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RESUMEN: En los últimos años, la evidencia arqueológica ha comenzado a mostrar la presencia de caminos prehispánicos que articula ban el altiplano, los valles, los yungas situados en la cordillera oriental de los Andes (“montaña”) y la Amazonía. Muchos de estos caminos fueron inhabilitados durante el Período Colonial temprano generándose la idea de que este bloque cordillerano fue una suerte de escollo que dividía las tierras altas de las tierras bajas (la Amazonía). El artículo aborda el ingreso de Francisco de Hinojosa hacia la llamada “montaña de los Moxos” y su fracaso por llegar a los llanos de Moxos. Asimismo, pone en evidencia que el cierre de estos antiguos caminos fue una decisión consciente de las sociedades de los yungas, posiblemente en un intento de cortar sus vínculos con la sociedad colonial.

La investigació que aquí presentem és el resultat d’un estudi sobre la gestió de l’aigua al municipi de Cochabamba (Bolívia), a 19 anys de la Guerra de l’Aigua. En concret, s’hi analitza si tal moviment social va servir per revifar la idea de gestionar l’aigua sota els principis del bé comú, a la vegada que s’explica com ha anat evolucionant tal gestió i es mencionen els reptes actuals. Els resultats apunten a un ressorgiment de la idea d’aigua gestionada com a bé comú durant la Guerra de l’Aigua però que es va perdent a mesura que avança el temps, arribant a desaparèixer quasi completament en les premisses de la gestió actual. La raó primordial per la qual es dilueix rau a la pèrdua d’influència dels moviments socials i la societat civil front els òrgans de presa de decisions formals., The following research is the result of a study on water management in the municipality of Cochabamba (Bolivia) 19 years after the Water War. In particular, the research analyses whether such a social movement served to revive the idea of managing water under the principles of the commons, while at the same time explaining how this management has evolved and, specifically, what the current challenges are. The results indicate a resurgence of the idea of water managed as a common good during the Water War, which has been lost over time, disappearing completely at the present. The main reason for these results could be a loss of influence of social movements and civil society in the face of formal decision-making institutions., La siguiente investigación es el resultado de un estudio sobre la gestión del agua en el municipio de Cochabamba (Bolivia), a 19 años de la Guerra del Agua. En concreto, se analiza si tal movimiento social sirvió para reavivar la idea de gestionar el agua bajo los principios de bien común, a la vez que se expone cómo ha ido evolucionando esta gestión y cuáles son los retos actuales. Los resultados apuntan a un resurgimiento de la idea de agua gestionada como bien común durante la Guerra del Agua, la cual se va perdiendo con el tiempo hasta llegar a desaparecer por completo en el momento actual. En gran medida, la razón por la que se diluye resulta de una pérdida de influencia por parte de los movimientos sociales y sociedad civil frente a los órganos de toma de decisión formales.

Based on a herbarium specimen collected in the Tunari National Park, Bolivia, a new species of Apocynaceae is described here. The new taxon is attributed to Philibertia Kunth by molecular genetic analysis. Philibertia navarroana H. A. Keller, Liede & Balderrama is distinguished from other related species by the shape of its pollinia and the corona lobes. The specimen is illustrated by pictures and drawings Sobre la base de un ejemplar de herbario recolectado en el Parque Nacional Tunari, Bolivia, se describe una nueva especie de Apocynaceae. El nuevo taxón pertenece a Philibertia Kunth según análisis de genética molecular. Philibertia navarroana H. A. Keller, Liede & Balderrama se distingue de otras especies relacionadas por la forma de las polinias y de los lóbulos de la corona. El ejemplar es ilustrado mediante fotos y dibujos. Fil: Keller, Hector Alejandro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste. Universidad Nacional del Nordeste. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias. Instituto de Botánica del Nordeste; Argentina Fil: Balderrama Torrico, José A.. Centro de Biodiversidad y Genética; Bolivia Fil: Liede Schumann, Sigrid. University of Bayreuth; Alemania Fil: Porcel, María H.. Centro de Biodiversidad y Genética; Bolivia

During the Water War in 2000, residents of Cochabamba, Bolivia, famously mobilized against water privatization and gained back public control of the city&rsquo, s water utility. Nearly two decades later, the water movement&rsquo, s vision of democratic water provision under the participatory management of &lsquo, social control&rsquo, remains largely unfulfilled. This paper points to the difficulties in rebuilding a strong public water service in Cochabamba, focusing on the different&mdash, and often incompatible&mdash, understandings and interpretations of public participation. Addressing the concept&rsquo, s malleability to a spectrum of ideologies, this paper builds a typology of different kinds of participation according to their intentionality, outcomes, tools, and practices. Applying this framework to the water politics in Bolivia serves to untangle competing perspectives of participation, uncover whose interests are served, and which groups are included or excluded from access to water and decision-making. This analysis reveals how transformative participation has failed to take hold within the municipal service provider in Cochabamba.

