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The aim of the present study was to examine behavioural and clinical consequences of the presence of umbilical outpouchings (UOs) in pigs during the day of slaughter, in order to establish new knowledge of relevance for the assessment of fitness for transport of these animals. Based on the Danish national guidelines involving the diameter of the UOs, considerable attention was paid to this measure.A total of 29 pairs of pigs from seven different commercial herds with standard pig housing, involving pens of partially slatted flooring, were included in this observational study. Focal animals were selected in the home pen on the day before transport to the abattoir and subjected to a clinical evaluation involving scores of skin lesions in healthy control animals and pigs with UOs. On the day of slaughter, video recordings were conducted during unloading at the abattoir and in the race to the stunner.For both pigs with UOs and control pigs, the skin lesion score increased over the day of slaughter. No significant differences between pigs with UOs and controls were found for any of the measures considered relevant for the fitness for transport.

The pig is increasingly popular as a laboratory animal either as the target species in its own right or as a model for humans in biomedical science. As an intelligent, social animal it has a complex behavioural repertoire reminiscent of its ancestor, the wild boar. Within a laboratory setting, the pig may be subject to a variety of invasive and noninvasive experimental procedures which may have short- and/or long-term impacts on its welfare. Ordinarily, pigs kept as laboratory animals will come under regulations or legislation governing use as lab animals rather than farm animals and be subject to increased individual monitoring as a result, even though there may be a lack of species-specific protocols to assess the welfare of laboratory pigs. A major issue with laboratory animals is pain and its management. Again, there is a lack of validated methodology to monitor and document pain in the laboratory pig, although there are some recommendations available regarding the use of NSAIDs as analgesics. Within a laboratory setting, pigs may be subject to housing that is suboptimal in terms of their needs, with the emphasis on hygiene and needs of the caretaker. Environments may be barren and uncomfortable, and the pig may be socially isolated. However, the environment can be modified to improve the pig’s welfare, without forfeiting human requirements. Feed can be supplied in a way that reduces hunger, reduces excessive weight gain and reduces aggression where pigs are group-housed. Laboratory pigs are subject to more frequent human interaction than farm pigs and there is the opportunity for the human to improve the pig’s welfare by avoiding negative handling and by implementing positive reinforcement techniques to train pigs to undergo aspects of experimental procedures, thereby minimising stress. At present, there is little scientific literature on laboratory pig welfare and although there is relevant information that can be transferred from pigs kept as farm animals, more research is needed to fill gaps in the knowledge and validate measures of welfare for application in laboratory settings.

Pain is a perceptional phenomenon built from information gathered by specialised sensory receptors for tissue damage, modified by ascending and descending spinal and supraspinal mechanisms, and integrated into a discrete sensory experience with a negative emotional valence in the brain. Based on knowledge about porcine neuroanatomy, physiology and studies focusing on pig behaviour and pathology, as well as biomedical studies of humans and rodent models, this chapter reviews evidence for causes of pain in pigs and the possibility for quantification of indicators of pain states. The list of suggested porcine indicators of pain is split according to: (1) model studies, where tissue damage is induced experimentally; (2) pain evoked by tissue damaging procedures common to modern pig production; or (3) naturally occurring diseases or injuries. Knowing that throughout the world, human consumption of pork exceeds all other meat products, combined with the fact that the pig is considered an advantageous animal model for various human conditions, and is used extensively in biomedical research, the current low level of knowledge about porcine pain may seem paradoxical and calls for future, targeted research effort in order to be able to protect pigs from the detrimental welfare consequences of this negative affective state.

Dairy cows are transported by road to slaughter after their productive life. Cull cows are vulnerable to transport stress, and can only be transported when fit for the intended journey. However, the decision, as to whether a cow is fit is rather subjective and relies on the farmer and the livestock driver. Using a questionnaire survey, we aimed to describe knowledge about, and experiences with, dairy cow fitness for transport among Danish livestock drivers. During nine days of data collection at the three largest Danish cattle slaughterhouses, 66 drivers (55% of the national population of cattle drivers) answered a questionnaire (response rate: 97%). They were Danish males (mean age: 49 years), of which 94% stated that they knew the rules regarding fitness for transport. More than half of the respondents said that physical conditions (light, space) before loading animals allowed proper assessment of fitness for transport, and 85% answered that time constraints were not a challenge for this. Thirty-five percent reported to be in doubt regarding fitness for transport of specific cows at least frequently, and given two specific questions on legislation concerning fitness for transport, only 52% of the respondents answered both correctly. The results add new knowledge about livestock drivers' approach to animal welfare. As drivers are held partly responsible for fitness for transport of animals sent to slaughter, and descriptions of fit/unfit are rather vague, livestock drivers seem to need additional education, training, assessment tools or feedback in order to optimize the welfare of animals to be transported.

A calving cow and her newborn calf appear to have an attracting effect on periparturient cows, which may potentially influence the functionality of future motivation-based calving pen designs. In this pilot study we examined whether calving site selection of group-housed Holstein dairy cows was affected by the site of a previous calving. Ten multiparous cows moved to 1 of 2 group pens 11 (range = 4-27) d before calving were included. Each pen consisted of an open area (9 × 9 m) connected to 6 secluded areas (4.5 × 3 m each), where cows could move freely between all areas. Time of calving, location of the breaking of the amniotic sac, as well as the place of birth were recorded. In all but 1 case cows calved within a distance of 1 cow length from where the previous calving took place, suggesting that the cows did not select calving site at random. These preliminary observations indicate that choice of calving site may be affected by the site of a previous calving, potentially explained by the presence of amniotic fluids.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the use of handheld methodology to assess mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) on cows kept loose-housed.STUDY DESIGN: Prospective randomized partial cross-over experimental study. A one-factor (test day) design was used to evaluate MNT over time.ANIMALS: One hundred and fifteen healthy, loose-housed Danish Holstein cattle.METHODS: We evaluated intra-individual variation, inter-observer agreement and variation over time of MNT using two handheld devices and two stimulation sites. Mechanical, ramped stimulations were performed with an algometer (6.5 mm diameter steel probe, 0-10.0 kgf) or an electronic von Frey device (plastic tip with diameter 0.8 mm, 0-1000 gf). Each cow received 5-6 consecutive stimulations within a 2 × 5 cm skin area on the dorsal or lateral aspect of the left third metatarsus until an avoidance reaction occurred. We investigated the difference in precision [expressed as coefficient of variation (CV)] between the combinations of devices and stimulation sites. The inter-observer agreement and the difference in MNT between test day 1, 3, 7, 10 and 24 were investigated for selected combinations. Data were analysed in mixed models and Bland-Altman as relevant.RESULTS: The CVs did not differ [range 0.34-0.52 (p = 0.1)]. Difference between observers (95% limits) was 0.2 kgf (2.8) and 4 gf (369) for the algometer and von Frey device, respectively. Mechanical nociceptive threshold increased from 361 on test day one to 495 gf on test day 24 (p < 0.01).CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: All methods showed a high degree of intra-individual variation, and no combination of device and stimulation site showed superior precision. Mean difference between observers was low, and MNT was not consistent over time. Further development of the methods is required before they can be used in research to investigate possible relations between claw lesions and hyperalgesia.

Topical capsaicin is a well-established model of experimental hyperalgesia. Its application to the study of animals has been limited to few species. The effect of topical capsaicin on hyperalgesia in porcine skin was evaluated as part of a study of inflammatory pain in the pig. Two experiments were carried out on pigs of 27 ± 5 kg (n = 8) and 57 ± 3 kg (n = 16). Thermal and mechanical noxious stimuli were provided (CO2 laser and Pressure Application Measurement device) to assess avoidance behaviours. Capsaicin induced significant thermal hyperalgesia in the smaller pigs (P

Shoulder ulcerations are common in breeding sows in production systems but the consequences for the animals in terms of pain or discomfort are not well-described. This study presents data from a histopathological examination of shoulders of sows, specially focusing on the peripheral nerves in the region and the behavioural responses towards palpation of animals with traumatic neuromas but without ulcers. The study included 155 sows from seven Danish herds initially screened and stratified according to absence/presence and size of shoulder ulcers 3-4 weeks post-partum, out of which 71 were free of ulcerations and 84 had different stages of ulceration. Before collection, sows were subjected to shoulder palpation and behavioural responses were registered. From the consecutive pattern of development of ulcerations it is evident that shoulder ulcerations develop from top-to-bottom.A high frequency of traumatic neuromas was found in both healed and unhealed lesions. The observation of viable nerve-ends in shoulder ulcerations makes it likely that ulcerations are associated with pain. Moreover, the presence of traumatic neuromas in healed ulcerations indicates that there is discomfort even after the lesions have healed. This is further supported by the behavioural finding that rubbing behaviour in response to palpation was increased on the day of sample collection of the shoulders in sows with traumatic neuromas but without shoulder ulcers (P=0.053). Further studies are needed for final confirmation but these results suggest that shoulder ulcers may be associated with pain even after healing.

