation across ecosystems. Some crocodylians play a role as indicators of ecosystem health, but this is largely untested across the order Crocodylia. By contrast, the role of crocodylian activities in ecosystem engineering is largely anecdotal, and information supporting their assumed role as apex predators is currently limited to only a few species. Whether crocodylians contribute significantly to nutrient and energy translocation through cross-ecosystem movements is unknown. We conclude that most claims regarding the importance of crocodylians as apex predators, keystone species, ecosystem engineers, and as contributors to nutrient and energy translocation across ecosystems are mostly unsubstantiated speculation, drawn from anecdotal observations made during research carried out primarily for other purposes. There is a paucity of biological research targeted directly at: understanding population dynamics; trophic interactions within their ecological communities; and quantifying the short- and long-term ecological impacts of crocodylian population declines, extirpations, and recoveries. Conservation practices ideally need evidence-based planning, decision making and justification. Addressing the knowledge gaps identified here will be important for achieving effective conservation of crocodylians.

The application of environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding as a biomonitoring tool has greatly increased in the last decade. However, most studies have focused on aquatic macro-organisms in temperate areas (e.g., fishes). We apply eDNA metabarcoding to detect the mammalian community in two high-biodiversity regions of Brazil, the Amazon and Atlantic Forest. We identified critically endangered and endangered mammalian species in the Atlantic Forest and Amazon respectively and found congruence with species identified via camera trapping in the Atlantic Forest. In light of our results, we highlight the potential and challenges of eDNA monitoring for mammals in these high biodiverse areas.

Pouco se conhece sobre os efeitos de longo prazo do fogo sobre a composicao floristica das savanas amazonicas isoladas. Dados do regime de queimadas foram coletados entre 1997 e 2017 e relacionados a composicao floristica em parcelas de 3,75 hectares distribuidos por 10.000 hectares de savana na regiao de Alter do Chao-PA, como parte das pesquisas desenvolvidas pelo PELD Oeste do Para. As analises foram realizadas para o conjunto total de especies e para os habitos de plantas em particular (arvores, arbustos, gramineas + ciperaceas, ervas dicotiledoneas e lianas). Registramos 115 especies de plantas, em 43 familias e 90 generos, sendo 24 especies de arvores, 43 de arbustos, 37 de ervas (incluindo as gramineas) e 11 de lianas. Trinta e uma especies estavam presentes em mais de 90 % das parcelas, com maior frequencia relativa de Trachypogon spicatus (L.f.) Kuntze, Chamaecrista ramosa (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby , Rhynchospora hirsuta (Vahl) Vahl e Paspalum carinatum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Flugge. Nossas analises sugerem que o fogo promoveu mudancas na vegetacao da savana estudada, reduzindo a riqueza de especies e modificando sua composicao independentemente dos habitos avaliados (exceto gramineas). No entanto, a deteccao dessas mudancas so foi possivel atraves da obtencao de uma longa serie de dados de fogo e medidas da vegetacao realizadas em campo. Por isso, a manutencao de Projetos Ecologicos de Longa Duracao e fundamental para que seja possivel prever e manejar os padroes em curso, resultando na melhoria da gestao da paisagem e conservacao da biodiversidade das savanas amazonicas isoladas. INFLUENCE OF THE FIRE REGIME ON THE SPECIES RICHNESS AND FLORISTIC COMPOSITION OF AN ISOLATED AMAZONIAN SAVANNA - PELD OESTE DO PARA: Little is known about the long-term effects of fire on the floristic composition of isolated Amazonian savannas. Data from the burn regime were collected between 1997 and 2017 and related to the floristic composition in plots of 3.75 hectares spread over 10.000 hectares of savanna in the Alter do Chao-PA region, as part of the research developed by PELD Oeste do Para. Analyzes were performed for the total species and for each plant habitat in particular (trees, shrubs, grasses + forbs, dicotyledonous herbs and lianas). We recorded 115 plant species in 43 families and 90 genera, being 24 tree species, 43 shrub species, 37 herbaceous species (including grasses and forbs) and 11 liana species. Thirty-one species were present in more than 90 % of the plots, with the highest relative frequency of Trachypogon spicatus (L.f.) Kuntze, Chamaecrista ramosa (Vogel) H. Irwin & Barneby, Rhynchospora hirsuta (Vahl) Vahl and Paspalum carinatum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Flugge. Fire have promoted changes in the vegetation of the studied savanna, reducing species richness and modifying its composition independently for each plant habitat (except grasses). However, the detection of these changes was only possible through a long series of fire data and vegetation measurements carried out in the field. Therefore, the maintenance of Long Term Ecological Projects is essential to predict and manage current patterns, which results in improved landscape management and biodiversity conservation of the isolated Amazonian savannas.

There is evidence that COVID-19, the disease caused by the betacoronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is sensitive to environmental conditions. However, such conditions often correlate with demographic and socioeconomic factors at larger spatial extents, which could confound this inference. We evaluated the effect of meteorological conditions (temperature, solar radiation, air humidity and precipitation) on 292 daily records of cumulative number of confirmed COVID-19 cases across the 27 Brazilian capital cities during the 1st month of the outbreak, while controlling for an indicator of the number of tests, the number of arriving flights, population density, proportion of elderly people and average income. Apart from increasing with time, the number of confirmed cases was mainly related to the number of arriving flights and population density, increasing with both factors. However, after accounting for these effects, the disease was shown to be temperature sensitive: there were more cases in colder cities and days, and cases accumulated faster at lower temperatures. Our best estimate indicates that a 1 °C increase in temperature has been associated with a decrease in confirmed cases of 8%. The quality of the data and unknowns limit the analysis, but the study reveals an urgent need to understand more about the environmental sensitivity of the disease to predict demands on health services in different regions and seasons.

The sensitivity of tropical forest carbon to climate is a key uncertainty in predicting global climate change. Although short-term drying and warming are known to affect forests, it is unknown if such effects translate into long-term responses. Here, we analyze 590 permanent plots measured across the tropics to derive the equilibrium climate controls on forest carbon. Maximum temperature is the most important predictor of aboveground biomass (-9.1 megagrams of carbon per hectare per degree Celsius), primarily by reducing woody productivity, and has a greater impact per °C in the hottest forests (>32.2°C). Our results nevertheless reveal greater thermal resilience than observations of short-term variation imply. To realize the long-term climate adaptation potential of tropical forests requires both protecting them and stabilizing Earth's climate., Our plot monitoring networks havebeen supported by multiple grants from a large number of funding bodies: European Research Council; Natural Environment Research Council; European Union’s Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Framework Programme; Royal Society, Leverhulme Trust; Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation; David and Lucile Packard Foundation; State of São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP); National Council for Science and Technology Development of Brazil (CNPq); Agence Nationale de la Recherche; Conservation International; Missouri Botanical Garden; Smithsonian Institution; Wildlife Conservation Society; National Geographic Society; Centre for International Forestry; and Gabon’s National Park Agency.