Il s’agit du récit d’un échec, celui de l’approbation du Plan Municipal de Ordenación del territorio (PMOT), d’autant plus cuisant que l’adéquation inédite entre le projet d’aménagement du territoire mené par la municipalité de Cochabamba (province de Cercado-Bolivie) et la construction d’un nouveau modèle du vivre ensemble dans un environnement plurinational (Nouvelle Constitution Politique de l’Etat- NPCE) portaient à croire que ce serait une réussite. Quelles sont les raisons de cet échec ? Le volet politique (idéologique) a-t-il prévalu au détriment du volet sociétal ? Bref, peut-on « Faire ville » et « Faire société » dans un pays où la prégnance des villes et des régions a très souvent orienté la politique nationale ? Se trata del relato de un fracaso, el de la aprobación del Plan de Ordenación del Territorio (PMOT), tanto más doloroso que la adecuación entre el proyecto de ordenación municipal de Cochabamba (provincia de Cercado-Bolivia) llevado por la municipalidad y la construcción de un nuevo modelo para vivir juntos en un entorno plurinacional (Nueva Constitución Política del Estado – NCPE) presagiaban un éxito. ¿Cúales son las razones de este fracaso? ¿Lo político (ideológico) prevaleció en detrimento de lo societal? ¿Es factible “Hacer ciudad” y “Hacer sociedad” en un país donde la fuerza de las ciudades y de las regiones ha orientado con frecuencia la política nacional?

RESUMEN Ante la limitada capacidad del sector público en Bolivia para dotar de servicios básicos e infraestructuras al interior del área metropolitana de Cochabamba, decenas de organizaciones vecinales desarrollan prácticas y estrategias dirigidas a la autogestión de diferentes servicios, entre ellos el agua para consumo humano. Estas estrategias alrededor de la autogestión del servicio de agua son desarrolladas por una serie de operadores locales de pequeña escala, pequeñas organizaciones barriales cuyo fin principal es garantizar el acceso a servicios de agua mediante la administración de pequeños sistemas y redes de servicio de agua. Su acción permite el equitativo y permanente acceso al recurso; sin embargo, sus estrategias devienen en escenarios de fragmentación urbana donde cunden fuertes procesos de dislocación social, con pérdida de solidaridad entre vecinos y la división de la ciudad en centenares de fragmentos. ABSTRACT Given the limited capacity of the public sector in Bolivia to provide basic services and infrastructure, within the metropolitan area of Cochabamba, multiple neighborhood organizations have developed practices and strategies aimed at self-management of different services, including water supply for human consumption. Strategies around self-management of the water service are developed by a series of small-scale local operators, small neighborhood organizations whose main purpose is to guarantee access to water services through the administration of local water systems and networks. Their actions allow equitable and permanent access to water, however, these strategies evolve in urban fragmentation where strong processes of social dislocation, loss of solidarity between neighbors and the division of the city into hundreds of fragments take place. RESUMO Ante a limitada capacidade do setor público na Bolívia para dotar de serviços básicos e infraestruturas, ao interior da área metropolitana de Cochabamba dezenas de organizações vizinhais desenvolvem práticas e estratégias dirigidas à autogestão de diferentes serviços, entre eles a água para o consumo humano. Estratégias ao redor da autogestão do serviço de água são desenvolvidos por uma série de operadores locais de pequena escala, pequenas organizações de bairro cujo fim principal é garantir o acesso a serviços de água através de administrar pequenos sistemas e redes de serviço de água. Sua ação permite o equitativo e permanente acesso ao recurso, no entanto, suas estratégias devem em cenários de fragmentação urbana onde espalham-se fortes processos de deslocação social, com perda de solidariedade entre vizinhos e a divisão da cidade em centenas de fragmentos.

Por décadas na cidade de Cochabamba na Bolívia a população por conta do posicionamento geográfico já propício para escassez de água sofria por conta de uma má distribuição de água deixando as pessoas já acostumadas em buscar soluções autonomamente, como irrigações comunitárias para melhorar a escassez. Em 2000 a população lutou e venceu a privatização da empresa que era responsável pelo abastecimento de água, a SEMAPA, o governo de Cochabamba aprovou lei que determinava a exploração da água sendo um direito privado. Com muita luta sangrenta e manifestações a população rural e da cidade com apoio e liderança da Coordenadora de Águas de Cochabamba, conseguiram revigorar essa nova lei, um fato nunca antes acontecido nos países da América Latina

