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This exploratory case study examined in depth the studying activities of eight students across two studying episodes, and compared traces of actual studying activities to self-reports of self-regulated learning. Students participated in a 2-hour activity using our gStudy software to complete a course assignment. We used log file data to construct profiles of self-regulated learning activity in four ways: (a) frequency of studying events, (b) patterns of studying activity, (c) timing and sequencing of events, and (d) content analyses of students’ notes and summaries. Findings indicate that students’ self-reports may not calibrate to actual studying activity. Analyses of log file traces of studying activities provide important information for defining strategies and sequences of fine-grained studying actions. We contrast these analytic methods and illustrate how trace-based profiles of students’ self-regulated studying inform models of metacognitive monitoring, evaluation, and self-regulated adaptation.

Automatic question generation from text has been used and adapted to online and self-directed learning platforms. We incorporate methods into the automatic question generation process that are designed to improve question quality by aligning them to the specified pedagogical goals and to a learner's model. This is achieved by extracting, ranking and filtering relevant sentences in the given learning document as well as the questions automatically generated by their semantic associations to the learner model and instructor goals. We propose evaluation techniques for assessing the quality of the questions generated using both human and automatic evaluation.

Links between students' achievement goal orientations and learning tactics were investigated using software (gStudy) that supports a variety of learning tactics and strategies. An achievement goal questionnaire was administered to 307 students enrolled in an introductory educational psychology course. Data tracing study tactics were logged for 80 of these students who prepared for a test by studying a textbook chapter presented as a multimedia document. Using correlations and canonical correlations, we found relationships between goal orientations and activity traces indicating different forms of cognitive engagement. Notably, mastery goal orientation (approach or avoidance) was negatively related to amount of highlighting, a study tactic that is theorized to be less effective than summarizing and other forms of elaborative annotation for assembling and integrating knowledge.

This meta-analysis reviews experimental and quasi-experimental studies in which students learned by constructing, modifying, or viewing node-link diagrams. Following an exhaustive search for studies meeting specified design criteria, 67 standardized mean difference effect sizes were extracted from 55 studies involving 5,818 participants. Students at levels ranging from Grade 4 to postsecondary used concept maps to learn in domains such as science, psychology, statistics, and nursing. Posttests measured recall and transfer. Across several instructional conditions, settings, and methodological features, the use of concept maps was associated with increased knowledge retention. Mean effect sizes varied from small to large depending on how concept maps were used and on the type of comparison treatment. Significant heterogeneity was found in most subsets.

While reviews abound on theoretical topics in educational psychology, it is rare that we examine our field's instrumentation development, and what effects this has on educational psychology's evolution. To repair this gap, this paper investigates and reveals the implications of software technologies for researching and theorizing about core issues in educational psychology. From a set of approximately 1,500 articles published between 1999 and 2004, we sampled illustrative studies and organized them into four broad themes: (a) innovative ways to operationalize variables, (b) the changing nature of instructional interventions, (c) new fields of research in educational psychology, and (d) new constructs to be examined. In each area, we identify novel uses of these technologies and suggest how they may advance, and, in some instances, reshape theory and methodology. Overall, we demonstrate that software technologies hold significant potential to elaborate research in the field.

Learning objects offer increased ability to share learning resources so that system-wide production costs can be reduced. But how can users select from a set of similar learning objects in a repository and be assured of quality? This article reviews recent developments in the establishment of learning object repositories and metadata standards, and presents a formative reliability analysis of an online, collaborative method for evaluating quality of learning objects. The method uses a 10-item Learning Object Review Instrument (LORI) within a Convergent Participation evaluation model that brings together instructional designers, media developers, and instructors. The inter-rater reliability analysis of 12 raters evaluating eight learning objects identified specific items in LORI that require further development. Overall, the collaborative process substantially increased the reliability and validity of aggregate learning object ratings. The study concludes with specific recommendations including changes to LORI items, a rater training process, and requirements for selecting an evaluation team.