The giant arapaima (Arapaima sp.) has been described as a fish of change in Amazonia because of its important role in the conservation of floodplains, food security and income generation for rural communities. Nonetheless, despite the cultural, ecological and economic importance of arapaima, data on diet are scarce. Aiming to expand knowledge about arapaima diet in western Amazonia, scientific knowledge was integrated with the knowledge of local dwellers. During the low-water period (September 2018) and the falling-water period (June 2019), arapaima stomachs were collected from 11 floodplain lakes in the middle Jurua River. All fishes were measured [TL (total length)] and sexed. Food items from each stomach were categorized as fishes, invertebrates, plants and bone remains and weighed. Also, in the latter period, experienced local fishers were interviewed about arapaima feeding. This integrated approach revealed that young arapaima eat fish and invertebrates but adult arapaima eat fish of a wide range of species, which were mainly of low and intermediate trophic positions. This study reports the first case of cannibalism for arapaima and also shows that during the low-water period, many individuals had empty stomachs or only some small fish-bone remains and/or plant material. Arapaima sex and TL had no influence on the absence of prey in stomach contents. Overall, it can be concluded that local people had consistent ethnobiological knowledge of arapaima feeding ecology that could be useful within management projects in the region.

The high biodiversity of the Amazon region is related to variation in soil physical properties and water-table depths. Dung beetles are efficient bioindicators that feed and breed on the soil surface and below ground, affecting soil properties and being affected by them. Here, we investigate the influence of soil physical characteristics (proportions of sand, silt, clay) and water-table depth on dung beetle assemblages and functional groups in a forest in central Amazonia. We sampled beetles in 29 transects with different soil physical properties and water-table maximum levels, and analyzed beetle species richness, abundance and species composition for the total assemblage and for each functional group (rollers, tunnellers, dwellers). Dung beetle abundance increased with soil clay content (GLMM; p = 0.009) whereas dweller (GLMM; p = 0.017) and tunneller species richness increased with clay and silt contents (GLMM; p = 0.018). Sites with deeper water table had greater roller-beetle abundance (GLMM; p = 0.049). Dung beetle assemblage composition was strongly influenced by clay content. Our results suggest that soil texture and water-table levels determine dung beetle distributions, both for the whole assemblages and for each functional group separately. These findings highlight the role of soil structure in determining dung beetle assemblages.

The necessity to create national to global-scale biodiversity monitoring systems as part of assessing progress toward biodiversity agendas presents a challenge for signatory countries. This is a brief review of ongoing Brazilian national initiatives that would allow the construction of a general biomonitoring network scheme in protected areas; with additional focus on linking independent monitoring schemes. We discuss some key aspects needed to include monitoring schemes under a single framework that will lead to better evaluation of pressure–state–response indicators for managing biodiversity at several scales; and we point out the potential of embracing citizen science and participatory monitoring to quantify some aspects within those schemes. © 2018 Associação Brasileira de Ciência Ecológica e Conservação

Survey costs and a lack of taxonomists are often the main impediments to biodiversity inventories. The use of a higher-taxon approach that is efficient in representing species patterns within a short period of time is one way to overcome these constraints, especially if these responses are consistent at various spatial scales and sampling techniques. Here, we evaluated whether the use of pitfall trapping or Winkler extraction influenced the utility of genus as a surrogate to predict patterns of species richness and composition related to environment. The study sites were spread along 10 degrees of latitude, covering phytophysiognomies with different topographic characteristics. We recorded 450 ant species/morphospecies distributed in 70 genera. Pitfall-traps captured a larger proportion of species (77–98%) and genera (71–100%) per site. Genus was efficient in predicting variations in richness, and assemblage composition detected at the species level, using pitfall-traps or Winkler extractors. The higher-taxon approach saved approximately 40% of the surveys costs. The negative effect of the species-genus ratio was detected only on species composition, but it did not affect the quality of predictions using genera. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that genus can be used as a proxy for broader sets of species independent of sampling technique or environmental heterogeneity. The use of pitfall-traps or Winkler extractors for genus-level identification proved to be cost-efficient and time-efficient and should work well in other regions requiring conservation effort and monitoring programs.

Temperature increases can impact biodiversity and predicting their effects is one of the main challenges facing global climate-change research. Ectotherms are sensitive to temperature change and, although predictions indicate that tropical species are highly vulnerable to global warming, they remain one of the least studied groups with respect to the extent of physiological variation and local extinction risks. We model the extinction risks for a tropical heliothermic teiid lizard (Kentropyx calcarata) integrating previously obtained information on intraspecific phylogeographic structure, eco-physiological traits and contemporary species distributions in the Amazon rainforest and its ecotone to the Cerrado savannah. We also investigated how thermal-biology traits vary throughout the species' geographic range and the consequences of such variation for lineage vulnerability. We show substantial variation in thermal tolerance of individuals among thermally distinct sites. Thermal critical limits were highly correlated with operative environmental temperatures. Our physiological/climatic model predicted relative extinction risks for local populations within clades of K. calcarata for 2050 ranging between 26.1% and 70.8%, while for 2070, extinction risks ranged from 52.8% to 92.8%. Our results support the hypothesis that tropical-lizard taxa are at high risk of local extinction caused by increasing temperatures. However, the thermo-physiological differences found across the species' distribution suggest that local adaptation may allow persistence of this tropical ectotherm in global warming scenarios. These results will serve as basis to further research to investigate the strength of local adaptation to climate change. Persistence of Kentropyx calcarata also depends on forest preservation, but the Amazon rainforest is currently under high deforestation rates. We argue that higher conservation priority is necessary so the Amazon rainforest can fulfill its capacity to absorb the impacts of temperature increase on tropical ectotherms during climate change.

At broad scales in the Amazon, it is often hypothesized that species distributions are limited by geographical barriers, such as large rivers (river-barrier hypothesis). This hypothesis has been used to explain the spatial-distribution limits of species and to indicate endemism areas for several phylogenetic lineages. We tested the ability of the river-barrier hypothesis to explain patterns of species diversity and spatial-distribution limits for 1952 easily-detected species in 14 taxonomic groups that occur around the Madeira River, and our results indicate that the hypothesis that the Madeira River is the border between endemism areas and explains much of the diversity found in the region is inappropriate for >99% of species. This indicates that alternative hypotheses should be proposed to explain the limits of distributions of species around the Madeira River, as well as a revision of the criteria that are used to determine species-endemism areas.

Tadpoles of some anuran species are known to survive out of water, but information is scarce or nonexistent for most species. We experimentally tested the survival ability of Amazonian tadpoles of six species out of water in conditions that simulated pond drying. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that tadpoles typical of habitats subject to fast drying would have higher capacity to survive without free water. We found higher survival rates for some species that usually occur in temporary ponds and the lowest one for a species from perennial ponds. However, we also found species from temporary ponds and streams with intermediate tolerance to desiccation. Tadpole survival differed among species and increased in function of body mass but was not related to the probability of each species being subject to periods without water in their habitats. Therefore, we reject the hypothesis that tadpole survival in the absence of water is a simple function of the probability of ponds drying.