Background Among the current translational inflammatory pain models, the ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is of rapidly growing interest. The development of primary thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia has been observed in humans and rodents. The pig as a translational animal model might be advantageous due to its great homology with humans. Methods The skin in the flank of awake pigs was irradiated by a UV-B light source (1 J/cm2) and changes in thermal and mechanical sensitivity 24 and 48 h following irradiation were measured via assessment of nociceptive behaviours. Results Thermal sensitivity increased significantly within the inflamed site 24 h after irradiation as indicated by the reduction of latency to respond to thermal stimulation from baseline to 24 h (P

The aim of the present study was (1) to determine the dose-response relationship between the amount of straw provided on the floor and oesophageal ulceration in pigs kept under typical Danish production conditions (18 pigs/pen, 0.7 m2/pig, partly slatted floor, ad libitum access to feed), (2) to reveal whether straw ingestion explains the effect of straw provision on the stomach health and (3) to elucidate the effect of straw ingestion on the stomach conditions. Data were collected at slaughter (approximately 100 kg body weight) on pigs provided with straw amounts in the range 10 g to 500 g wheat straw/pig/day from 30 kg body weight and fed a wheat-based pelleted feed added 15% non-heated and non-pelleted rolled barley. Aims (1) and (2) included 712 pigs kept in 42 pens, whereas (3) was studied on a subset of 37 pigs with either none or obvious amounts of straw in the stomach. The amount of straw provided affected stomach health in a curvilinear manner. Provision of up to approximately 300 g straw/pig/day progressively decreased the risk of oesophageal ulceration and scarring. At larger amounts of straw the ulceroprotective effect of straw was reduced which requires further investigation. Straw ingestion appeared to be an essential intermediary factor for the improvement of stomach health. The number of pigs without straw in the stomach decreased linearly with the logarithm of the amount of straw provided, which explained the effect of straw provision on stomach health and increased the structure of the stomach contents as revealed by the increased weight and dry matter content and decreased sedimentation of the digesta. Provision of approximately 300 g straw/pig/day on the floor may be a potential strategy to reduce, but not inevitably eliminate, oesophageal ulceration in pigs in commercial pig production.

In many countries, piglets are tail docked to prevent tail biting. The aim of this study was 1) to evaluate the efficacy of a local anaesthetic and/or NSAID to reduce pain caused by tail docking; and 2) to examine interactions with docking length. This was examined in 295 piglets docked by hot iron cautery 2–4 days after birth and based on behaviour during docking as well as the following 5 h. The study involved three main factors: local anaesthetic (Lidocain), NSAID (Meloxicam) and docking length. Either 100%, 75%, 50% or 25% of the tails were left on the body of the piglets. Irrespective of the tail length, tail docking led to signs of procedural pain, which could be reduced by administration of Lidocain. Preemptive use of Meloxicam did not affect the signs of procedural pain. The results show that tail docking led to behavioural changes throughout the 5 h observation period indicating that effects of this management routine are more persistent than earlier suggested, and suggesting that docking length may influence the post-surgical behaviour of piglets. By use of the present sites of injection and dosages, neither local anaesthetic nor NSAID had marked effects on post-surgical behavioural changes induced by tail docking. Hence, if tail docking is to be performed, more research is needed in order to develop practical methods for on-farm piglet pain relief.

Housing lame cows in designated hospital pens with a soft surface may lessen the pain the animals feel when lying and changing position. This study investigated the effect of the lying surface on the behavior of lame cows in hospital pens. Thirty-two lame dairy cows were kept in individual hospital pens, provided with either 30-cm deep-bedded sand or 24-mm rubber mats during 24 h in a crossover design. On each surface, the lying behavior of each cow was recorded during 18 h. On deep-bedded sand, cows lay down more and changed position more often than when housed on the rubber surface. Furthermore, a shorter duration of lying down and getting up movements and a shorter duration of lying intention movements were observed. These results suggest that lame dairy cows are more reluctant to change position on rubber compared with sand, and that sand is more comfortable to lie on. Thus, deep bedding such as sand may provide better lying comfort for lame cows than an unbedded rubber surface.

In cattle, percutaneous needle liver biopsy is used for scientific examination of liver metabolism. The impact of the biopsy procedure is, however, poorly investigated. Our aim was to examine the behaviour of dairy cows during and after liver biopsy. Data were collected from 18 dry cows. Percutaneous needle liver biopsies (after administration of local anaesthesia (2% Procaine)) and blood samples were taken during restraining. During the control treatment, animals were restrained and blood sampled. During the biopsy procedure, cows showed increased restlessness (P = 0.008), frequency of head shaking (P = 0.016), and decreased rumination (P = 0.064). After biopsies, tail pressing (P = 0.016) and time spent perching (P = 0.058) increased. Time spent upright (P = 0.10) and number of leg movements (P = 0.033) increased during the night as compared to controls. Thus, liver biopsy induced behavioural changes for up to 19 h – and particularly for behaviour previously associated with pain. Even though the exact welfare impact of percutaneous needle liver biopsies in cows is not known, and the magnitude of the behavioural changes was limited, pain always has negative effects on animal welfare. Therefore, if the present biopsy procedure – involving several biopsy passes – is to be used, improvement of the anaesthetic protocol as well as the inclusion of analgesics should be considered. In cattle, percutaneous needle liver biopsy is used for scientific examination of liver metabolism. The impact of the biopsy procedure is, however, poorly investigated. Our aim was to examine the behaviour of dairy cows during and after liver biopsy.Data were collected from 18 dry cows. Percutaneous needle liver biopsies (after administration of local anaesthesia (2% Procaine)) and blood samples were taken during restraining. During the control treatment, animals were restrained and blood sampled.During the biopsy procedure, cows showed increased restlessness (P = 0.008), frequency of head shaking (P = 0.016), and decreased rumination (P = 0.064). After biopsies, tail pressing (P = 0.016) and time spent perching (P = 0.058) increased. Time spent upright (P = 0.10) and number of leg movements (P = 0.033) increased during the night as compared to controls. Thus, liver biopsy induced behavioural changes for up to 19 h – and particularly for behaviour previously associated with pain.Even though the exact welfare impact of percutaneous needle liver biopsies in cows is not known, and the magnitude of the behavioural changes was limited, pain always has negative effects on animal welfare. Therefore, if the present biopsy procedure – involving several biopsy passes – is to be used, improvement of the anaesthetic protocol as well as the inclusion of analgesics should be considered.

Background Porcine skin exhibits a high degree of homology to human skin, and the pig has recently been used as a cutaneous pain model. However, before the full potential of this novel in vivo cutaneous pain model can be achieved, several methodological aspects related to the management of awake animal studies in a large species require further examination. This manuscript describes the initial development of a porcine model of cutaneous nociception and focuses on interactions between the sensory modality, body size and the anatomical location of the stimulation site. Methods Pigs of different body sizes (30 and 60 kg) were exposed to thermal (CO2 laser) and mechanical (pressure application measurement device) stimulations to the flank and the hind legs in a balanced order. The median response latency and the type of behavioural response were recorded. Results Small pigs exhibited significantly lower pain thresholds (shorter latency to response) than large pigs to thermal and mechanical stimulations. Stimulations at the two anatomical locations elicited very distinct sets of behavioural responses, with different levels of sensitivity between the flank and the hind legs. Furthermore, small animals exhibited lower levels of individual variability between single stimulations. Conclusions Our data indicate that this experimental approach may be valuable for use in studies that focus on porcine cutaneous nociception.