Cochabamba city, also referred to as the “gastronomic capital of Bolivia”, is a place where different cultures and tastes meet. Indulging in rich culinary traditions is a part of everyday life, but so are social differentiations reproducing long-standing inequalities between the indigenous and the non-indigenous population. In this thesis, the practices and politics surrounding food are used as a lens on social inequalities in Cochabamba city and Bolivia in general. The thesis consists of an introduction and three articles. Conceptualizing food as having symbolic as well as material aspects, I investigate food from production to consumption, bringing out the inequalities inherent in the food system. A particular focus is linking social inequalities with their biophysical (i.e. corporeal and ecological) implications. The research follows a critical realist approach, looking into mechanisms and structures underlying the surface experiences of everyday life. The analysis of the production end focuses on one product, industrially produced chicken meat. The production and consumption of poultry have been soaring in Bolivia. Factory-farmed chicken has replaced subsistence and small-scale chicken rearing. The economic accessibility of chicken meat, but also the seductive nature of Western food practices, have made chicken a popular fast food. I show that these developments have ecological consequences as well as impacts on human health. My research also reveals that it is mostly the well-established Bolivian elites that have benefitted from the popularity of chicken meat. The more symbolic aspects of food are revealed in my analysis of the “distinctions” expressed in the food habits of the privileged middle class of Cochabamba city. While indulging in traditional Cochabamba meals, the privileged often feel the need to distinguish themselves from the urban population characterized as “indigenous”. In high-end restaurants and supermarkets, traditions are “sanitized”, symbolically cleared from any contact with indigenous producers and food vendors. The notion that markets and market women need to be “controlled” by the local authorities prevails, without any improvements in actual working conditions. Both the introduction of chicken meat as a cheap protein source as well as the more “distinguished” food practices of the privileged population of Cochabamba are expressions of what I call the coloniality of taste. Through judgments of “good” and “bad” taste, people in Cochabamba and elsewhere contribute to keeping up patterns of exploitation with deep colonial roots. The success of chicken meat provides benefits for the elites while reproducing the position of the less privileged as providers of cheap labor and recipients of charity. The taste of the more privileged population reproduces the symbolic and material exclusion and exploitation of the population conceptualized as “indigenous”. I propose that a critical re-appreciation of the food practices of Cochabamba city may provide a way to address and go beyond social divisions.

Ante la limitada capacidad del sector público en Bolivia para dotar de servicios básicos e infraestructuras al interior del área metropolitana de Cochabamba, decenas de organizaciones vecinales desarrollan prácticas y estrategias dirigidas a la autogestión de diferentes servicios, entre ellos el agua para consumo humano. estas estrategias alrededor de la autogestión del servicio de agua son desarrolladas por una serie de operadores locales de pequeña escala, pequeñas organizaciones barriales cuyo fin principal es garantizar el acceso a servicios de agua mediante la administración de pequeños sistemas y redes de servicio de agua. Su acción permite el equitativo y permanente acceso al recurso; sin embargo, sus estrategias devienen en escenarios de fragmentación urbana donde cunden fuertes procesos de dislocación social, con pérdida de solidaridad entre vecinos y la división de la ciudad en centenares de fragmentos. Given the limited capacity of the public sector in Bolivia to provide basic services and infrastructure, within the metropolitan area of Cochabamba, multiple neighborhood organizations have developed practices and strategies aimed at self-management of different services, including water supply for human consumption. Strategies around self-management of the water service are developed by a series of small-scale local operators, small neighborhood organizations whose main purpose is to guarantee access to water services through the administration of local water systems and networks. Their actions allow equitable and permanent access to water, however, these strategies evolve in urban fragmentation where strong processes of social dislocation, loss of solidarity between neighbors and the division of the city into hundreds of fragments take place.

The Cochabamba Water War (2000) is well renowned for being a part of the civil society versus water service delivery debate. From a situation of service privatization, limited access, and an inexistent institutional framework in 2000, the current situation in the Cochabamba Valley faces increasing water scarcity within a weak institutional set up. To alleviate the situation, the government of Evo Morales has been actively funding projects considering an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) but confronting customary water rights in rural communities and thus increasing the level of conflict between water uses. Amid these two water management practices appears the Agenda del Agua Cochabamba (AdA)—the Cochabamba Water Agenda—claiming water as part of the commons and not a resource. This paper explains the paradigm’s values behind the conflicting IWRM and water rights’ water management practices and analyses the AdA under a governability framework identifying the barriers and drivers for its implementation.

This thesis explores the diverse consequences of transnational labour migration on individual migrants and their household members within out-migration communities in the agricultural valleys of Cochabamba, Bolivia. Using a multiple methods approach and the livelihoods framework, the aim of this work is to shed light on different experiences of migration in terms of objective wellbeing, subjective wellbeing, and changed practices in agricultural production. These issues are addressed in three papers. Paper I investigates international migrants’ remittance behaviours through a regression analysis of a survey data set including household-level variables from the migrants’ place of origin, as well as their individual-level variables in their destination countries. The results highlight the role of remittances as a means to strengthen financial, physical, and human capital in low-income households and to promote local development and objective wellbeing in the outskirts of the city of Cochabamba. Paper II explores ethnographic accounts of challenging migration conditions in order to develop the understanding of social networks. The study shows how family networks may function as negative social capital for individual migrants. The study findings emphasise the need to acknowledge migration as a dynamic process, with elements of both ’success’ and ’failure’, which can increase subjective wellbeing of the migrants and migrant households as well as counteract unrealistic expectations of migration. Paper III examines the impact of transnational labour migration on agriculture in two urbanizing communities in Cochabamba by applying several qualitative methods. The results show that major investments in agricultural intensification by migrant households are not attractive due to the communities’ proximity to urban areas. This article highlights the need for nuanced conceptualization when studying migration-driven agricultural change in hybrid peri-urban spaces. Overall, this thesis highlights the importance of considering and assessing the various capabilities and assets of migrants and their households, according to the livelihoods framework, when studying the consequences of transnational labour migration in socio-economically marginal settings. Furthermore, this thesis reveals that individual migrants’ agency may be limited when migration becomes an integral part of household livelihood strategies, which may hamper migrants’ subjective wellbeing as their household members are more focused on the economic returns of migration. Finally, this thesis emphasises how transnational labour migration and remittances function to maintain agricultural landesque-capital landscapes in peri-urbanising spaces near growing cities.