The effects of Brazil's political crisis on science funding necessary for biodiversity conservation are likely to be global. Brazil is not only the world's most biodiverse nation, it is responsible for the greater part of the Amazon forest, which regulates the climate and provides rain to much of southern South America. Brazil was a world leader in satellite monitoring of land-use change, in-situ biodiversity monitoring, reduction in tropical-forest deforestation, protection of indigenous lands, and a model for other developing nations. Coordinated public responses will be necessary to prevent special-interest groups from using the political crisis to weaken science funding, environmental legislation and law enforcement. © 2018 Magnusson, Grelle, Marques, Rocha, Dias, Fontana, Bergallo, Overbeck, Vale, Tomas, Cerqueira, Collevatti, Pillar, Malabarba, Lins-e-Silva, Neckel-Oliveira, Martinelli, Akama, Rodrigues, Silveira, Scariot and Fernandes.

About 90% of the Amazon’s energy potential remains unexploited, with many large hydroelectric dams yet to be built, so it is important to understand how terrestrial vertebrates are affected by reservoir formation and habitat loss. We investigated the influence of the construction of the Santo Antônio Hydroelectric dam on the Madeira River in southwestern Amazonia on the structure of frog assemblages based on samples collected in two years before the dam flooded (pre-stage) and one (post1-stage) and four years (post2-stage) after its construction. We surveyed five 500-ha plot systems three times during each stage; in the pre-stage we sampled 19 plots in low-lying areas that would be flooded by the dam, (from now called flooded pre-stage plots) and 45 plots in terra-firme forest (from now called unflooded pre-stage plots). At the post1-stage we sampled the 45 unflooded plots and in the post2-stage we sampled the remaining 39 unflooded plots. We detected frogs by active visual and acoustic searches standardized by both time and sampling area. Few species recorded in the pre-stage flooded plots were not found in the pre-stage unflooded plots or in stages after flooding. However, the composition of frog assemblages based on relative densities in flooded pre-stage plots did not re-establish in plots on the new river margins. In unflooded areas, frog assemblages were distinct among the flooding stages with no tendency to return to the original assemblage compositions even four years after the dam was filled. For the areas that were not flooded, there was an increase in species richness in 82% of the plots between the surveys before dam construction and the first surveys after dam completion, and 65% between the pre-stage and surveys four years after dam completion. Lack of understanding by the controlling authorities of the long-term effects of landscape changes, such as water-table rises, means that studies covering appropriate periods post construction are not required in legislation, but the data from Santo Antônio indicate that changes due to dam construction are either long-term or difficult to distinguish from natural fluctuations. Future environmental-impact studies should follow strict BACI designs.

The ecological characteristics of a species, along with small-scale landscape features are known to affect the patterns of genetic structure within populations. Due to dispersal limitation, closely-related individuals tend to be closer spatially, leading to spatial genetic structure. Physical barriers also may prevent individuals from dispersing further, and lead individuals on one side of a barrier to be more related than individuals from different sides. We tested these hypotheses by examining patterns of fine-scale spatial genetic structure within populations of three relatively sedentary Amazonian-forest understorey birds that differ in their ecological requirements. We sampled birds in a 10,000 ha reserve, covered by largely undisturbed old-growth forests and traversed by a central ridge. We found positive spatial genetic structure at short distances only for Percnostola rufifrons, a treefall-gap specialist. Positive genetic structure occurred at 6 km for Glyphorynchus spirurus, a solitary bark-forager; no spatial genetic structure was found for Gymnopithys rufigula, an army-ant follower. Individuals of none of the three species were more related on a given side of the ridgeline than between different sides but, at greater distances, there was a tendency of individuals located on opposite sides of the ridgeline to be less related than individuals located on the same side, for all species analysed. Our study indicates that local topographic features do not prevent, but likely reduce, gene flow within populations in continuous forests, and that the development of fine-scale spatial genetic structure may depend on the dispersal propensity of a species. Thus, studies of species assemblages need to account for the different ecological characteristics of the constituent species.

In the middle of a political and fiscal crisis, the Brazilian government is applying successive budget cuts, including in science funding. Recent cuts radically affect research programs on biodiversity that are crucial components for the design and monitoring of public policies for nature conservation and sustainable development. We analyze the consequences of such cuts on the Research Program on Biodiversity (PPBio), the largest biodiversity research network in Brazil (626 researchers, nine networks in all Brazilian biomes). Brazil holds a substantial part of the world's biodiversity and of tropical forests that play a significant role for regional and global climate stability. If underfunding is maintained, the dismantling of the Brazilian PPBio will have consequences that go beyond biodiversity knowledge itself but affect society as a whole. Brazil will likely fail to reach the National Targets for Biodiversity 2011–2020, and it will be difficult to fulfill the restoration target of the Brazilian NDC and to advance with the sustainable development goals. © 2017 Associação Brasileira de Ciência Ecológica e Conservação

It is commonly assumed that aerial insectivorous bats in the tropics respond to moonlight intensity by decreasing their foraging activity during bright nights due either to an increase in predation risk, or to a reduction in insect availability. The effect of moonlight on bat activity can be measured both between nights and within a single night. However, few studies have simultaneously used both approaches, and most authors generally compare bat activity with lunar phases. Our main aim was to evaluate how moonlight influences aerial insectivorous bat activity at different time scales: between nights and within the same night. Activity of five bat species was measured using autonomous ultrasound recording stations and moonlight intensity percentages retrieved from the Moontool program nightly throughout a 53-day sampling period. Only one species (Myotis riparius) responded negatively to moonlight, while two species (Pteronotus parnellii and Saccopteryx leptura) increased their foraging activity in moonlight. For Cormura brevirostris and S. bilineata, moonlight intensity did not affect activity level. Bat activity was greater for all species at the beginning of the night, independent of the presence of the moon, indicating that foraging just after the sunset is adaptive. Thus, bat response to the effect of moonlight intensity is more apparent between nights than within a single night and may depend on species-specific traits, such as flight speed, flexibility in habitat use and body size.

We present new records of occurrence of Schneider’s Dwarf Caiman, Paleosuchus trigonatus and extend its geographicaldistribution. Eight individuals were caught in the following locations: Sangue River, in the municipality ofCampo Novo dos Parecis, Claro River and Marapi River, in the municipality of São José do Rio Claro, and tributariesof the Juruena River, in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. These records extend the geographical distribution of thespecies nearly 500 km south of the limit given in published range maps.

Human-driven global change is causing ongoing declines in biodiversity worldwide. In order to address these declines, decision-makers need accurate assessments of the status of and pressures on biodiversity. However, these are heavily constrained by incomplete and uneven spatial, temporal and taxonomic coverage. For instance, data from regions such as Europe and North America are currently used overwhelmingly for large-scale biodiversity assessments due to lesser availability of suitable data from other, more biodiversity-rich, regions. These data-poor regions are often those experiencing the strongest threats to biodiversity, however. There is therefore an urgent need to fill the existing gaps in global biodiversity monitoring. Here, we review current knowledge on best practice in capacity building for biodiversity monitoring and provide an overview of existing means to improve biodiversity data collection considering the different types of biodiversity monitoring data. Our review comprises insights from work in Africa, South America, Polar Regions and Europe; in government-funded, volunteer and citizen-based monitoring in terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems. The key steps to effectively building capacity in biodiversity monitoring are: identifying monitoring questions and aims; identifying the key components, functions, and processes to monitor; identifying the most suitable monitoring methods for these elements, carrying out monitoring activities; managing the resultant data; and interpreting monitoring data. Additionally, biodiversity monitoring should use multiple approaches including extensive and intensive monitoring through volunteers and professional scientists but also harnessing new technologies. Finally, we call on the scientific community to share biodiversity monitoring data, knowledge and tools to ensure the accessibility, interoperability, and reporting of biodiversity data at a global scale.