Attitudes towards pain and the use of analgesics in dairy cows were evaluated based on a questionnaire answered by 137 Danish veterinarians and 189 Danish dairy farmers. Respondents were asked to score the perceived pain associated with a number of diseases in dairy cows on a scale from 1 (no pain) to 10 (very painful) assuming that no analgesics were used. Additionally, they were asked whether they agreed or disagreed with a number of statements regarding pain and use of analgesics in cows. A large variability in pain scores for individual diseases was found among both farmers and veterinarians. The same disease was scored as ‘very painful’ by some respondents and as ‘not painful’ by others; however, farmers and veterinarians generally agreed which diseases were painful and which were not. Farmers considered most of the disease conditions to be slightly more painful than veterinarians but were less likely to use analgesics.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disabling, fatal disease, where animal models potentially can enable investigation of aetiology and treatment. The first litter of Göttingen minipigs carrying a mutation for human AD was born in 2007, showing transgene expression. In human AD patients, memory impairment is the most striking and consistent feature. The aim of the present study was to examine effects of the APPsw transgene on memory of AD minipigs compared with non-transgenic controls at two ages (1-2 years) using the spontaneous object recognition test (SORT), which is based on behavioural discrimination of familiar and novel objects. No significant difference between AD minipigs and controls was found when comparing object recognition as a measure of memory. The minipigs did explore the novel object significantly more than the familiar, indicating the expected recognition of the familiar object. Two different inter-phase intervals were used (IPI: 10-40 min). For both ages, object recognition was evident using 10 min IPI. When using 40 min IPI, object recognition was evident only at age 1 year. Comparing memory of a relatively small group of AD minipigs and controls at two rather young ages using the SORT, we were not able to show memory impairment in APPsw carrying minipigs. Being an age-dependent disease, the transgene is expected to cause AD-like symptoms in this porcine model, and the SORT should be repeated at older ages.

Transport of farm animals gives rise to concern about their welfare. Specific attention has been given to the duration of animal transport, and maximum journey durations are used in legislation that seek to minimise any negative impact of transport on animal welfare. This paper reviews the relatively few scientific investigations into effects of transport duration on animal welfare in cattle, sheep, horses, pigs and poultry. From the available literature, we attempt to distinguish between aspects, which will impair welfare on journeys of any duration, such as those associated with loading, and those aspects that may be exacerbated by journey time. We identify four aspects of animal transport, which have increasing impact on welfare as transport duration increases. These relate to (i) the physiological and clinical state of the animal before transport; and – during transport – to (ii) feeding and watering; (iii) rest and (iv) thermal environment. It is thus not journey duration per se but these associated negative aspects that are the cause of compromised welfare. We suggest that with a few exceptions, transport of long duration is possible in terms of animal welfare provided that these four issues can be dealt with for the species and the age group of the animals that are transported. Transport of farm animals gives rise to concern about their welfare. Specific attention has been given to the duration of animal transport, and maximum journey durations are used in legislation that seek to minimise any negative impact of transport on animal welfare. This paper reviews the relatively few scientific investigations into effects of transport duration on animal welfare in cattle, sheep, horses, pigs and poultry. From the available literature, we attempt to distinguish between aspects, which will impair welfare on journeys of any duration, such as those associated with loading, and those aspects that may be exacerbated by journey time. We identify four aspects of animal transport, which have increasing impact on welfare as transport duration increases. These relate to (i) the physiological and clinical state of the animal before transport; and - during transport - to (ii) feeding and watering; (iii) rest and (iv) thermal environment. It is thus not journey duration per se but these associated negative aspects that are the cause of compromised welfare. We suggest that with a few exceptions, transport of long duration is possible in terms of animal welfare provided that these four issues can be dealt with for the species and the age group of the animals that are transported.

Simple Summary In modern pig production, sows are transported by road to abattoirs. However, for reasons of biosecurity, commercial trucks may have limited access to farms. This study described behaviour of sows while waiting for a commercial truck in transfer vehicles near a public road, as is common practice in Denmark. The study involved 106 sows from 11 loads. The sows stayed in the transfer vehicles for 6–59 min. In this period, the behaviour of the sows was characterised by aggression and only very limited resting. These preliminary results suggest that a pre-transport stay in a transfer vehicle can be challenging for sow welfare, especially for longer stays and during hot days. Abstract In modern pig production, sows are transported by road to abattoirs. For reasons of biosecurity, commercial trucks may have limited access to farms. According to Danish regulations, sows can be kept in stationary transfer vehicles away from the farm for up to two hours before being loaded onto the commercial truck. We aimed to describe the behaviour of sows in transfer vehicles. This preliminary, exploratory study included data from 11 loads from a total of six Danish sow herds. Selection of animals to be slaughtered was done by the farmers. Clinical registrations were made before collection of the sows, after which they (in groups of 7–13) were mixed and moved to the transfer vehicle (median stocking density: 1.2 sow/m2), and driven a short distance to a public road. The duration of the stays in the transfer vehicles before being loaded onto the commercial trucks ranged from 6–59 min. During this period, the median frequency of aggressive interactions per load was 18 (range: 4–65), whereas the median frequency of lying per load was 1 (range: 0–23). The duration of the stay correlated positively with the frequency of aggressive interactions (rs = 0.89; n = 11; p < 0.001) and with the frequency of lying (rs = 0.62; n = 11; p < 0.05). Frequency of aggressive interactions correlated positively with the temperature inside the transfer vehicle (rs = 0.89; n = 7; p < 0.001). These preliminary results are the first to describe the behaviour of cull sows during waiting in transfer vehicles, and may suggest that this period can be challenging for sow welfare, especially for longer stays and during hot days.

On the day of slaughter, stressors associated with the handling, transport and lairage of pigs may have a significant impact on animal welfare. A welfare assessment based on the Welfare Quality® (WQ®) principles involving 480 pigs from 12 different commercial herds and including behavioural, clinical and physiological measures was carried out from farm to slaughter with the aim of investigating the relationship between selected post-mortem physiological measures and an aggregated animal welfare index (AWI). Blood temperature was quantified at exsanguination, and a blood sample collected at exsanguination was analysed for plasma concentration of glucose, lactate, albumin, total protein and creatine kinase activity. pH was measured 45 min after sticking in the m. longissimus dorsi (LD). All welfare measures were categorised on a three-point scale (mild level: 0, moderate level: 1, severe level: 2) and aggregated into an AWI using a weighted (based on expert opinion of 38 experts) linear sum of prevalence on animal level. An overall AWI (AWI Overall ) and an AWI per stage (AWI Stage ) were calculated. For AWI Unloading , significant relationships with the plasma concentration of glucose (positive), creatine kinase activity (positive) and total protein (negative) content of the blood were found. Furthermore, significant positive relationships between AWI Race and the plasma concentration of lactate and albumin were found. Based on the current data, we suggest one method to identify AWIs above vs. below a certain threshold using the post-mortem measures with AWI Race and lactate as an example. In conclusion, physiological post-mortem measures may, after the development of technological solutions for implementation at abattoirs, be used in daily operations as on-site tools for systematic monitoring of welfare of finishing pigs in order to document the level of welfare.

According to Danish legislation, sick or injured pigs must be housed in hospital pens with specific requirements. During recent years the majority of cases of non-compliance with legislation have been related to management of these animals. Hence, we hypothesized that 1) pig farmers generally find a requirement for hospital pens reasonable, but do not know the specific requirements; 2) pig farmers do not find the specific requirements for hospital pens meaningful compared with their perception of what sick pigs need; and 3) pig farmers often omit to move sick pigs to hospital pens due to lack of time or labour. An on-line questionnaire regarding farmers' attitudes towards and knowledge about legal requirements for hospital pens was constructed and e-mailed to 2348 pig farmers. In total, 508 farmers answered the questionnaire. Overall, 66% of the respondents found that the requirements for hospital pens made good sense, and more than 90% found that it made at least partial sense. Even though almost all respondents thought they knew the legal requirements for specific facilities in hospital pens, in fact 20% of them did not. The majority of respondents found all specific requirements in accordance with the needs of sick pigs, with the exception of cooling (only 17% agreed that cooling was needed). Unexpectedly, lack of time or labour wasn't reported to be a major obstacle to the use of hospital pens. Possibly, different thresholds for defining a pig as 'sick enough' to need housing in a hospital pen may exist between farmers and authorities.