El Cine dentro del Cine es un interesante género transversal que nos permite conocer desde dentro muchos aspectos sobre los profesionales y sus labores, sobre el propio proceso de creación o incluso las consecuencias e influencias sobre quienes se relacionan con él. También la lluvia (Icíar Bollaín, 2010) cumple los requisitos para pertenecer a este género y añade también un retrato de dos momentos históricos lejanos entre sí, pero con claras confluencias sobre la injusticia, convirtiéndose en un documento crítico riquísimo que permite reflexionar a la vez sobre el pasado, el presente y la creación cinematográfica. The films about filmmaking make up an interesting and transverse cinema genre that allows us to know from the inside many aspects on the cinema professionals and their work, on the creation process itself or even on the consequences and influences on people related to it. También la lluvia (Icíar Bollaín, 2010) fulfils the requirements to belong to this genre and also adds a portrait of two historical moments distant between them, but with clear confluences on injustice, turning into a very rich and critical document that lets us think simultaneously about the past, the present and the cinematographic creation. 163-179 mdavilashadowplay@hotmail.com Semestral

Submitted by Rodrigo Baeta (rodrigobaeta@yahoo.com.br) on 2016-12-22T00:55:56Z No. of bitstreams: 1 08. Trabalho Final. Alicia Gabriela Candia Barrientos.pdf: 77100839 bytes, checksum: 1d75a46d35238b4d8efe49e4990beb49 (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-22T00:55:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 08. Trabalho Final. Alicia Gabriela Candia Barrientos.pdf: 77100839 bytes, checksum: 1d75a46d35238b4d8efe49e4990beb49 (MD5) Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional (IPHAN); Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado da Bahia (FAPESB) El siguiente trabajo tiene como objetivo desarrollar y elaborar un proyecto arquitectónico, buscando la mejor solución para su restauración, para el conjunto arquitectónico del Convento Santa Teresa de Carmelitas Descalzas, edificio que comenzó su construcción en el año 1760, y que actualmente se encuentra dentro los límites del área de protección del Centro Histórico de la Ciudad de Cochabamba. Se trata de un edificio con grandes características históricas, artísticas y sobre todo arquitectónicas, lo que después de un gran período de abandono finalmente el año 2012 fue declarado monumento nacional. Para tener una mejor comprensión y subsidios suficientes para la elaboración de un proyecto de restauro coherente; se realizaron profundas investigaciones históricas tanto del edificio como de las condicionantes externas. El trabajo de relevamiento catastral está basado en un estudio elaborado por la Fundación Imagen, quien nos cedió gentilmente sus planos catastrales sobre los cuales realizamos un trabajo de verificación de datos. El diagnostico fue elaborado en base a los planos catastrales y sobre todo las visita de inspección realizada en junio el año 2014, esta visita técnica nos ayudo a identificar aquellas patologías que el edificio presenta. Finalmente la propuesta para el proyecto de restaura no hubiera podido ser realizado sin la conclusión de las etapas previas. Este proyecto busca a la vez de subsanar las patologías detectadas en el diagnostico, con la aplicación de técnicas contemporáneas compatibles con las existentes en el edificio. Pero creemos que la mayor contribución de este trabajo radica en la posibilidad de experimentar con la inserción de edificios contemporáneos con la finalidad de buscar la recuperación de una unidad fragmentada. Buscar el tan ansiado diálogo de lo nuevo con lo antiguo. Para esto se propuso un nuevo programa arquitectónico que a la vez que restaurara el edificio le diera un nuevo uso, generándose así la “Escuela Superior de Artes Santa Teresa”.

Submitted by Rodrigo Baeta (rodrigobaeta@yahoo.com.br) on 2016-12-22T00:55:56Z No. of bitstreams: 1 08. Trabalho Final. Alicia Gabriela Candia Barrientos.pdf: 77100839 bytes, checksum: 1d75a46d35238b4d8efe49e4990beb49 (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-22T00:55:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 08. Trabalho Final. Alicia Gabriela Candia Barrientos.pdf: 77100839 bytes, checksum: 1d75a46d35238b4d8efe49e4990beb49 (MD5) Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional (IPHAN); Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado da Bahia (FAPESB) El siguiente trabajo tiene como objetivo desarrollar y elaborar un proyecto arquitectónico, buscando la mejor solución para su restauración, para el conjunto arquitectónico del Convento Santa Teresa de Carmelitas Descalzas, edificio que comenzó su construcción en el año 1760, y que actualmente se encuentra dentro los límites del área de protección del Centro Histórico de la Ciudad de Cochabamba. Se trata de un edificio con grandes características históricas, artísticas y sobre todo arquitectónicas, lo que después de un gran período de abandono finalmente el año 2012 fue declarado monumento nacional. Para tener una mejor comprensión y subsidios suficientes para la elaboración de un proyecto de restauro coherente; se realizaron profundas investigaciones históricas tanto del edificio como de las condicionantes externas. El trabajo de relevamiento catastral está basado en un estudio elaborado por la Fundación Imagen, quien nos cedió gentilmente sus planos catastrales sobre los cuales realizamos un trabajo de verificación de datos. El diagnostico fue elaborado en base a los planos catastrales y sobre todo las visita de inspección realizada en junio el año 2014, esta visita técnica nos ayudo a identificar aquellas patologías que el edificio presenta. Finalmente la propuesta para el proyecto de restaura no hubiera podido ser realizado sin la conclusión de las etapas previas. Este proyecto busca a la vez de subsanar las patologías detectadas en el diagnostico, con la aplicación de técnicas contemporáneas compatibles con las existentes en el edificio. Pero creemos que la mayor contribución de este trabajo radica en la posibilidad de experimentar con la inserción de edificios contemporáneos con la finalidad de buscar la recuperación de una unidad fragmentada. Buscar el tan ansiado diálogo de lo nuevo con lo antiguo. Para esto se propuso un nuevo programa arquitectónico que a la vez que restaurara el edificio le diera un nuevo uso, generándose así la “Escuela Superior de Artes Santa Teresa”.