The structure of food webs may be strongly influenced by the distribution of top predators in space and time. The Amazon biome is the only region in the world where four alligatorid species are known to occur in sympatry, and they attain high densities in some regions. As top predators with a diverse range of prey species occupying different trophic levels, their impact upon food webs should be substantial, but the degree to which crocodilians differ in their food sources, and potentially avoid competitive exclusion where they occur syntopically is not well understood. Although most crocodilians are considered generalist opportunistic predators that feed on any source of protein available in the environment, Amazonian crocodilians show broad differences in the proportions of prey items they consume. It is believed that these differences may in part reflect habitat use, but it is unknown to what extent they represent interspecific differences in prey preferences or are a direct function of habitat selection. Stable carbon isotope data (δ13C) of crocodilians and their potential prey were used to assess differences in reliance on terrestrial versus aquatic resources. These data were then placed in a spatial context using classified maps that reflect habitat types (headwater streams, mid-order flooded-forest streams and varzea floodplains) to elucidate whether dietary differences are explained by habitat selection or are more likely a reflection of prey preferences. We found evidence for differences in types of basal resources supporting these crocodilians. Mean δ13C values were highest in Paleosuchus trigonatus (Schneider's dwarf caiman, −25.7 ± 1.2‰), intermediate in Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman, −27.4 ± 1.2‰) and Paleosuchus palpebrosus (Cuvier's dwarf caiman, −27.7 ± 1.1‰) and lowest in Melanosuchus niger (black caiman, −29.9 ± 1.3‰). A progressive decrease in δ13C values of crocodilian tissues occurred from headwaters to floodplains, which most likely reflects a progressive increase in autochthonous over allochthonous inputs in lower reaches of streams. The shift from terrestrial to aquatic resources sustaining these sympatric predators mirrors their spatial distribution along this ecotone. However, after taking into account the habitat in which pairs of syntopic individuals of distinct species occurred, significant differences in δ13C values suggest that P. trigonatus and P. palpebrosus have different prey bases. Thus, despite being opportunistic predators, our results show that differences in crocodilian diets likely result from prey preferences and not only from habitat selection. These findings suggest that some species of crocodilians may be less generalist than traditionally thought and their influence on terrestrial or aquatic food webs might be species specific.

Rarefaction Curves are frequently used in Environmental Impact Assessments to evaluate sampling sufficiency, but without clear guidelines of how to ensure that the assumptions of the methods are met. Infrastructure projects in the Brazilian Amazon and elsewhere often occupy extensive areas in remote locations with difficult access, and random sampling under such conditions is impractical. We tested the influence of sampling unit (sample or individual), and geographic distance between samples on rarefaction curve s, and evaluated the magnitude of errors resulting from the misuse of rarefaction curve in decision making, using frogs from four Amazonian sampling sites. Individual-based rarefaction curve were steeper than those generated by sample-based rarefaction curve. Geographic distance influenced the number of exclusive species in a predictable fashion only in one area, and not in the Environmental Impact Assessment site. Misuse of rarefaction curve generated large errors in the identification of vulnerable taxa. Because the rarefaction curve model is sensitive to the assumption of randomness and geographic distance can influence it unpredictably, we suggest that rarefaction curve should generally not be used to estimate sample completeness when making management decisions for environmental licensing purposes.

Species richness estimation is one of the most widely used analyses carried out by ecologists, and nonparametric estimators are probably the most used techniques to carry out such estimations. We tested the assumptions and results of nonparametric estimators and those of a logseries approach to species richness estimation for simulated tropical forests and five data sets from the field. We conclude that nonparametric estimators are not suitable to estimate species richness in tropical forests, where sampling intensity is usually low and richness is high, because the assumptions of the methods do not meet the sampling strategy used in most studies. The logseries, while also requiring substantial sampling, is much more effective in estimating species richness than commonly used nonparametric estimators, and its assumptions better match the way field data is being collected.

Patch-size and connectivity effects on organisms are usually strong, but may be positive or negative, depending on the landscape context. A binary habitat/non-habitat perspective that fails to consider matrix heterogeneity often explains these inconsistent results, as matrix influences patch quality and connectivity differently for different species. Here we tested the effects of patch size, connectivity and matrix type on non-volant small-mammal assemblages in an eastern-Brazilian Amazonian forest-savanna mosaic. We sampled 14 forest-patches and 2 continuous-forest plots, using 60 baited live traps and 8 pitfall traps (60 L) per plot in 3 field expeditions. We estimated connectivity using the Proximity Index and matrix type as the proportions of savanna or regrowth forest around patches. We used one-dimensional NMDS, ANCOVA and multiple regression to test the relationships among species composition, species traits and predictor variables. We captured 178 individuals of 16 small-mammal species and an NMDS ordination showed a pattern of assemblage change that was strongly related to matrix type. Connectivity and patch size had no statistically significant effect on assemblage composition. Species associated with patches in regrowth-forest matrix were mostly rodents, relatively large and mainly frugivorous, while species associated with savanna-matrix patches were smaller, mostly insectivorous, marsupials. This may be related to how matrix is used by small mammals and affects patch quality, rather than how it limits animal movements. Composition of small-mammal assemblages in patches depended on the type of surrounding matrix, so matrix heterogeneity enhances small-mammal assemblage diversity in this landscape and should be taken into consideration in regional conservation-unit management plans.

Incluye contenido parcial de los autores Biological invasion is one of the main threats to native biodiversity. For a speciesto become invasive, it must be voluntarily or involuntarily introduced by humans into a nonna-tive habitat. Mammals were among first taxa to be introduced worldwide for game, meat, and labor, yet the number of species introduced in the Neotropics remains unknown. In this dataset, we make available occurrence and abundance data on mammal species that (1) transposeda geographical barrier and (2) were voluntarily or involuntarily introduced by humans into theNeotropics. Our data set is composed of 73,738 historical and current georeferenced recordson alien mammal species of which around 96% correspond to occurrence data on 77 speciesbelonging to eight orders and 26 families. Data cover 26 continental countries in the Neotrop-ics, ranging from Mexico and its frontier regions (southern Florida and coastal-central Floridain the southeast United States) to Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and Uruguay, and the 13 coun-tries of Caribbean islands. Our data set also includes neotropical species (e.g.,Callithrixsp.,Myocastor coypus,Nasua nasua)considered alien in particular areas of Neotropics. The mostnumerous species in terms of records are fromBossp. (n=37,782),Sus scrofa(n=6,730), andCanis familiaris(n=10,084); 17 species were represented by only one record (e.g., Syncerus caf-fer, Cervus timorensis, Cervus unicolor, Canis latrans). Primates have the highest number of spe-cies in the data set (n=20 species), partly because of uncertainties regarding taxonomicidentification of the generaCallithrix,which includes the speciesCallithrix aurita, Callithrixflaviceps, Callithrix geoffroyi, Callithrix jacchus, Callithrix kuhlii, Callithrix penicillata, andtheir hybrids. This unique data set will be a valuable source of information on invasion riskassessments, biodiversity redistribution and conservation-related research. There are no copy-right restrictions. Please cite this data paper when using the data in publications. We alsorequest that researchers and teachers inform us on how they are using the data