Models of self-regulate d learning hypothesize that learners selectively match study tactics to varying tasks and diverse goals. In this study, relative to each of 3 contexts—reading for learning, completing a brief essay, and studying for an exam—students rated the frequency with which they applied 26 study tactics, used 20 textbook features and other resources, and adopted 30 goals for studying. Analyses revealed substantial context effects in these self-reports. Nine separate principal component analyses of ratings corresponding to cells in a 3 X 3 matrix of (a) tactics, resources, and goals by (b) contexts, identified considerable discrepancies in items' assignment to components, and heterogeneous loadings across contexts. These findings bolster the premise that students' reports of self-regulati ng studying behaviors are context specific. They also raise questions about using self-reports of self-regulate d learning that do not reflect context effects. Strategic learners have four characteristics. First, they critically assess tasks, such as studying a textbook chapter, to identify features that may influence how they engage with the task and the degree of success they will have. Second, on the basis of their assessment, strategic students define short-term goals and probably overall goals for studying. Third, they know alternative cognitive tactics that provide options about tactics to apply to studying. Finally, strategic students make judgments about which tactic(s) or pattern(s) of tactics has the greatest utility for achieving the goals they choose to pursue (Hadwin & Winne, 1996; Winne, 1995, 1997; Winne & Hadwin, 1998). Goals provide standards against which strategic students may monitor unfolding engagement with the task or the product(s) constructed as they engage with it. When strategic students monitor these events, they are self-regulating learning (SRL; Winne, 1995). SRL updates self-knowledge and perceptions about the task's changing states, thereby creating information that selfregulating learners can use to select, adapt, and even generate tactics (Butler & Winne, 1995; Hadwin & Winne, 1997; Winne & Hadwin, 1998). The element of intent to adapt cognitive engagement distinguishes SRL from "just using" tactics. An expert whose domain knowledge includes well-formed, automated tactics that

This chapter reviews research about the collaborative use of concept maps for learning. Although decades of research have produced some understanding of the cognitive effects of using concept maps in individual learning, theories about their effects in collaborative learning are less firmly established. The review incorporated a systematic literature search, analysis of dependent variables as effect sizes, and discussion of representative studies. Students who learned collaboratively by constructing concept maps outperformed those who learned from other activities such as studying texts, outlines, lists and lectures. However, no effect of studying pre-constructed concept maps in collaborative settings was statistically detected. There was homogeneity across the subsets of studies investigated. The review concludes with suggestions for future research in learning with concept maps in collaborative environments.

Educational psychology has generated a prolific array of findings about factors that influence and correlate with academic achievement. We review select findings from this voluminous literature and identify two domains of psychology: heuristics that describe generic relations between instructional designs and learning, which we call the psychology of “the way things are,” and findings about metacognition and self-regulated learning that demonstrate learners selectively apply and change their use of those heuristics, which we call the psychology of “the way learners make things.” Distinguishing these domains highlights a need to marry two approaches to research methodology: the classical approach, which we describe as snapshot, bookend, between-group experimentation; and a microgenetic approach that traces proximal cause-effect bonds over time to validate theoretical accounts of how learning generates achievements. We argue for fusing these methods to advance a validated psychology of academic achievement.

The Learning Object Review Instrument (LORI) is an evaluation framework designed to support collaborative critique of multimedia learning resources. In this chapter, the interactions among reviewers using LORI are framed as a form of collaborative argumentation. Research on collaborative evaluation of learning resources has found that reviewers’ quality ratings tend to converge as a result of their interactions. Also, novice instructional designers have reported that collaborative evaluation is valuable preparation for undertaking resource design projects. The authors reason that collaborative evaluation is effective as a professional development method to the degree that it sustains argumentation about the application of evidence-based design principles.

The power of Logo derives from the fact that, like Lisp, it is a functional programming language. But, unlike Lisp, Logo permits special syntactic features to make programs easier to read and write. From the point of view of the Logo interpreter these special features require separate treatment, which has tended to result in rather cumbersome implementations. However, the concepts of the procedure object and syntactic sugar can be used to greatly simplify the design of the interpreter. In this paper, it is shown how a procedure can be defined using a procedure object and how syntactic sugar forms a bridge between conventional Logo syntax and the new procedure definition. A mechanism for higher-order programming is also described, which provides a powerful means for the expression of algorithms.

Instructional systems that accept text responses entered by the learner must be capable of dealing with the inevitable occurrence of misspellings. A widely known procedure which finds the edit distance between two strings, and has been found effective in recognizing misspellings, can be easily extended to also annotate the response to give the learner feedback on the precise nature of the error. This paper considers the instructional value of text markup and shows how to extract markup information from the matrix normally generated in the calculation of edit distance. Included is a listing of a short Pascal program that illustrates the main concepts discussed.