Don Casiano Amurrio no se cansa de reflexionar sobre cómo las familias de la región empezaron a entender el mundo. “Nada es para siempre. Ya aprendimos que los EEUU se pueden caer como se cayó la Argentina, aunque no creíamos. Los que han sabido querer al campo saben que para ser viejo no hay mejor lugar que éste” (2/8/ 05). En este sentido, algunas familias migrantes se preparan para enfrentar la última etapa de su ciclo de vida sobre la base de inversiones en su tierra. Así como algunas esp...

El autor, en cuya formación se hallan presentes la sociología y la comunicación, además de un agregado literario que se cristaliza en sus relatos y escenas narrativas, propone en el transcurrir de sus textos un acercamiento profundo a las dinámicas migratorias transnacionales que se dan entre las comunidades de la Tercera Sección de la provincia Esteban Arze y la localidad de Arlington en los Estados Unidos de Norte América. De hecho, el tema de estudio de este libro lo sitúa ya como un referente ineludible (sino el primero editado) en el tratamiento de estos flujos poblacionales de cochabambinos hacia los EEUU. Alfonso Hinojosa

1. VIDA FAMILIAR Y POBREZA Una comparación entre los datos de los censos de población y vivienda de 1992 y 2001 ilustraría, a primera vista, un proceso significativo de mejoramiento en la calidad de vida de las familias de la Tercera Sección de la Provincia Esteban Arze durante la década de los noventa. Según los datos actualizados por la Unidad de Análisis de Políticas Económicas (UDAPE), en el indicador “porcentaje de pobres”, la Tercera Sección de la provincia Esteban Arze bajó de 87% en 1...

1. EL VALLE QUE ESPERA A SUS HÉROES “Visión deportiva”, uno de los programas de más audiencia entre la colectividad boliviana en Virginia, cerraba su emisión semanal con una entrevista a un anónimo compatriota integrante del equipo “The Strongest”, flamante campeón de fútbol de salón en la categoría veteranos. El entrevistado empezó a responder las preguntas de rigor y tardó poco en llevar la charla mucho más allá del plano deportivo. Emocionado, dijo que para alguien que está fuera de casa, ...

BackgroundThe hypothesis that fibre width is a major determinant of mesothelioma induction has been examined by comparative studies of two crocidolites from different sources. Fine fibres fromCapesouthAfricaand the thicker fibre found and used similarly inBolivia. It is well established that ‘thin’ fibre crocidolite fromCapeSouth Africais extremely mesotheliomagenic. Bolivian crocidolite has a much wider width distribution and relatively little mesothelioma inducing potential. MethodsWe analysed the mesothelioma demography inBoliviawhere local crocidolite has been used for decades This was compared with the mesothelioma demography in theItalianCityof Casale Monteferrato whereCapecrocidolite was processed for many decades in the Eternit Asbestos Cement plant producing numerous cases of mesothelioma.We also conducted a limited downwind study from the fiberizing part of the historical operating plant where products containing Bolivian crocidolite were made for sale and use inCochabamba. ResultsThe demographic study confirmed the absence of a significant mesothelioma excess inBolivia.Despite the extremely high fibre concentrations measured in the plant, no significant fibre levels were detected 100 meters away. Conclusion These preliminary findings undermine claims such as those made at Casale that crocidolite fibre can drift up to 15 km and remain airborne in quantities sufficient to contribute significantly to mesothelioma induction. We propose the difference in thickness and the attendant reduction in the percentage ofStantonfibres provides an explanation for the difference in mesothelioma patterns found in each city.

La presente investigación tiene como objetivo determinar la calidad de vida de una población a partir su tipo de acceso al agua potable, especialmente en las zonas donde no existe cobertura de la red pública. Para ello se diseña un Índice de Calidad de Vida Urbana (ICVU) en el que el acceso al agua potable es un factor determinante. Esta herramienta da respuesta a los estudios internacionales que demuestran que el agua es un factor esencial en la calidad de vida de una sociedad y por tanto no debe considerarse tan sólo como una variable más dentro de la dimensión del hábitat (como hasta el momento se ha considerado en los métodos existentes para el cálculo de la calidad de vida). Por otro lado, el estudio del caso se ha realizado en el área sin cobertura de agua potable de la ciudad de Cochabamba (Bolivia). Por lo que, además del objetivo principal mencionado, ha contribuido a dar solución al problema de la carencia de información de la zona. La obtención de estos datos actualizados y representativos es de gran importancia ya que permite hacer un diagnóstico adecuado de la zona más vulnerable de la ciudad y por tanto será de gran utilidad a la hora de proyectar futuras intervenciones, especialmente en aquellas relacionadas con la mejora del acceso al agua y la calidad de vida de los habitantes.