In this review I focus on what we need to know to make decisions relevant to land-use planning. I discuss four questions: What information about the distribution of biodiversity is available to decision makers? What sort of information is required at a local scale? Can we use species-distribution modeling to compensate for the lack of empirical information at larger scales? Can we use surrogates based on remote sensing for all our decisions? To be effective, biodiversity information needs to be based on standardized sampling with data made available during the initial planning phases of infrastructure projects, which are now based only on engineering or social considerations and occur several decades before construction starts. The RAPELD method is now being used in many environmental-impact studies to generate standardized data, but there is presently no mechanism to include biodiversity information in the initial phases of decision making, and this has unfavorable consequences for economic development and the environment. © 2019, Academia Brasileira de Ciencias. All rights reserved.

Longitudinal-zonation hypotheses generally predict gradual changes in fish composition from upstream to downstream due to changes in habitat conditions, but largely disregard downstream effects on upstream segments. Floodplains of large rivers represent areas of high connectivity during flood periods and can act as stable refuges in dry seasons, which may attenuate deterministic constraints imposed by local conditions on fish assemblages in surrounding habitats. In this study, we investigated the effects of proximity to large rivers on taxonomic- and functional-diversity patterns of stream-fish assemblages in an extensive region of Central Amazonia. We sampled 31 headwater-stream reaches in nine catchments in the Purus and Madeira Rivers interfluve between December 2014 and March 2015. Ninety seven fish species from seven orders and 19 families were captured. The results indicate that distance to large rivers is more important than distance among sites and local conditions in explaining functional and taxonomic diversity of stream-fish assemblages at large spatial scales. We also found a decrease in taxonomic and functional richness towards headwaters, mainly related to the loss of benthic and sedentary species along the distance gradient. These species may be favored by the proximity to refuge areas and high resource availability near the floodplain. In contrast, upstream assemblages were mainly occupied by small-sized, nektonic species with higher dispersal capacity, highly dependent of allochthonous resources. Downstream effects could be detected for many kilometers upstream in hydrographic catchments and this reinforces the crucial role of connectivity between fluvial habitats in maintenance of stream-fish diversity patterns in the region. © 2019 Stegmann et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Made available in DSpace on 2018-12-11T17:17:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2018-12-01 Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação Ministério da Educação Species distribution models (SDMs) are widely used in ecology and conservation. Presence-only SDMs such as MaxEnt frequently use natural history collections (NHCs) as occurrence data, given their huge numbers and accessibility. NHCs are often spatially biased which may generate inaccuracies in SDMs. Here, we test how the distribution of NHCs and MaxEnt predictions relates to a spatial abundance model, based on a large plot dataset for Amazonian tree species, using inverse distance weighting (IDW). We also propose a new pipeline to deal with inconsistencies in NHCs and to limit the area of occupancy of the species. We found a significant but weak positive relationship between the distribution of NHCs and IDW for 66% of the species. The relationship between SDMs and IDW was also significant but weakly positive for 95% of the species, and sensitivity for both analyses was high. Furthermore, the pipeline removed half of the NHCs records. Presence-only SDM applications should consider this limitation, especially for large biodiversity assessments projects, when they are automatically generated without subsequent checking. Our pipeline provides a conservative estimate of a species' area of occupancy, within an area slightly larger than its extent of occurrence, compatible to e.g. IUCN red list assessments. Coordenação de Botânica Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Av. Magalhães Barata 376, C.P. 399 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência Ambientais Universidade Federal Do Pará, Rua Augusto Corrêa 01 Biodiversity Dynamics Naturalis Biodiversity Center, PO Box 9517 Marine and Coastal Management, Deltares, Boussinesqweg 1 Coordenação de Biodiversidade Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Av. André Araújo 2936 EMBRAPA Centro de Pesquisa Agroflorestal de Roraima, BR 174 km 8, Distrito Industrial Herbario Amazónico Colombiano Instituto SINCHI, Calle 20 No 5-44 Department of Integrative Biology University of California Universidad San Francisco de Quito Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas Diego de Robles y Vía Interoceánica Coordenação de Pesquisas em Ecologia Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Av. André Araújo 2936 School of Geography University of Leeds, Woodhouse Lane Department of Wetland Ecology Institute of Geography and Geoecology Karlsruhe Institute of Technology - KIT, Josefstr 1 Biogeochemistry Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Hahn-Meitner Weg 1 Departamento de Botânica Instituto de Pesquisas Científicas e Tecnológicas Do Amapá - IEPA Campus Do IEPA da Fazendinha, Rodovia JK Km 10 AMAP IRD Cirad CNRS INRA Université de Montpellier, TA A-51/PS2, Bd. de la Lironde Science and Education Field Museum, 1400 S. Lake Shore Drive Coordenação de Dinâmica Ambiental Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Av. André Araújo 2936 Jardín Botánico de Missouri Departamento de Ecologia Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP Instituto de Biociências - IB, Av. 24 A 1515 Centro de Biociências Departamento de Ecologia Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Norte, Av. Senador Salgado Filho 3000 Divisao de Sensoriamento Remoto - DSR Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais - INPE, Av. dos Astronautas 1758 Herbario Vargas Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad Del Cusco, Avenida de la Cultura, Nro 733 Departamento de Geografia Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP Instituto de Geociências e Ciências Extas - IGCe Departamento de Biologia Universidade Federal de Rondônia, Rodovia BR 364 s/n Km 9.5 Center for Tropical Conservation Duke University Nicholas School of the Environment Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia - PPG-Bionorte Universidade Federal de Rondônia Campus Porto Velho, Km 9.5 Instituto Boliviano de Investigacion Forestal Santa Cruz, Av. 6 agosto 28 Km 14,Doble via La Guardia Casilla, 6204 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Conservação Universidade Do Estado de Mato Grosso Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana - IIAP, Av. A. Quiñones km 2.5 Geography College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Departamento de Ciencias Forestales Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Calle 64 x Cra 65 Agteca-Amazonica Facultad de Ciencias Agrícolas Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno Santa Cruz Prédio da Botânica e Ecologia Embrapa Recursos Genéticos Biotecnologia Parque Estação Biológica, Av. W5 Norte Projeto Dinâmica Biológica de Fragmentos Florestais Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Av. André Araújo 2936 Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science College of Science and Engineering