This study focused on behavioural and clinical effects of umbilical outpouchings (UOs) in pigs. Matched pairs of pigs with UOs (diameter 12cm; range 4-20; diagnosed p.m. as hernia or non-hernia) and controls (N=28) were compared during a 6-h stay in a pick-up facility. Overall, skin lesion scores were increased after the 6-h stay. Behaviour of the UO-pigs differed from the controls (a shorter latency to lie down (P

To investigate preferences of lame cows for flooring and level of social contact, 37 lame, lactating dairy cows (diagnosed with sole ulcer or white line disease) were housed individually for 6 d in experimental hospital pens, where they could choose between 2 equally sized areas (6m × 4.5m) with either deep-bedded sand or a rubber surface. On both surfaces, cows could choose between 2 equally sized areas either near or away from heifers in a neighboring group pen. Cows spent more time lying on the deep-bedded sand than on the rubber surface (870 vs. 71min/d), whereas they spent less time upright (standing or walking) on the sand than on the rubber surface (180 vs. 319min/d). In addition, cows spent less time self-grooming on the sand than on the rubber surface (2.2 vs. 4.7% of time spent upright). With regard to level of social contact, cows spent more time near the neighboring heifers than away from them; this was true both while lying (565 vs. 374min/d) and upright (276 vs. 223min/d). Self-grooming was seen significantly more near neighboring heifers than away from them (4.8 vs. 3.3% of time spent upright). When lying, cows more often positioned themselves in areas of the pen where they could maintain visual contact with neighboring heifers. Lame cows with sole ulcers or white line disease preferred deep-bedded sand for lying, and preferred to perform self-grooming while on the rubber surface. Similarly, they preferred to lie and to perform self-grooming while positioned near animals in a neighboring pen. These results suggest that provision of a deep-bedded lying area in hospital pens is important to the welfare of lame cows. We found no evidence of isolation-seeking behavior in animals with these diagnoses (and no systemic symptoms) while they were kept in individual hospital pens.

This study examined effects of the amount of straw offered on occurrence and severity of gastric lesions in pigs kept in pens (18 pigs, 0.7 m2/pig) with partly slatted flooring and 10, 500 or 1000 g straw/pig/day from 30 kg live weight. The pigs had ad libitum access to dry feed. Forty-five pigs were used, three from each of 15 pens. After euthanization, the dimension of the non-glandular region of the stomach was measured. Lesions were characterized and scored. Irrespective of straw provided, 67% of the pigs showed signs of gastric pathology. Pigs provided with 500 or 1000 g straw were pooled as ‘permanent access’. The proportion of pigs with ulcerations was reduced by permanent access to straw (7 vs. 33%; P < 0.05), suggesting that permanent access to straw may improve animal health, and be considered as one possible strategy to limit gastric ulceration in pigs.

Dairy cows exhibit classic signs of sickness behavior during mastitis. However, knowledge about the consequences of naturally occurring mastitis in freestall-housed dairy cows, milked in automatic milking systems, is lacking. The aim of the present study was to describe the behavior of dairy cows after diagnosis and antibiotic treatment of mastitis. In the days before and after antibiotic treatment, the milking behavior, feeding, and activity were examined in 30 mastitic and 30 control Danish Holstein-Friesian cows kept in freestalls and milked by an automatic milking system. Sickness behavior was evident in the mastitic dairy cows and local clinical signs in the udder as well as behavioral changes persisted beyond the 3 d of antibiotic treatment. In the days before diagnosis and treatment, feed intake was reduced compared with the control animals. Although reduced by the antibiotic treatment, this difference persisted until at least 10 d after diagnosis. Sick cows spent less time lying in the initial days after treatment, reversing to the level of the control cows within the 10 d posttreatment period. In the 48 h before antibiotic treatment, the mastitic cows showed increased restlessness during milking, as seen by a higher frequency of tripping and kicking. Mastitic cows continued to show increased kicking during milking even after the antibiotic treatment period. These results show that the behavioral changes induced by naturally occurring mastitis persisted beyond the days of antibiotic treatment, thereby calling for further investigation into management of mastitic dairy cows to optimize recovery and ensure animal welfare during the recovery period after clinical mastitis.

Shoulder ulcers are common in lactating sows. This case-control study compared behaviour of sows with shoulder ulcers (U-sows; N = 19) versus controls (C-sows; N = 19) and involved multiparous LxY sows, 14.7 ± 0.3 days post partum, kept in farrowing crates in a Danish herd. U-sows had at least one shoulder ulcer. Behavioural data were based on video recordings during a 24h period. U-sows spent less time lying (P = 0.04), tended to perform more postural changes (P = 0.096), spent more time standing still (P = 0.02), showed increased shoulder rubbing (P = 0.03) and reduced nursing frequency (P = 0.03) compared to the controls. These results show that the behaviour of sows with shoulder ulcers differ from healthy sows, suggesting that U-sows experienced discomfort or pain, and indicating that maternal behaviour can be sensitive to the presence of shoulder ulcers. Further studies – focussing on temporal development of shoulder ulcers combined with behaviour of sows and piglets – are needed to clarify animal welfare impact.

Effects of acute stressors on behavioral, adrenocortical and nociceptive responses were examined in 24 dairy cows kept in tie stalls, using 15 min of social isolation in novel surroundings (ISOL), fixation by the head in the home stall (FIX) and the provision of novel neighbors/stall (NEIGH) as acute stressors as well as a control treatment (CON). Each cow was exposed to one treatment daily in a balanced order. All stressors led to signs of hypoalgesia as indicated by slower (P=0.01) and reduced responses (P0.10) toward nociceptive laser stimulation after exposure to the acute stressors. ISOL, however, had stronger effects than FIX or NEIGH. ISOL or FIX led to increased plasma concentration of cortisol (P0.001), whereas NEIGH or CON did not. The behavioral responses were affected by treatments as well, as shown by decreased rumination for all stressors (P0.001) and a gradual increase in active avoidance from CON to NEIGH to FIX (P0.001). Furthermore, exposure to NEIGH led to increased exploration (P0.001), aggression (P0.10) and self-grooming behavior (P0.10) compared with the CON treatment. The results suggest that nociceptive changes are part of responses toward acute stress in dairy cows. The nociceptive changes, however, were not direct reflections of the adrenocortical or behavioral responses toward the acute stressors. Therefore, quantification of nociceptive changes, in combination with behavioral and physiological registrations, can be one way to broaden the range of biological systems, considered for the study of animals under stress, and thereby extend the understanding of responses toward acute stress in dairy cows.

In order to improve animal welfare it is recommended that dairy farmers move calving cows from the herd to individual pens when calving is imminent. However, the practicality of moving cows has proven a challenge and may lead to disturbance of the cows rather than easing the process of calving. One solution may be to allow the cow to seek isolation prior to calving. This study examined whether pre-parturient dairy cows will isolate in an individual calving pen placed in a group calving setting and whether a closing gate in this individual calvingpen will cause more cows to isolate prior to calving. Danish Holstein cows (n = 66) were housed in groups of six in a group pen with access to six individual calving pens connected to the group area. Cows were trained to use one of two isolation opportunities i.e. individual calving pens with functional closing gates (n = 35) allowing only one cow access at a time, or individual calving pens with permanently open gates allowing free cow traffic between group area and individual pen (n = 31). The response variables were calving site, calving behaviour and social behaviour. Unexpectedly, a functional gate did not facilitate isolation seeking, perhaps because the cows were not able to combine a learnt response with the motivation to isolate. Dominant cows had the highest chance of calving in an individual calving pen. If an alien calf was present in the group pen or any of the individual pens, cows were less likely to calve in an individual calving pen. Future studies should allow cows easy access to an individual calving pen and explore what motivates pre-parturient cows to seek isolation inorder to facilitate voluntary use of individual calving pens.