En la agenda pública de la sociedad cochabambina en 2015 se encuentran instalados un conjunto diverso de temáticas y problemáticas, que por transcurrir un periodo electoral son presentadas y/o expuestas a manera de propaganda por representantes políticos - oficialistas y opositores- para mostrar las cosas que se hicieron o las que no se pudieron hacerse durante los últimos años y de qué eventualmente deberían solucionarse. En este contexto, no obstante, existen eterminadas preocupaciones que son -de alguna manera compartidas con la sociedad civil cochabambina, donde destaca la referida a la marcada tendencia de enfriamiento de la economía departamental de Cochabamba respecto a otras economías departamentales, durante la última década; principalmente respecto a economías departamentales que incorporan ámbitos metropolitanos, tal cual ocurre con la economía del departamento de Cochabamba, respecto a las economías de los departamentos de La Paz y Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Sin embargo, debido a que el análisis de la producción en una economía genera sinergias si se lo analiza en forma combinada con la situación laboral -por actuar como indicador natural de la eficacia y eficiencia de las políticas económicas y sociales- es importante iniciar el presente análisis a partir de la constatación de que en el departamento de Cochabamba -y principalmente, en sus ámbitos urbanos- es recurrente durante los últimos años, la presencia de altas tasas de desempleo, pero sobre todo, la persistencia histórica de altos niveles de precariedad laboral, que verifican la existencia de evidentes problemas en el componente laboral de la producción, pero sobre todo la necesidad real de un abordaje conjunto de estas dos categorías analíticas, para efectos de integrarlas en una misma problemática y una eventual solución compartida.

International audience; A cross section of a human population (501 individuals) selected at random, and living in a Bolivian community, highly endemic for Chagas disease, was investigated combining together clinical, parasitological and molecular approaches. Conventional serology and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) indicated an active transmission of the infection, a high seroprevalence (43.3%) ranging from around 12% in < 5 years to 94.7% in > 45 years, and a high sensitivity (83.8%) and specificity of PCR. Abnormal ECG tracing was predominant in chagasic patients and was already present among individuals younger than 13 years. SAPA (shed acute phase antigen) recombinant protein and the synthetic peptide R-13 were used as antigens in ELISA tests. The reactivity of SAPA was strongly associated to Trypanosoma cruzi infection and independent of the age of the patients but was not suitable neither for universal serodiagnosis nor for discrimination of specific phases of Chagas infection. Anti-R-13 response was observed in 27.5% only in chagasic patients. Moreover, anti-R13 reactivity was associated with early infection and not to cardiac pathology. This result questioned previous studies, which considered the anti-R-13 response as a marker of chronic Chagas heart disease. The major clonets 20 and 39 (belonging to Trypanosoma cruzi I and T. cruzi II respectively) which circulate in equal proportions in vectors of the studied area, were identified in patients' blood by PCR. Clonet 39 was selected over clonet 20 in the circulation whatever the age of the patient. The only factor related to strain detected in patients' blood, was the anti-R-13 reactivity: 37% of the patients infected by clonet 39 (94 cases) had anti-R13 antibodies contrasting with only 6% of the patients without clonet 39 (16 cases).

This thesis is about the tensions faced by communitarian water service providers in peri-urban Cochabamba, Bolivia, in their continued dependence on private water vending businesses, despite efforts to socialize service delivery. Based on fieldwork conducted in Cochabamba from May-July, 2013, this thesis argues that due in part to a lack of government intervention and regulation, many communitarian water associations in Cochabamba are being held captive by private water vendors who exploit the city’s unequal distribution of water resources for profit. It makes this argument by exploring two main points: that communitarian water associations leverage progressive forms of organization to improve service delivery, but are hindered by barriers which lie outside their control; and that small-scale water businesses are able to exploit the failures of the formal state/public and informal communitarian systems by positioning themselves as a necessary operation, in a way which limits the state’s ability to regulate their activities.