James Cook University Laboratório de Ecologia de Doenças Transmissíveis da Amazônia (EDTA) Instituto Leônidas e Maria Deane Fiocruz, Rua Terezina 476 Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade Saúde Instituto Oswaldo Cruz IOC/FIOCRUZ Pav. Arthur Neiva, Térreo Av. Brasil 4365 Centro de Investigaciones Ecológicas de Guayana Universidad Nacional Experimental de Guayana Calle Chile, urbaniz Chilemex Laboratorio de Ecología de Bosques Tropicales y Primatología Universidad de Los Andes, Carrera 1 # 18a- 10 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia (Botânica) Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Av. André Araújo 2936 Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics University of Amsterdam, Sciencepark 904 Programa de Ciencias Del Agro y El Mar Herbario Universitario (PORT) UNELLEZ-Guanare Endangered Species Coalition, 8530 Geren Rd MAUA Working Group Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Av. André Araújo 2936 Inventory and Monitoring Program National Park Service, 120 Chatham Lane Center for Conservation Education Sustainability Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1100 Jefferson Dr. SW, Suite 3123 Biologia Vegetal Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Caixa Postal 6109 Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Rd Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20a Inverleith Row Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA, Av. André Araújo 2936 Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group Wageningen University Wageningen University and Research, Droevendaalsesteeg 3, P.O. Box 47 Natural Capital and Plant Health Royal Botanic Gardens Kew Ecosistemas Biodiversidad y Conservación de Especies Universidad Estatal Amazónica, Km. 2 1/2 vía a Tena (Paso Lateral) Museo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado Universidad Autónoma Gabriel Rene Moreno Santa Cruz, Avenida Irala 565 Casilla Postal 2489 Centro de Biociências Departamento de Botânica e Zoologia Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Norte Campus Universitário Department of Biology University of Miami Coral Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden Coral Instituto de Biociências Dept. Ecologia Universidade de Sao Paulo - USP, Rua do Matão, Trav. 14, no. 321 Diretoria de Pesquisas Científicas Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botânico Do Rio de Janeiro Escuela de Biología Herbario Alfredo Paredes Universidad Central, Ap. Postal 17.01.2177 International Center for Tropical Botany (ICTB) Department of Biological Sciences Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th Street, OE 243 Grupo de Ecología de Ecosistemas Terrestres Tropicales Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Amazonía Institute of Biological and Health Sciences Federal University of Alagoas, Av. Lourival Melo Mota, s/n Museu Universitário Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Natureza Laboratório de Botânica e Ecologia Vegetal Universidade Federal Do Acre Universidad Regional Amazónica IKIAM, Km 7 via Muyuna Cirad UMR Ecofog AgrosParisTech CNRS INRA Univ Guyane Campus Agronomique Iwokrama International Programme for Rainforest Conservation Department of Biological Sciences Humboldt State University, 1 Harpst Street New York Botanical Garden, 2900 Southern Blvd Servicios de Biodiversidad EIRL, Jr. Independencia 405 Herbario Nacional de Bolivia Universitario UMSA, Casilla 10077 Correo Central Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299 School of Environmental Sciences University of East Anglia Laboratoire Evolution et Diversité Biologique CNRS Université Paul Sabatier UMR 5174 EDB Department of Forestry Management Universidad Nacional Agraria la Molina, Avenido La Molina, Apdo. 456 School of Geosciences University of Edinburgh, 201 Crew Building, King's Buildings Biology Department Center for Energy Environment and Sustainability Wake Forest University, 1834 Wake Forest Rd Department of Anthropology University of Texas at Austin, SAC 5.150, 2201 Speedway Stop C3200 Andes to Amazon Biodiversity Program Madre de Dios Fundación Puerto Rastrojo, Cra 10 No. 24-76 Oficina 1201 Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales-COCIBA Galapagos Institute for the Arts and Sciences-GAIAS Universidad San Francisco de Quito-USFQ Department of Wildlife Ecology Conservation University of Florida, 110 Newins-Ziegler Hall Fundación Estación de Biología, Cra 10 No. 24-76 Oficina 1201 Embrapa Amazônia Oriental Trav. Dr. Enéas Pinheiro S/no Instituto de Ciencias Naturales Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Apartado, 7945 Amazon Conservation Team, Doekhieweg Oost #24 Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Medio Ambiente Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad Del Cusco, Jirón San Martín 451 Laboratory of Human Ecology Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas - IVIC, Ado 20632 Departement EV Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, 16 rue Buffon Instituto de Ciência Agrárias Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia, Av. Presidente Tancredo Neves 2501 PROTERRA Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana (IIAP), Av. A. Quiñones km 2 5 ACEER Foundation, Jirón Cusco No 370 Universidad Autónoma Del Beni José Ballivián Campus Universitario Final, Av. Ejercito Regional Norte Amazónico Centro de Investigación y Promoción Del Campesinado, C/Nicanor Gonzalo Salvatierra No 362 Environmental Change Institute Oxford University Centre for the Environment Dyson Perrins Building, South Parks Road School of Agriculture and Food Sciences ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions CEED University of Queensland Instituto de Investigaciones para El Desarrollo Forestal (INDEFOR) Universidad de Los Andes, Conjunto Forestal, C.P. 5101 School of Environmental and Forest Sciences University of Washington University of Nottingham, University Park Geography and the Environment University of Texas at Austin, 305 E. 23rd Street, CLA building Laboratório de Ciências Ambientais Universidade Estadual Do Norte Fluminense, Av. Alberto Lamego 2000 Department of Biology University of Maryland GeoIS, El Día 369 y El Telégrafo, 3o Piso Environmental Science and Policy Northern Arizona University FOMABO Manejo Forestal en Las Tierras Tropicales de Bolivia Escuela de Ciencias Forestales (ESFOR) Universidad Mayor de San Simon (UMSS) Agricultural Services Ministry of Agro-Industry and Food Security Agricultural Services Ministry of Agro-Industry and Food Security Mauritius Herbarium Department of Bioscience Aarhus University, Building 1540 Ny Munkegade Ciencias Biológicas Universidad de Los Andes, Carrera 1 # 18a- 10 Medio Ambiente PLUSPRETOL Center for Conservation Education and Sustainability Smithsonian's National Zoo Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, 3001 Connecticut Ave Tropenbos International, Lawickse Allee 11 PO Box 232 Instituto de Biodiversidade e Floresta Universidade Federal Do Oeste Do Pará Campus Tapajós, Rua Vera Paz Department of Biology University of Missouri Facultad de Biologia Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana, Pevas 5ta cdra School of Anthropology and Conservation University of Kent, Marlowe Building Herbario Nacional Del Ecuador Universidad Técnica Del Norte Ecology and Biodiversity Group Utrecht University, Padualaan 8 Systems Ecology Free University, De Boelelaan 1087 Departamento de Ecologia Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP Instituto de Biociências - IB, Av. 24 A 1515 Departamento de Geografia Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP Instituto de Geociências e Ciências Extas - IGCe CAPES: 407232/2013-3-PVE CNPq: 407232/2013-3-PVE Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação: 407232/2013-3-PVE Ministério da Educação: 407232/2013-3-PVE