According to European legislation, pigs must have permanent access to sufficient quantity of materialto enable manipulation activities. However, few studies have quantified how much straw is needed tofulfil the requirements of growing pigs. We investigated the effect of increasing amount of straw on pigs’manipulation of the straw, and hypothesised that after a certain point increasing straw amount will nolonger increase oral manipulation further. From 30 to 80 kg live weight, pigs were housed in 90 groups of18 pigs in pens (5.48 m × 2.48 m) with partly slatted concrete floor and daily provided with fresh uncutstraw onto the solid part of the floor. Experimental treatments were 10, 80, 150, 220, 290, 360, 430 or500 g straw per pig and day. At 40 and 80 kg live weight, the time spent in oral manipulation of the strawby three focal pigs per pen (large, medium and small sized) were recorded along with the percentage ofpigs manipulating straw simultaneously. This was recorded in three 1-h intervals (1 h before and 1 h afterstraw allocation in the morning, as well as from 17 to 18 h in the afternoon). With increasing quantity ofstraw provided, we found a curvilinear (P < 0.01) increase in the time spent in oral manipulation of thestraw. Smaller pigs spent more time manipulating straw than larger and medium sized pigs (367, 274and 252 s/h for small, medium and large sized pigs, respectively; P < 0.001), and pigs spent more timemanipulating straw at 40 kg than 80 kg live weight (356 vs. 250 s/h; P < 0.001). At both live weights, pigsspent most time manipulating straw during the hour after allocation of straw. Similar effects of increasingamounts of straw were found for the percentage of pigs engaged in simultaneous manipulation of thestraw. Post hoc analyses were applied to estimate the point, after which additional straw did not increasemanipulation of straw any further. For the time spent manipulating straw the estimated change pointwas 253 (approx. 95% confidence limits (CL) 148–358) g straw per pig and day. For the number of pigssimultaneously manipulating straw the change point was 248 (CL 191–304) g straw per pig and day. Theseresults show that increasing the quantity of straw from minimal to approximately 250 g per pig and dayincreased the time spent in oral manipulation of the straw, as well as the occurrence of simultaneousstraw manipulation.Hence, data from the current experiment identified 250 g straw per pig per day as the amount ofstraw where a further increase in straw provision did not further increase neither time spent on oralmanipulation of straw, nor the percentage of pigs simultaneously manipulating straw. This suggests that,within the current housing system and using this criterion, this amount of straw may be the biologicalturning point for increasing oral manipulation of straw.

ObjectiveTo investigate the effects of habituation and isolation on mechanical nociceptive thresholds in pigs at the pelvic limbs and at the tail.Study designProspective randomized multifactorial study.AnimalsThirty-two healthy castrated male (experiment 1), and 12 castrated male and 12 female (experiment 2) Danish Landrace × Yorkshire pigs, weighing 63.5 ± 0.8 kg and 55.4 ± 0.6 kg (the mean ± SD, experiment 1 and 2, respectively).MethodsMechanical nociceptive thresholds were quantified with a von Frey anesthesiometer applied to two distinct anatomical regions (tail and pelvic limbs). Pigs receiving the mechanical challenge in the pelvic limbs were tested inside a cage, whereas pigs exposed to stimuli at the tail region were tested in an open arena. For both experiments, the effect of familiarity to the procedure was evaluated by comparing thresholds of nociception in habituated versus naïve pigs. The presence of a companion animal was also evaluated in pigs receiving stimuli at the pelvic limbs.ResultsPigs tested inside the cage were affected by the habituation to the procedure as indicated by the increase in willingness and time spent by the animals in the test cage. This effect was reflected in the lower mechanical nociceptive thresholds (medians with 25–75 percentiles) recorded for familiar pigs compared with naïve animals [495 g (302–675) versus 745 g (479–1000), respectively; p = 0.026]. Mechanical nociceptive thresholds measured at the tail of the pigs in the open arena were not affected by the familiarity of the animals with the experimental procedure.Conclusions and clinical relevanceThe current results reiterate the value of habituation in research involving animal behaviour. Further characterization of the methodology is needed to allow its application in the evaluation of clinical conditions in pigs.

Postpartum behaviour the first 24 h after farrowing (day 0 pp) and on day 10 pp of 40 Landrace/Yorkshire sows was studied in their first and second parity in a crossover experiment regarding farrowing environment (crate vs. get-away-pen (GAP)). The behaviour was compared with the performance of the same individuals during nest building and farrowing, and with their performance in prepubertal tests of behavioural reactivity (open field test and human test) as well as reactivity in the HPA-axis during the open field test. In the first parity, the duration of activity during farrowing correlated positively to the frequency and duration of activity on day 0 pp ( r s =0.54; P N=33 and r s =0.47; P N=33 , respectively). Being behaviourally active in the prepubertal open field test correlated positively to the number of observations in lateral recumbency on day 10 pp (r s =0.60; P N=32) and negatively to the percentage of sow terminated nursings (r s =−0.46; P N=32) , both in the first parity. On day 0 pp, the sows in the GAPs, in both parities, had a longer duration of activity, as compared to crated sows ( F 1,28 =8.26; P and F 1,28 =11.01; P , respectively). Furthermore, the second parity sows were more active than the gilts, e.g. made more postural changes (F 1,23 =5.62; P . The duration of lateral recumbency on day 0 pp was longer in the crates in both parities ( F 1,30 =7.51; P=0.01 and F 1,30 =5.73; P , respectively), and the piglets were making more unsynchronised behaviour in the crates ( F 1,30 =15.83; P and F 1,30 =2.53; P , respectively). On day 10 pp, exposure of the udder by means of the sow being in lateral recumbency was longer in the second parity (F 1,17 =6.28; P and in both parities longer in the crates ( F 1,17 =7.48; P=0.01 and F 1,17 =15.83; P , respectively). The proportion of nursings terminated by the sow was significantly higher in the second parity (F 1,17 =10.81; P and in the first parity the gilts in GAPs ended more nursings (F 1,17 =6.37; P . The latency to the first reaction in the “screaming piglet test” was shorter for gilts in GAPs as compared to gilts in crates (median: 29 s vs. 0 s; χ 2 =11.00; P ), as was the latency to an effective reaction in the second parity sows housed in GAPs compared to crates (120 s vs. 44 s; χ 2 =6.88; P ). In conclusion, activity during farrowing correlated to activity on day 0 pp, whereas activity in prepubertal tests correlated to the sow having less control of the nursing behaviour on day 10 pp. However, maternal behaviour developed over at least two parities, and a stimulating farrowing environment apparently improved the maternal behaviour, probably due more relevant environmental feedback. This was manifested in a progressively earlier development of cyclic nursing on day 0 pp and a better control of the nursing behaviour on day 10 pp by parity and by housing in an enriched environment. These results are promising for the future investigation of consistent individual differences in pigs, including the maternal behaviour.

In pig production, piglets are tail docked at birth in order to prevent tail biting later in life. In order to examine the effects of tail docking and docking length on the formation of neuromas, we used 65 pigs and the following four treatments: intact tails (n=18); leaving 75% (n=17); leaving 50% (n=19); or leaving 25% (n=11) of the tail length on the pigs. The piglets were docked between day 2 and 4 after birth using a gas-heated apparatus, and were kept under conventional conditions until slaughter at 22 weeks of age, where tails were removed and examined macroscopically and histologically. The tail lengths and diameters differed at slaughter (lengths: 30.6±0.6; 24.9±0.4; 19.8±0.6; 8.7±0.6 cm; P