En 1885 El Heraldo de Cochabamba publica un texto misterioso firmado por Juan de la Rosa: Memorias del último soldado de la independencia. Esta obra, una de las narraciones latinoamericanas más importantes del siglo XIX, provoca un curioso culto en Bolivia: todos la citan pero pocos la leen. Como todo culto, éste supone dogmas y prejuicios que obscurecen su interpretación. Señalo el más enigmático: nadie duda de que su autor es Nataniel Aguirre. Los anónimos editores de la segunda edición (1909), muerto Aguirre (1888), le atribuyeron su autoría e incorporaron “Juan de la Rosa” al título original. A partir de ahí Memorias se transforma en Juan de la Rosa. Memorias del último soldado de la independencia, la mítica “novela” de Nataniel Aguirre. Este nuevo libro fue el texto–base para ediciones posteriores que repiten sus añadiduras, erratas y omisiones. Mi ensayo postula una producción híbrida y conjunta. Los manuscritos de un genial autor anónimo —J. de la R. (el prólogo está firmado así)— son editados y publicados en El Heraldo por Nataniel Aguirre, un destacado letrado de la época que respeta el nombre (o seudónimo) del autor. In 1885, El Heraldo of Cochabamba published a misterious text signed by Juan de la Rosa: Memoirs of the Last Soldier of the Independence Movement. In Bolivia this work, one of the most important Latin American narratives of the 19th century, promotes a curious cult: everybody cites it but few read it. As with all cults, this implies dogmas and prejudices that obscure its interpretation. Here is the most enigmatic: nobody doubts that the author is Nataniel Aguirre. The anonymous editors of the second edition (1909), when Aguirre already had died (1888), attributed the authorship to him and incorporated “Juan de la Rosa” into the original title. Since then Memorias was transformed into Juan de la Rosa. Memoirs of the Last Soldier of the Independence Movement, the mythic “novel” of Nataniel Aguirre. This new book was the basis for future editions that repeat its additions, erratas and omissions. My essay postulates a hybrid and joint production. The manuscripts of an anonymous author of genius – J. de la R. (the prologue is signed this way) – were edited and published in El Heraldo by Nataniel Aguirre, a distinguished man of letters of the time period that respects the name (or pseudonym) of the author.

In this thesis we study clitic doubling, known as ‘doblado de clítico’ or ‘duplicación de complemento directo’ in Spanish, in the variety of Spanish spoken in Cochabamba, Bolivia. After dealing with personal pronouns in general, explaining the general use of clitic doubling in Spanish and introducing some of the characteristics of the variety spoken in Cochabamba, we consider this grammatical phenomena through a field study. With the use of two questionnaires, we examine possible factors that might affect the use of clitic doubling in this variety in particular, such as gender, number, specificity, definiteness, animacy, verbal tense, exhaustivity, telicity, different kinds of question making and others. We also, briefly, deal with the influence of Quechua language in this variety. Our conclusion is that, although some of these factors clearly don´t matter, most of them show some extend of importance for the clitic doubling to appear, and that some features seem to be preferred in the constructions of clitic doubling.

Through two projects of the Basic Road Network in the Department of Cochabamba, Bolivia, the thesis addresses the paradox intrinsic to the proposals of highways, seeking to link distant points but conflicting between reticulated and adherent conceptions of mobility. That tension allows us to question the Plurinational State, its development model and autonomic configuration in place since 2009 as an alternative to the Nation-State. The thesis shows the ratio of cases with long-term history of the road network in Cochabamba, since prehispanic era to date (part 1: context); analyses in detail the geography and the landscape dimension of territory traversed (part 2: text); collects a documentary and personal basis, to describe the alliances and confrontations of actors and their discourses on projects (part 3: texture); finally shows how the territorial literacy of the sections confirms and complexifies the paradox of a road conception as "tunnel" and another as dense mesh of connections (part 4: text). The analysis explains that innovations such as the "live well" development model and the "autonomies" as state settings do not question Republican limits and vertical exercise of the power in Bolivia. Therefore, highway projects are truncated and generate conflict when their speeches are unable to adapt effectively to the logic of borders not only applied from the central government, but also from the autonomous entities and their articulation with the global "world system". Finally, urban tracks generated in other environments, such as axis contracts and landscape mediation, are resumed. Adaptation and experimentation for Bolivian mobility projects is suggested as guides to enhance interaction between the routes and territories, from a participatory incorporation of various actors, scales, areas and flows. (BAUR - Art de bâtir et urbanisme) -- UCL, 2014

International audience; In this article, we go back on two ways of taking into account the environmental dimension in urban planning and governance. We stress the difficult articulation between these two approaches –“urban ecology” and “urban environment” –and the actual impasse the discipline of urban planning finds itself in in its quest of the sustainable city. These two approaches for acting on the city by considering the complexity of its milieu build on different representations of this milieu and different modes of action legitimation. Negating each other, they can difficultly coexist, even less articulate. Through the example of water management in Cochabamba, we stress the tensions between these approaches. We point also to the awkward and marginalized position of urban planning and challenges it must face to regain a capacity of action in contemporary fragmented cities that know complex governance landscapes and rare or endangered resources.; En este artículo, ponemos atención sobre dos maneras de tomar en cuenta la dimensión ambiental en la planificación y la gobernanza urbana. Hacemos hincapié sobre la difícil articulación entre los enfoques de "ecología urbana" y "medioambiente urbano", así como reflejamos el estancamiento actual de la disciplina de la planificación urbana en su búsqueda de la ciudad sostenible. Estos dos enfoques de actuación sobre la ciudad, al considerar la complejidad del entorno, construyen diferentes representaciones de sus medios, así como diferentes modos de acción y legitimación, negándose el uno al otro, con dificultades de coexistencia y pocas posibilidades de articulación. A través del ejemplo de la gestión del agua en Cochabamba, exponemos las tensiones entre estos enfoques, resaltamos la posición incómoda y marginada de la planificación urbana, así como los desafíos a los que debe enfrentar para recuperar la capacidad de acción sobre las ciudades contemporáneas altamente fragmentadas con complejos escenarios de gobernanza y a veces recursos raros o en peligro de extinción.