Hunting caimans (Caiman spp.) with baited hooks in the Brazilian Amazon represents one of the largest illegal wildlife industries in the world. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of water level, distance from settlements, and hunting effort on caiman meat production. In 2008, we accompanied 31 caiman hunting expeditions in and around a wetland protected area located in the Amazon-Purus interfluve in Brazil. We measured and weighed all captured caimans. We used simple and multiple linear regressions to analyze our data. The hunting technique is not selective for the capture of spectacled caimans (Caiman crocodilus) or black caimans (Melanosuchus niger) and occurs throughout the year. Fresh-meat production was similarly correlated with individualś weights for both species. Hunting success was strongly related to river level, distance from human settlements, and hunting effort. We estimated an annual production of 37,050 kg of meat from the study area, representing 3,562 caimans harvested and gross earnings of $18,500 (U.S.). Caiman hunting was the principal source of income for hunters and their families but resulted in low returns, and large black caiman were not taken, indicating possible overhunting. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Surveying and monitoring of elusive animals with naturally low densities and large home ranges, such as many medium- and large-sized mammals, is challenging. Low capture rates can preclude detailed analyses. The use of bait has been used as a strategy to increase carnivore capture rates in many camera-trap surveys. Here, we test the effect of one carnivore bait type (mix of fresh sardine and egg) on the capture rates of carnivores and prey species in a camera-trap survey in the Central Brazilian Amazon. We also test if the quality of records of naturally marked felids for individual identification is enhanced by the use of bait. We found that the bait had no apparent effect on the carnivore capture rates, but it might have repelled some prey species. The number of suitable photos for individual identification of naturally marked felids was greater at baited stations than at unbaited stations, but this did not result in practical advantages for individual identification. We recommend that the use of carnivore bait should be carefully considered at the planning stage of camera-trap studies as it can negatively affect recording of prey species.

To test the hypothesis that subtle differences in abiotic requirements can result in almost total spatial segregation, we sampled two species of diurnal frogs, Atelopus spumarius and Allobates sumtuosus, in a primary forest reserve in central Brazilian Amazonia. We conducted visual and acoustic surveys on three occasions over 2 months, in 40 streamside (riparian) plots distributed throughout the reserve's two major drainage basins, using a grid system that covers 64 km2. On average, drainages differed in the pH of stream water and the number of connected and isolated streamside pools. Differences in abiotic characteristics of drainages were associated with the spatial distribution of frog species. The occurrence and density of Allobates sumtuosus was negatively related to stream pH and discharge and positively related to the number of isolated pools in plots. The occurrence and density of Atelopus spumarius was associated with streams with high discharge and pH near neutral. These results indicate that although very large reserves will probably contain sufficient landscape heterogeneity to accommodate different species of diurnal frogs, due to strongly patchy distributions, in situ studies using fine-scale species-distribution models will be necessary to assess the adequacy of small reserves in Amazonia that cover hundreds of square kilometers or less for the conservation of some anuran species.

Non–timber forest products (NTFP) represent potentially sustainable economic alternatives for traditional peoples. However, exploiting NTFPs involves challenges, including successful insertion of products into conventional markets, accommodating legal or traditional–use restrictions, and negotiating access to traditionally occupied territories. Some of these restrictions are due to the creation of conservation units. Here we present information on the effects of creation of a conservation unit on the viability of an NTFP–extraction initiative by the members of the Artisans Association of Novo Airao (AANA), Amazonas State, Brazilian Amazon. Those artisans make vegetable fiber handicrafts using the leafstalks of aruma (Ischnosiphon polyphyllus – Marantaceae), which is common in seasonally flooded areas near Novo Airao. Conservation areas surround the town of Novo Airao and AANA members are prohibited from harvesting aruma leafstalks in these areas. In 2000, alternative areas for harvesting were suggested by environmental institutes, and management of aruma was concentrated along four rainforest streams close to Novo Airao. Harvest sites were monitored for three years, but there was no increase in growth rate as a result of harvesting, and leafstalk density did not completely recover between samples. High growth rates of aruma leafstalks suitable for handicraft manufacture are found only in areas where people manage the tree cover, but these practices are not permitted by current legislation, even in areas outside conservation units. To obtain aruma using traditionally sustainable methods, AANA requires the right to work and manage forests in protected areas. The lack of regionally appropriate public and environmental policy has resulted in a major impediment to a sustainable and locally run development activity.

Nests of Schneider’s dwarf caiman, Paleosuchus trigonatus, were located in the forests around three streams that drain into the Xingu River, Brazilian Amazonia, in October 2014. Camera traps were installed at the edge of four nests to document predators and female parental care. At two nests, females unsuccessfully defended their nests against one or more giant armadillos, Priodontes maximus, and nine-banded armadillos, Dasypus novemcinctus. Both armadillo species responded to the attack by fleeing and returning on the opposite side of the nest by going around the tree under which the nest was located. Giant armadillos have never before been recorded consuming caiman eggs and their diet has been described as consisting mostly of ants and termites. Another species of armadillo, Cabassous unicinctus, was also registered digging into a nest and probably consuming eggs, though it is generally considered to be primarily insectivorous. A tayra (Eira barbara), lizard (Tupinambis teguixin) and coati (Nasu...

Analyses of forest loss and protected areas suggest that 36 to 57% of Amazonian tree flora may qualify as “globally threatened.”, Estimates of extinction risk for Amazonian plant and animal species are rare and not often incorporated into land-use policy and conservation planning. We overlay spatial distribution models with historical and projected deforestation to show that at least 36% and up to 57% of all Amazonian tree species are likely to qualify as globally threatened under International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List criteria. If confirmed, these results would increase the number of threatened plant species on Earth by 22%. We show that the trends observed in Amazonia apply to trees throughout the tropics, and we predict that most of the world’s >40,000 tropical tree species now qualify as globally threatened. A gap analysis suggests that existing Amazonian protected areas and indigenous territories will protect viable populations of most threatened species if these areas suffer no further degradation, highlighting the key roles that protected areas, indigenous peoples, and improved governance can play in preventing large-scale extinctions in the tropics in this century.

The trophic position of a top predator, synonymous with food-chain length, is one of the most fundamental attributes of ecosystems. Stable isotope ratios of nitrogen (δ15N) have been used to estimate trophic position of organisms due to the predictable enrichment of 15N in consumer tissues relative to their diet. Previous studies in crocodilians have found upward ontogenetic shifts in their ‘trophic position’. However, such increases are not expected from what is known about crocodilian diets because ontogenetic shifts in diet relate to taxonomic categories of prey rather than shifts to prey from higher trophic levels. When we analysed dietary information from the literature on the four Amazonian crocodilians, ontogenetic shifts in dietary-based trophic position (TPdiet) were minimal, and differed from those estimated using δ15N data (TPSIA). Thus, ontogenetic shifts in TPSIA may result not only from dietary assimilation but also from trophic discrimination factors (TDF or Δ15N) associated with body size. Using a unique TDF value to estimate trophic position of crocodilians of all sizes might obscure conclusions about ontogenetic shifts in trophic position. Our findings may change the way that researchers estimate trophic position of organisms that show orders of magnitude differences in size across their life span.