Since 10 years, EU-legislation states that ‘pigs must have permanent access to sufficient quantity of material to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities’. While much research has focused on which materials ‘enable proper investigation and manipulation activities’, little has been done to determine what constitutes ‘sufficient quantity’ and ‘permanent access’. Based on the hypothesis that a reduced level of oral manipulation of pen mates reflects an increased level of fulfilment of pigs’ behavioural need to explore, we chose oral manipulation of pen mates as target behaviour. In three batches, we investigated the relation between oral manipulation of pen mates and amount of straw provided to the pigs in order to identify the amount of straw, where additional provision of straw did not reduce the occurrence of oral manipulation of pen mates any further. From 30 to 80 kg body weight, the pigs were housed in groups of 18 animals in pens (5.48 m × 2.48 m) with concrete floor (1/3 solid, 1/3 drained and 1/3 slatted). Pens were cleaned manually twice a week and fresh uncut straw was provided daily onto the solid part of the floor. In the first batch, 48 pens were assigned to either 10, 500 or 1000 g straw per pig and day (N = 16 pens per straw allocation). A reduction in oral manipulation of pen mates was found when pigs were given 500 compared to 10 g (P = 0.03), but no further reduction when increasing the straw amount to 1000 g was detected. In the second and third batch, a total of 96 pens were assigned to 8 treatments (10, 80, 150, 220, 290, 360, 430 or 500 g straw per pig and day) (N = 12 pens per straw allocation). There was a linear relation between straw amount and oral manipulation of pen mates, the latter being reduced from 8.4% to 6.7% of active time, when pigs were provided 500 compared to 10 g (P = 0.01). Based on the concept of bioequivalence, 387 ± 10 g straw per pig and day was identified as the amount of straw where a further increase in straw provision did not reduce the oral manipulation of pen mates. Thus, the straw amount identified to meet pigs’ need to explore was close to 400 g straw per pig and day. A criterion of permanent access (defined by a minimum of 1 l (approx. 60 g) unsoiled straw in a pen 24 h after allocation) was achieved at lower levels of straw provision, especially during the initial weeks of the growing period. Since 10 years, EU-legislation states that ‘pigs must have permanent access to sufficient quantity of material to enable proper investigation and manipulation activities’. While much research has focused on which materials ‘enable proper investigation and manipulation activities’, little has been done to determine what constitutes ‘sufficient quantity’ and ‘permanent access’. Based on the hypothesis that a reduced level of oral manipulation of pen mates reflects an increased level of fulfilment of pigs’ behavioural need to explore, we chose oral manipulation of pen mates as target behaviour. In three batches, we investigated the relation between oral manipulation of pen mates and amount of straw provided to the pigs in order to identify the amount of straw, where additional provision of straw did not reduce the occurrence of oral manipulation of pen mates any further. From 30 to 80 kg body weight, the pigs were housed in groups of 18 animals in pens (5.48 m × 2.48 m) with concrete floor (1/3 solid, 1/3 drained and 1/3 slatted). Pens were cleaned manually twice a week and fresh uncut straw was provided daily onto the solid part of the floor. In the first batch, 48 pens were assigned to either 10, 500 or 1000 g straw per pig and day (N = 16 pens per straw allocation). A reduction in oral manipulation of pen mates was found when pigs were given 500 compared to 10 g (P = 0.03), but no further reduction when increasing the straw amount to 1000 g was detected. In the second and third batch, a total of 96 pens were assigned to 8 treatments (10, 80, 150, 220, 290, 360, 430 or 500 g straw per pig and day) (N = 12 pens per straw allocation). There was a linear relation between straw amount and oral manipulation of pen mates, the latter being reduced from 8.4% to 6.7% of active time, when pigs were provided 500 compared to 10 g (P = 0.01). Based on the concept of bioequivalence, 387 ± 10 g straw per pig and day was identified as the amount of straw where a further increase in straw provision did not reduce the oral manipulation of pen mates. Thus, the straw amount identified to meet pigs’ need to explore was close to 400 g straw per pig and day. A criterion of permanent access (defined by a minimum of 1 l (approx. 60 g) unsoiled straw in a pen 24 h after allocation) was achieved at lower levels of straw provision, especially during the initial weeks of the growing period.

Individual drinking patterns are a potential tool for disease monitoring in pigs. However, to date, individual pig drinking behaviour has not been described, and effects of external factors have not been examined. The aim of this study was to perform detailed quantification of drinking behaviour of growing pigs and to examine effects of period of day and effects of competition for access to the drinking nipple on the drinking behaviour, amount of water used and water wastage. In all, 52 cross-bred castrated male pigs (live weight 20.5±1.7 kg; mean±s.d.) maintained as either 3 (N3) or 10 (N10) pigs per pen and water nipple (four groups/treatment) were used. All pigs were fitted with a transponder ear tag. A radio frequency identification reader recorded and time stamped visits at the nipple. In each pen, water flow was logged every second. The drinking behaviour was recorded for 4 consecutive days and analysed using a linear mixed model. Overall, the pigs spent 594 s at the nipple during 24 h distributed among 44 visits. During this period, 5 l of water were used, of which >30% was wasted. Social competition did not affect the drinking behaviour over 24 h, except for the proportion of interrupted visits where pigs, kept with recommended nipple availability (N10), showed an increased proportion of interrupted drinking bouts compared with pigs kept at very low level of competition (N3) (0.18±0.01 v. 0.11±0.01; P

Mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) testing has been used to investigate aspects of painful states in bovine claws. We investigated a handheld tool, where the applied stimulation force was monitored continuously relative to a pre-encoded based target force. The effect on MNT of two pre-testing habituation procedures was performed in two different experiments comprising a total of 88 sound Holsteins dairy cows kept either inside or outside their home environment. MNT testing was performed using five consecutive mechanical nociceptive stimulations per cow per test at a fixed pre-encoded target rate of 2.1 N/s. The habituation procedure performed in dairy cows kept in their home environment led to lowered intra-individual coefficient of variation of MNT (P < 0.001), increased MNT (P < 0.001) and decreased the discrepancy between applied and target force during stimulations (P < 0.001). Pre-test habituation improved the reliability of the handheld tool when used in dairy cows kept in their home environment.

Shoulder ulcerations can be graded postmortem from 0 to 4 on a pathoanatomical scale. However, veterinarians and farmers express difficulties evaluating the grade of the lesions antemortem. Accurate grading is needed in order to comply with veterinary instruction in relation to the Danish legislation, stating that sows with shoulder ulcers grade 3 or 4 must be kept loose and have access to soft bedding. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate if biopsies from the center of a shoulder ulcer can be used to point out animals for which an intervention must be initiated. Postmortem, a punch biopsy was sampled from the center of the ulceration or from the tissue overlaying the tuber spina scapula. Afterward, the shoulders were cross-sectioned and evaluated grossly and histologically (“gold standard”). In total, 121 shoulders were included in the study, and the diagnostic value of a punch biopsy in grading shoulder ulcerations was evaluated. The results showed a sensitivity of 0.78, a specificity of 0.98, a positive likelihood ratio of 38.36, and a negative likelihood ratio of 0.22. The agreement between the cross-section evaluation and the punch biopsy was found to be 0.90 by calculating the Cohen kappa value. In conclusion, a single punch biopsy from the center of an ulcer is useful for determining the grade of a shoulder ulcer and can be used to facilitate the identification of sows with ulcers requiring an intervention.

In order to elucidate whether consistency exists in the reactions of gilts to various challenging situations, 56 prepubertal crossbred Landrace/Yorkshire gilts were subjected to a Food Competition Test, an Open Field Test, a Human Test and a Social Test. The undisturbed behaviour was video recorded in the home pen before the tests were performed. Factor analysis on open field data revealed five factors, selected by the criterium of the eigenvalue being bigger than one: (1) immobility, (2) exploratory locomotion, (3) non-exploratory locomotion, (4) object exploration, and (5) central position in the test arena. Factor analysis on Human Test data resulted in five factors: (1) exploration, (2) inactivity, (3) vocalisation, (4) immobility, and (5) escape. Significant correlations were found between the Open Field Test and the Human Test, between the Human Test and the Social Test and between the Food Competition Test and the Human Test. Only a tendency to a correlation was found between the Open Field Test and the Social Test. In conclusion in this investigation the gilts showed a general reactivity which was consistent across non-social situations and also tended to be so in a social situation with an unknown pig. Future investigations of relations between social and non-social situation, should focus on social contexts where the individuality of the animal can be tested, to prevent interference form group dynamics, and compare this measure with reactivity in non-social situations.