The unceasing growth of the Internet has led to new modes of learning in which learners routinely interact on-line with instructors, other students, and digital resources. Much recent research has focused on building infrastructure for these activities, especially to facilitate searching, filtering, and recommending on-line resources known as learning objects. Although newly defined standards for learning object metadata are expected to greatly improve searching and filtering capabilities, learners, instructors, and instructional developers may still be faced with choosing from many pages of object listings returned from a single learning object query. The listed objects tend to vary widely in quality. With current metadata and search methods, those who search for learning objects waste time and effort groping through overwhelming masses of information, often finding only poorly designed and developed instructional materials. Hence, there is a clear need for quality evaluations prior to making a recommendation that can be communicated in a coherent, standardized format to measure the quality of learning objects.

Working from the premise that students need advanced self-regulated learning (SRL) skills to succeed in e-learning environments, this chapter describes the use of a software application (gStudy) designed to help students take control of their learning and become better self-regulated learners. To address the challenges educators face in developing students’ metacognitive monitoring and self-regulatory skills, gStudy’s cognitive tools were designed in accordance with current SRL theory. Undergraduate students who used gStudy in an educational psychology course commented that they appreciated gStudy’s features, interface, and ability to positively influence their approach to learning. The authors conclude that SRLfostering software applications such as gStudy may be key strategic elements in institutional transitions to e-learning. 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200, Hershey PA 17033, USA Tel: 717/533-8845; Fax 717/533-8661; URL-http://www.idea-group.com ITB13416 INFORMATION SCIENCE PUBLISHING This chapter appears in the book, Making the Transition to E-Learning: Strategies and Issues edited by Mark Bullen and Diane Janes © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Cognitive Tools for Self-Regulated E-Learning 301 Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. Cognitive Tools for Self-Regulated E-Learning Greater access to information and a growing need for lifelong learning have increased the importance of self-regulated learning (SRL) research for postsecondary education (Narciss & Korndle, 1998). More than ever before, students are learning outside regular classrooms, often in online learning environments that require different skills from those needed in on-campus lectures. With virtually unlimited access to information, students must take more active roles in evaluating the quality and relevance of the information available to them and in assessing their understanding of that information (Nesbit & Winne, 2003). This transition brings with it a definite shift in the roles of teachers and of students. While teachers will still be responsible for establishing clear goals and objectives and for guiding students with feedback, there will be greater onus on students to assess whether the strategies and tactics they choose really will help them to meet their educational goals. Although the need for individuals to take responsibility for their learning is growing, students often fail in monitoring whether they are meeting course requirements or advancing toward their goals (Schunk & Ertmer, 2000; Winne & Hadwin, 1998; Zimmerman, 2002). Cognitive toolsets that help students to become better at monitoring and adapting their learning strategies offer a potential solution to this increased need for SRL in formal coursework and in lifelong learning (Brown, Hedberg, & Harper, 1994). Institutions that can seize this opportunity to produce graduates with strong SRL skills will be recognized as having successfully met the changing demands of education. Accordingly, this chapter focuses on a software application designed to help students take control of their learning and become better self-regulators. After providing a brief account of SRL theory, we introduce gStudy, a set of cognitive tools developed at Simon Fraser University to support SRL. Throughout, we look at gStudy both as a practical tool that educators can use in their courses to help students and as a research tool that researchers can use to learn more about the theories underlying SRL and their applications. We conclude by evaluating the significance of cognitive tools for SRL and applications such as gStudy in the context of institutional transitions to e-learning. Theoretical Background Self-regulation of learning includes analyzing learning tasks; setting goals; identifying and choosing appropriate strategies for achieving the goals; enacting 16 more pages are available in the full version of this document, which may be purchased using the "Add to Cart" button on the publisher's webpage: www.igi-global.com/chapter/cognitive-tools-self-regulatedlearning/25627

Effects of self-regulated learning (SRL) have been investigated in a variety of contexts. In this research, we explore advanced learning technologies based on the information processing model of SRL in the context of structured programming. We conducted an experiment to study ways to enhance the use of programmers' working memory, to develop tactics to carry out task level activities during programming, and to learn how to program more effectively. The results of the experiment indicate that programmers who received SRL-based treatment outperformed programmers who did not receive the treatment. We argue that the infusion of SRL-based technological interfaces would have a positive influence on the performances in programming.