We summarize thermal-biology data of 69 species of Amazonian lizards, including mode of thermoregulation and field-active body temperatures (Tb). We also provide new data on preferred temperatures (Tpref), voluntary and thermal-tolerance ranges, and thermal-performance curves (TPC’s) for 27 species from nine sites in the Brazilian Amazonia. We tested for phylogenetic signal and pairwise correlations among thermal traits. We found that species generally categorized as thermoregulators have the highest mean values for all thermal traits, and broader ranges for Tb, critical thermal maximum (CTmax) and optimal (Topt) temperatures. Species generally categorized as thermoconformers have large ranges for Tpref, critical thermal minimum (CTmin), and minimum voluntary (VTmin) temperatures for performance. Despite these differences, our results show that all thermal characteristics overlap between both groups and suggest that Amazonian lizards do not fit into discrete thermoregulatory categories. The traits are all correlated, with the exceptions of (1) Topt, which does not correlate with CTmax, and (2) CTmin, and correlates only with Topt. Weak phylogenetic signals for Tb, Tpref and VTmin indicate that these characters may be shaped by local environmental conditions and influenced by phylogeny. We found that open-habitat species perform well under present environmental conditions, without experiencing detectable thermal stress from high environmental temperatures induced in lab experiments. For forest-dwelling lizards, we expect warming trends in Amazonia to induce thermal stress, as temperatures surpass the thermal tolerances for these species. © 2018 Diele-Viegas et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Vegetation is projected to continue to undergo major structural changes in coming decades due to land conversion and climate change, including widespread forest die-offs. These vegetation changes are important not only for their local or regional climatic effects, but also because they can affect climate and subsequently vegetation in other regions or continents through “ecoclimate teleconnections”. We propose that ecoclimate teleconnections are a fundamental link among regions within and across continents, and are central to advancing large-scale macrosystems ecology. We illustrate potential ecoclimate teleconnections in a bounding simulation that assumes complete tree cover loss in western North America due to tree die-off, and which predicts subsequent drying and reduced net primary productivity in other areas of North America, the Amazon and elsewhere. Central to accurately modeling such ecoclimate teleconnections is characterizing how vegetation change alters albedo and other components of the land-surface energy balance and then scales up to impact the climate system. We introduce a framework for rapid field-based characterization of vegetation structure and energy balance to help address this challenge. Ecoclimate teleconnections are likely a fundamental aspect of macrosystems ecology needed to account for alterations to large-scale atmospheric-ecological couplings in response to vegetation change, including deforestation, afforestation and die-off.

Giant otters live in highly cooperative groups. Behavioral observations suggest that groups are composed of a dominant reproductive pair and their offspring of previous years. We combined genetic data and long-term ecological information to determine genetic relatedness within and between groups to verify that hypothesis. We genotyped 12 polymorphic loci of 50 otters from 13 groups and two transient individuals. The average relatedness within groups (r = 0.23) was high, but the degree of relatedness varied within the groups, including groups of unrelated individuals, contradicting the current social hypothesis of an exclusively parent-brood model. Negative correlations between kinship and distance between territories were higher in females, and on two occasions, dominant females were replaced by related subordinates of the same group. Solitary transients were males, suggesting a tendency of male-biased dispersal. These data, combined with long-term ecological and behavioral information, indicate that direct benefits, such as alloparental care, and acquisition, inheritance, and defense of high-quality territories may drive the evolution of group living of this endangered social carnivore.

The bush dog (Speothos venaticus) is a small Neotropical canid. Although its distribution covers the entire Amazon basin, the occurrence of bush dogs in vast areas of the Amazon remains hypothetical. The records of bush dogs presented in this study reduce a large gap in the known distribution of the species in Central Amazonia and include the 1st documentation of the species from forest seasonally flooded by black water (Igapo). O cachorro-vinagre e um canideo Neotropical de pequeno porte. Apesar de sua distribuicao cobrir toda a Bacia Amazonica, existem apenas alguns registros da especie neste bioma. Portanto, a ocorrencia do cachorro-vinagre permanece hipotetica em vastas areas da Amazonia. Os registros de cachorro-vinagre apresentados neste trabalho reduzem uma enorme lacuna dentro da area de distribuicao conhecida para a especie na Amazonia Central, e incluem a primeira documentacao da especie em floresta sazonalmente alagada por aguas pretas (Igapo).

Aim Tropical forests store 25% of global carbon and harbour 96% of the world's tree species, but it is not clear whether this high biodiversity matters for carbon storage. Few studies have teased apart the relative importance of forest attributes and environmental drivers for ecosystem functioning, and no such study exists for the tropics. Location Neotropics. Methods We relate aboveground biomass (AGB) to forest attributes (diversity and structure) and environmental drivers (annual rainfall and soil fertility) using data from 144,000 trees, 2050 forest plots and 59 forest sites. The sites span the complete latitudinal and climatic gradients in the lowland Neotropics, with rainfall ranging from 750 to 4350 mm year−1. Relationships were analysed within forest sites at scales of 0.1 and 1 ha and across forest sites along large-scale environmental gradients. We used a structural equation model to test the hypothesis that species richness, forest structural attributes and environmental drivers have independent, positive effects on AGB. Results Across sites, AGB was most strongly driven by rainfall, followed by average tree stem diameter and rarefied species richness, which all had positive effects on AGB. Our indicator of soil fertility (cation exchange capacity) had a negligible effect on AGB, perhaps because we used a global soil database. Taxonomic forest attributes (i.e. species richness, rarefied richness and Shannon diversity) had the strongest relationships with AGB at small spatial scales, where an additional species can still make a difference in terms of niche complementarity, while structural forest attributes (i.e. tree density and tree size) had strong relationships with AGB at all spatial scales. Main conclusions Biodiversity has an independent, positive effect on AGB and ecosystem functioning, not only in relatively simple temperate systems but also in structurally complex hyperdiverse tropical forests. Biodiversity conservation should therefore be a key component of the UN Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation strategy.

Aim Despite the accelerating loss of biodiversity and the increased number of methods for conservation planning, the availability of information about the spatial distribution of biodiversity remains limited. One way to overcome this problem is to focus on surrogate resolutions that are able to represent species-level data and can be efficiently measured. Surrogates are only useful if the ecological patterns detected at the species-level still hold when based on coarser taxonomic identification, and if these responses are consistent across regions. We present a comprehensive analysis using data from a large-scale evaluation of ground-dwelling ants, to evaluate the use of surrogates. Location Amazon basin. Methods The sampling design covered 13 sites in eight phytophysiognomies, which in conjunction with other environmental characteristics (altitude, soil granulometry and slope) were used to validate the ecological patterns (ability of the surrogates to reproduce the ecological responses identified for species) of coarser surrogate taxa (indicator taxa, mixed-level approach, genus and subfamily). The surrogates were evaluated for their capacity to predict variation in total species richness and composition. We also estimated the monetary and time costs, in order to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of using different surrogate levels. Results Genus was the most cost-effective surrogate: it predicted 81% of site variation in species richness, was highly correlated (r2 = 0.76) with species composition, very highly correlated (r2 = 0.97) with ecological patterns detected at species level and saved ~40% of total project costs. The mixed-level approach, indicator taxa and subfamily were not effective in representing the species-level data. Main conclusions Genus can be used as a surrogate for species, due to its high predictive value, independent of environmental heterogeneity. Genus may be useful as a surrogate for species in other megadiverse regions, especially where savings in project costs can be applied to increase sampling effort.