Influence of timidity (timid when approached by an unknown human vs. control) and social environment during lactation (single vs. group farrowing paddock) on maternal reactivity of outdoor sows was examined in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment with nine replicates of four sows. Selection for timidity was carried out by a human approach test in the gestation paddock three weeks prepartum. During week 1 postpartum the maternal reactivity was tested once in each of three different setups mimicking potential situations of danger to the piglets: the play back of a piglet distress call (SP), disturbance of nursing (DN) and introduction of a human dummy (DT). Generally, timid sows were more reactive than controls; they had a higher first reaction type in DT (P < 0.05) and DN (P

Welfare measurements inspired by the Welfare Quality® (2009) Protocol for slaughter pigs at the abattoir were recorded for a total of 80 pigs from four herds in order to investigate the relationship between selected ante-mortem observations and post-mortem measurements with the aim of identifying potential welfare indicators for future documentation of welfare of finishing pigs at commercial abattoirs.Behavioural and clinical observations were carried out at unloading, in the lairage and in the race to the stunning chamber in the abattoir. During lairage, behavioural recordings were performed by direct observation, whereas at unloading and prior to stunning recordings were performed using video surveillance. Behavioural and handling measurements included: reluctance to move, turning back, slipping, falling and driving of the pigs at unloading, postures during lairage and slipping, falling and lifting by other pigs in the race to the stunning chamber. At sticking, a blood sample was collected for analysis of glucose, lactate and creatine kinase activity (CK), the blood and the m. longissimus dorsi (LD) temperature and the LD pH were measured, and skin damages were recorded.PCA and PLSR analyses were performed to investigate the correlation structures between the ante- and post-mortem measurements. The PCA plot indicated that the plasma concentration of glucose and lactate was correlated with lifting, falling and handling in the race to the stunning chamber, lactate was correlated with pH22, and CK was correlated with skin damage scores. There was a significant relationship between log(CK) and skin damage score on the shoulder (P=0.0008).In conclusion, the study indicated that the plasma concentration of lactate and glucose was correlated with the behaviour and handling in the race to the stunning chamber and might, together with CK, be relevant indicators of welfare of finishing pigs at the abattoir. Welfare measurements inspired by the Welfare Quality® (2009) Protocol for slaughter pigs at the abattoir were recorded for a total of 80 pigs from four herds in order to investigate the relationship between selected ante-mortem observations and post-mortem measurements with the aim of identifying potential welfare indicators for future documentation of welfare of finishing pigs at commercial abattoirs.Behavioural and clinical observations were carried out at unloading, in the lairage and in the race to the stunning chamber in the abattoir. During lairage, behavioural recordings were performed by direct observation, whereas at unloading and prior to stunning recordings were performed using video surveillance. Behavioural and handling measurements included: reluctance to move, turning back, slipping, falling and driving of the pigs at unloading, postures during lairage and slipping, falling and lifting by other pigs in the race to the stunning chamber. At sticking, a blood sample was collected for analysis of glucose, lactate and creatine kinase activity (CK), the blood and the m. longissimus dorsi (LD) temperature and the LD pH were measured, and skin damages were recorded.PCA and PLSR analyses were performed to investigate the correlation structures between the ante- and post-mortem measurements. The PCA plot indicated that the plasma concentration of glucose and lactate was correlated with lifting, falling and handling in the race to the stunning chamber, lactate was correlated with pH22, and CK was correlated with skin damage scores. There was a significant relationship between log(CK) and skin damage score on the shoulder (P=0.0008).In conclusion, the study indicated that the plasma concentration of lactate and glucose was correlated with the behaviour and handling in the race to the stunning chamber and might, together with CK, be relevant indicators of welfare of finishing pigs at the abattoir.

The number of animals used in research should be limited as much as possible. Among cloned animals, genetic variation is minimal and to the extent that behaviour is genetically determined inter-individual variability is expected to be higher among naturally bred animals. However, the cloning procedure per se might affect the resultant phenotype leading to phenotypic variations independent of the genetic background. Recently, cloned Göttingen minipigs carrying a mutation for Alzheimer's disease have been produced. In order to document the development of Alzheimer's disease symptoms, these pigs were subjected to a behavioural test of memory, the spontaneous object recognition test, from an early age. At ages 1 and 2 years no evidence of memory decline was found, yet the data showed striking behavioural variability among the cloned groups. The aim of the present study was to investigate effects of genetic homogeneity on variability of cloned minipigs compared with non-cloned controls regarding behavioural variables in a cognitive test, namely the spontaneous object recognition test. Significant differences in the variability between the cloned and control pigs were found in five out of 24 behavioural variables. The clones showed lower variability for four of the measures, whereas the variability was increased for one variable. No significant difference between the cloned and the control group was found for the remaining 19 variables (79%). In 14 of these, the standard deviation was numerically greater for the control group compared to the cloned group, indicating that variation may be less in cloned animals, but not demonstrable with the small group size of the present study (n = 6 for each of the two groups tested). Overall, this study failed to show unambiguously that variability in these behavioural variables in cloned minipigs is less than in naturally bred control subjects and therefore does not directly support the hypothesis that cloning may be used to replicate animals in order to reduce group size in experimentation animals.

Background and aim Cutaneous inflammation induced by ultraviolet B-light (UV-B) is considered a valuable translational pain model. Until now, the development of primary hyperalgesia has been assessed predominantly in rodents, whereas porcine skin might be advantageous due to its greater homology with human skin. The aim of the present study was to investigate porcine behavioural responses to nociceptive mechanical and thermal stimulations following UV-B inflammation. Methods One skin area of 4 cm2 in the flank of 16 male pigs of 55 ± 6 kg was irradiated by UV-B using 3xMED (Minimum Erythema Dose). Changes in pain sensitivity were assessed 24 and 48 h following irradiation via delivery of mechanical (Pressure Application Measurement device) and thermal (CO2 laser) stimulations to the inflamed skin area and to an untreated control site. Results All animals showed higher sensitivity in the inflamed skin site 24 and 48 h following irradiation, compared to the control site (P< 0.05). Pressure withdrawal threshold decreased in the inflamed site: 231 g (148–451) against 408g (347–684) after 24 hours and 200 g (106–293) against 656g (405–902) after 48 h. Similarly, latency to respond to the laser stimulus was lower at the inflamed site: 5 s (3–7) against 9 s (4–2) after 24h and 4 s (3–15) against 20 s (8–25) after 48 h. One and two days after irradiation, a tendency was found for an increased cutaneous mechanical pain sensitivity compared to baseline values in the site irradiated with UV-B light (P = 0.092). Thermal sensitivity was increased within the inflamed site 24 h after irradiation with latency changing from 17s (4–25) at baseline to 5 s (3–7) at 24 h (P =0.001). At 48 h, the response latency had not decreased any further (P = 0.414). Conclusions Our study shows that behavioural recordings are a valid tool for the assessment of mechanical and heat sensitization following UV-B inflammation in porcine skin.

The consequences of mastitis in terms of dairy cow behavior are relatively unknown. Future assessment of dairy cow welfare during mastitis will be facilitated by knowledge about the potential of mastitis to induce sickness behavior. Our aim was to examine behavior of dairy cows in the period from 2 d before (d −2 and −1) to 3 d (d 0, 1, and 2) after experimental intramammarychallenge with Escherichia coli. Effects of experimentally induced mastitis on behavior were examined in 20 primiparous Danish Holstein-Friesian cows, all 3 to 6 wk after calving and kept in tie stalls. After evening milking on d 0, each cow received an intramammary infusion with 20 to 40 cfu of E. coli in 1 healthy front quarter. Paraclinical and bacteriological examinations were conducted to confirm infection. Half of the cows were subjected to liver and udder biopsies twice during the trial. Behavior was video-recorded on 5 consecutive days, d −2 to +2 after challenge when the cows were not disturbed by humans. The behavior of the animals was compared among all days. Infection with E. coli altered the behavior of the dairy cows. Time spent feeding was lower in the initial 24 h after infection compared with that on the other days (16.6 ± 1.1, 16.5 ± 1.0, 13.2 ± 1.2, 18.1 ± 1.1, and 16.0 ± 0.8% of time for d −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2, respectively). The duration of standing idle increased on d 0 compared with that on the control days and d 1 and 2 (29.4 ± 2.6, 28.0 ± 2.3, 39.1 ± 2.6, 31.4 ± 3.8, and 25.9 ± 2.6% of time for d −2, −1, 0, 1 and 2, respectively). The frequency of self-grooming behavior per hour decreased in the initial 24 h compared with that on d −2, −1, and 2 (4.1 ± 0.8, 5.4 ± 1.9, 3.2 ± 0.6, 3.6 ± 0.6, and 4.8 ± 1.0 for d −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2, respectively). Likewise, duration of rumination and frequency of turning the head against the udder decreased in the first days after infection (rumination: 32.2 ± 1.6, 34.8 ± 1.8, 27.9 ± 1.7, 30.0 ± 2.6, and 34.8 ± 1.7% of time; and frequency of turning head : 0.6 ± 0.1, 0.6 ± 0.1, 0.3 ± 0.1, 0.3 ± 0.1, and 0.6 ± 0.1 per hour for d −2, −1, 0, 1 and 2, respectively). The cows subjected to biopsies showed an overall decreased lying time during the entire observation period (36.3 ± 1.5 vs. 46.1 ± 2.2% of time) but not directly related to the period after the biopsies. Dairy cows show classic signs of illness behavior in the hours after intramammary challenge with E. coli. This knowledge can be useful for the development of welfare assessment protocols, early disease detection, and for future work aimed at understanding the behavioral needs of dairy cows suffering from mastitis.