This study examined the perceived effectiveness of a collaborative evaluation process for teaching qualitative aspects of learning object design in a distance education course at Athabasca University in Alberta, Canada. Working in groups of four, 24 distance students in a graduate level instructional design course participated in two 2-hour audio conferences, using a convergent participation model for the evaluation of learning objects. After the first conference, which featured study and application of the nine criteria of the Learning Object Review Instrument (LORI), the participants independently rated a set of learning objects. In the second audio conference they reconvened to compare and discuss their ratings. Six to nine months later the participants reported favorable outcomes from the experience in their understanding of learning objects, and confidence in determining learning object quality. In judging the impact on their subsequent design efforts, the most frequent comments indicated that the convergent participation experience provided both an appreciation of the complexity of learning object design and a method for judging their quality.; Cette étude porte sur la perception de l'efficacité d'une méthode d'évaluation collaborative d'objets d'apprentissage pour enseigner des critères de qualité de ces objets dans le contexte d'un cours à distance à l'Université Athabasca en Alberta, Canada. Vingt-quatre étudiants ont participé, en équipes de quatre, à deux conférences téléphoniques, au cours desquelles ils ont appliqué un modèle de participation convergente. À la suite d'une première conférence portant sur les neuf critères de l'instrument utilisé pour l'évaluation des objets d'apprentissage (LORI), chaque participant a effectué une évaluation individuelle d'une sélection d'objets. Lors d'une deuxième conférence, ils ont partagé leurs évaluations et commentaires. Six à neuf mois plus tard, les participants ont répondu à un questionnaire visant à évaluer notamment leur compréhension des objets d'apprentissage et leur habileté à les évaluer. Les perceptions des étudiants à cet égard s'avèrent positives. Les répondants ont également noté un impact appréciable de cette expérience sur leur pratique professionnelle. Leurs commentaires indiquent que cette expérience leur a permis de mieux apprécier la complexité du processus de conception des objets d'apprentissage et les a outillés d'une méthode adéquate pour en évaluer leur qualité.

A Gagne-style learning hierarchy often permits a large number of alternate linear arrangements (sequences) of instructional objectives. An alternative is described here to traditional methods of choosing between sequences. Its premise is that, for every sequence, a value temed thememory load can be calculated which is theoretically related to the probability that students will fail to recall prerequisite objectives. A graph theoretic approach is taken in presenting an algorithm which generates a minimal memory load sequence from a learning tree, a restricted but frequently encountered type of learning hierarchy. In order to assess the effectiveness of the algorithm in generating low memory load sequences when given hierarchies which are not trees, it was applied to several published examples of learning hierarchies. The results indicated that the algorithm is effective as an heuristic, especially when combined with a hill-descending procedure which attempts to incrementally improve the generated sequence.

In the 1st of 2 experiments on spatial ability, groups of sighted and blind, light-reared (LR) and dark-reared (DR) rats were tested on a series of (Hebb-Williams) maze problems and their reversals under appetitive and aversive reinforcement conditions. Significant effects due to early rearing conditions, vision at time of testing, and problem were found. Dark-reared rats learned the problems whose solution depended on nonvisual cues more slowly than LR animals. Blindness at time of testing had a significantly adverse effect on the performance of LR and DR rats on all problems, but a significantly greater effect in the DR animals. In a 2nd experiment DR rats were also found to perform less effectively than LR rats on a 17-arm radial maze throughout a 36-day period during which variations in the task were introduced. The results reveal the impact of early visual experience on the development of the ability to acquire spatial concepts.

In the context of continued growth in the accessibility of information through the internet, recent advances in theories of self-regulated learning present an opportunity to reexamine how learners work with networked resources in constructivist approaches such as problem-based learning, project-based learning, and collaborative problem solving. We present a Resource Inquiry model consisting of five stages: (1) Set resource inquiry goals, (2) Plan for resource study, (3) Search and select resources, (4) Study and assess new knowledge, and (5) Critique and recommend resources. Our model informs designers of online tools about how to support learners' cognitive and metacognitive strategies when learning activities involve interacting with networked resources.

In 2 experiments the performance of 90- and 150-day-old light-reared and dark-reared rats was compared under appetitive reinforcement conditions on rigorous tests of form discriminative abilities. Although early stimulatory history had little impact on either the ability to discriminate shapes on the basis of contour orientation or to generalize from that initial experience to lines in other orientations lack of visual experience did have significant consequences with respect to a comparable task in which the relationship between lines was the significant feature. Little change in the initial deficits was observed with exposure to a normal light environment for 60 days following the period of early visual deprivation in the case of this 2nd complex pattern discrimination task.

Instructional designers can use evidence-based theories of motivation and self-regulated learning to construct e-learning environments that promote goal-setting and achievement. We have used gStudy, educational software designed according to principles of self-regulated learning, to construct a Goal-Setting Kit. The Goal-Setting Kit incorporates tests, scaffolds, concept maps, and exercises that allow students to express, organize, and monitor their strategies for achieving personal and instructional goals