Udgivelsesdato: 14. august 2010 In recent years, pain in cattle (Stafford and Mellor 2007) and the welfare of diseased animals (Broom 2006) have received increased scientific attention. New knowledge has emerged regarding the pain that may be associated with typical production diseases (Todd and others 2007) and routine management procedures such as castration (Boesch and others 2008) and dehorning (Stewart and others 2009). As well as these changes in scientific focus, the emphasis on the treatment of pain in veterinary medicine has changed dramatically during the past 10 to 15 years (Flecknell 2008). In order to allow implementation of new knowledge regarding pain in dairy cattle, it is important to understand the attitudes of bovine practitioners and their perceived limiting factors. This short communication presents the results of a questionnaire survey focusing on the use of analgesics in cows and calves among bovine practitioners in the Scandinavian countries.

The aim of the study was to examine the ability of Göttingen minipigs to acquire an olfaction-based operant conditioning task and to determine the detection threshold for ethyl acetate and ethanol. We used an automated olfactometer developed for rodents to train and test 14 pigs. Odor sampling and reliable responding were obtained after three to fifteen 160-trial sessions. Successful transfer of the task from ethyl acetate to ethanol was achieved in 1-4 sessions. Detection threshold for ethyl acetate varied between 10(-2)% and 10(-6)% v/v and for ethanol between 0.1% and 5 × 10(-6)% v/v. The results provide evidence that minipigs can successfully acquire 2-odorant discrimination using a food-rewarded instrumental conditioning paradigm for testing olfactory function. This olfactory discrimination paradigm provides reliable measures of olfactory sensitivity and thereby enables detection of changes in olfaction in a porcine model of Alzheimer's disease currently being developed.

In recent years, increasing interest in using the pig (Sus scrofa) for biomedical research has become evident. Today, the pig is considered an advantageous alternative animal model for various human diseases and conditions. However, even though a considerable amount of biomedical research has been done on pigs, hardly any studies include systematic welfare assessment. Still, it is essential to assess welfare of laboratory pigs, both domestic pig breeds and smaller purpose-bred breeds, as (1) scientific obligations entail responsibility to ensure and document a fair welfare standard for animals used for experimental purposes; and (2) the scientific outcome can be dependent upon the welfare state of the animals. In order to be able to quantify and control laboratory pig welfare, a practical tool is needed. The purpose of the present paper is to provide an overview of the current status of the extent of welfare assessment in pigs used in biomedical research and to suggest a welfare assessment standard for research facilities based on an exposition of ethological considerations relevant for the welfare of pigs in biomedical research. The tools for porcine welfare assessment presented suggest a method for monitoring the welfare status of individual laboratory pigs, intended to relieve the practical scoring of the welfare of individual pigs as well as the interpretation of the findings.

Manual observations either directly or by analysis of video recordings of dairy cow behaviour in loose housing systems are costly. Therefore progress could be made if reliable estimates of duration of walking and standing could be based on automatic recordings. In this study we developed algorithms for the detection of walking and standing in dairy cows based on the output from an electronic device quantifying acceleration in three dimensions.Ten cows were equipped with onemovementsensor on each hind leg. The cows were then walked one by one in the alleys of the barn and encouraged to stand and walk in sequences of approximately 20 s for the period of 10 min. Afterwards the cows were stimulated to move/lift the legs while standing in a cubicle. The behaviour was video recorded, and the recordings were analysed second by second for walking and standing behaviour as well as the number of steps taken.Various algorithms for predicting walking/standing status were compared. The algorithms were all based on a limit of a moving average calculated by using one of two outputs of the accelerometer, either a motion index or a step count, and applied over periods of 3 or 5 s. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of additionally applying the rule: a walkingperiod must last at least 5 s.The results indicate that the lowest misclassification rate (10%) of walking and standing was obtained based on the step count with a moving average of 3 s and with the rule applied. However, the rate of misclassification given walking and standing differed between algorithms, thus the choice of algorithm should relate to the specific question under consideration.In conclusion, the results suggest that the number of steps taken per time unit as well as the frequency and duration of walking and standing can be estimated with a reasonable accuracy. Manual observations either directly or by analysis of video recordings of dairy cow behaviour in loose housing systems are costly. Therefore progress could be made if reliable estimates of duration of walking and standing could be based on automatic recordings. In this study we developed algorithms for the detection of walking and standing in dairy cows based on the output from an electronic device quantifying acceleration in three dimensions. Ten cows were equipped with onemovementsensor on each hind leg. The cows were then walked one by one in the alleys of the barn and encouraged to stand and walk in sequences of approximately 20 s for the period of 10 min. Afterwards the cows were stimulated to move/lift the legs while standing in a cubicle. The behaviour was video recorded, and the recordings were analysed second by second for walking and standing behaviour as well as the number of steps taken. Various algorithms for predicting walking/standing status were compared. The algorithms were all based on a limit of a moving average calculated by using one of two outputs of the accelerometer, either a motion index or a step count, and applied over periods of 3 or 5 s. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of additionally applying the rule: a walking period must last at least 5 s. The results indicate that the lowest misclassification rate (10%) of walking and standing was obtained based on the step count with a moving average of 3 s and with the rule applied. However, the rate of misclassification given walking and standing differed between algorithms, thus the choice of algorithm should relate to the specific question under consideration. In conclusion, the results suggest that the number of steps taken per time unit as well as the frequency and duration of walking and standing can be estimated with a reasonable accuracy.

Udgivelsesdato: Maj 2010 Behavioral changes caused by variation in hunger have a great potential in health monitoring in dairy cattle. The present experiment used 48 Danish Holstein bull calves with a median age of 33 d. We examined the effect of different levels of hunger (reduced, in which calves were fed 1.5 L of milk via esophageal tube before feeding; increased, in which calves were fed half milk ration at the previous feeding, or control, in which calves were fed normal ration at the previous feeding) on feeding behavior of calves fed via different tube diameters (6.0, 3.0, or 1.5 mm). Behavior observed during a 40-min period after morning milk feeding on d 7, 9, and 11 of testing is reported. No significant interactions between tube diameter and hunger level on behavior were found. Reduced tube diameter led to increased latency to empty the teat bucket, increased duration of nutritive sucking, and decreased duration of nonnutritive sucking for calves fed via 1.5-mm tubes compared with calves in the 2 other treatments. The duration of nonnutritive sucking increased with increasing level of hunger. Furthermore, calves with reduced hunger showed a lower frequency of butting than calves at the 2 other hunger levels. The present results show that only a rather high reduction in tube diameter led to reduced drinking rate. Neither reduced nor increased hunger levels led to changes in drinking rate, but calves showed reduced nonnutritive sucking and butting when they were less hungry and increased nonnutritive sucking and butting when hunger was increased. The results suggest that nonnutritive sucking is a more sensitive indicator than drinking rate of changes in feeding motivation. Consequently, reduction in nonnutritive sucking might be a new candidate in the search for behavioral indicators of disease in dairy calves.