In 1885, El Heraldo of Cochabamba published a misterious text signed by Juan de la Rosa: Memoirs of the Last Soldier of the Independence Movement. In Bolivia this work, one of the most important Latin American narratives of the 19th century, promotes a curious cult: everybody cites it but few read it. As with all cults, this implies dogmas and prejudices that obscure its interpretation. Here is the most enigmatic: nobody doubts that the author is Nataniel Aguirre. The anonymous editors of the second edition (1909), when Aguirre already had died (1888), attributed the authorship to him and incorporated “Juan de la Rosa” into the original title. Since then Memorias was transformed into Juan de la Rosa. Memoirs of the Last Soldier of the Independence Movement, the mythic “novel” of Nataniel Aguirre. This new book was the basis for future editions that repeat its additions, erratas and omissions. My essay postulates a hybrid and joint production. The manuscripts of an anonymous author of genius – J. de la R. (the prologue is signed this way) – were edited and published in El Heraldo by Nataniel Aguirre, a distinguished man of letters of the time period that respects the name (or pseudonym) of the author. En 1885 El Heraldo de Cochabamba publica un texto misterioso firmado por Juan de la Rosa: Memorias del último soldado de la independencia. Esta obra, una de las narraciones latinoamericanas más importantes del siglo XIX, provoca un curioso culto en Bolivia: todos la citan pero pocos la leen. Como todo culto, éste supone dogmas y prejuicios que obscurecen su interpretación. Señalo el más enigmático: nadie duda de que su autor es Nataniel Aguirre. Los anónimos editores de la segunda edición (1909), muerto Aguirre (1888), le atribuyeron su autoría e incorporaron “Juan de la Rosa” al título original. A partir de ahí Memorias se transforma en Juan de la Rosa. Memorias del último soldado de la independencia, la mítica “novela” de Nataniel Aguirre. Este nuevo libro fue el texto–base para ediciones posteriores que repiten sus añadiduras, erratas y omisiones. Mi ensayo postula una producción híbrida y conjunta. Los manuscritos de un genial autor anónimo —J. de la R. (el prólogo está firmado así)— son editados y publicados en El Heraldo por Nataniel Aguirre, un destacado letrado de la época que respeta el nombre (o seudónimo) del autor.

Networks of indigenous irrigating farmers played an influential role in the Cochabamba Water War of 2000 that succeeded in ousting the major water company Bechtel from Bolivia and securing changes to the national legislation to recognize indigenous water rights. In their mobilization against privatization, the irrigators used a narrative grounded in the defense of their water rights and traditional uses and customs or usos y costumbres. Following the Water War, the irrigators effectively organized to have their traditional water rights recognized in the new Irrigation Law no. 2878, which was signed into law in 2004, and the Regulations, which came into effect in 2006. This paper critically examines the impacts of the Irrigation Law on access to water in the heavily farmed region of the Cochabamba Valley. It asks whether the social inequalities amongst farming communities, often exacerbated by usos y costumbres, are being reinforced through the law’s implementation. An analysis of the political processes of institutional change and the power dynamics in the rural water sector reveals that the configuration of power asymmetries formalized in the Irrigation Law maintains unequal access to water resources.

Recent research indicates that urban reciprocity, a survival strategy used by the urban poor to self-insure against economic risks, has been eroded by deepening poverty and economic insecurity. This paper examines how the urban poor maintain reciprocal relationships in Villa Israel, a periurban settlement located on the outskirts of the city of Cochabamba, Bolivia. The results indicate that, while some reciprocal relationships do appear to be in decline, others have been transformed in ways that enhance security for participants. In particular, there appears to have been a shift away from reciprocal relationships formed on the basis of compadrazgo (ritual godparenthood) and "paisanidad" (shared origin) and toward those formed around commerce and evangélico (Protestant or evangelical) churches. Esta investigación indica que la reciprocidad urbana, una estrategia de supervivencia usada por poblaciones de bajos recursos contra riesgos económicos, se ve debilitada por efecto de la pobreza extrema e inseguridad económica. Este artículo examina cómo la gente de bajos recursos mantiene relaciones recíprocas en villa israel, una comunidad periurbana en la ciudad de Cochabamba, Bolivia. los resultados indican que, mientras que algunas relaciones recíprocas parecen estar en descenso, otras se han transformado para aumentar la seguridad de los participantes. particularmente, se observa un cambio de las relaciones recíprocas formadas en torno al compadrazgo y la "paisanidad" (entre compueblanos) hacia relaciones formadas alrededor del comercio y de las iglesias evangélicas.

Recent research indicates that urban reciprocity, a survival strategy used by the urban poor to self-insure against economic risks, has been eroded by deepening poverty and economic insecurity. This paper examines how the urban poor maintain reciprocal relationships in Villa Israel, a periurban settlement located on the outskirts of the city of Cochabamba, Bolivia. The results indicate that, while some reciprocal relationships do appear to be in decline, others have been transformed in ways that enhance security for participants. In particular, there appears to have been a shift away from reciprocal relationships formed on the basis of compadrazgo (ritual godparenthood) and "paisanidad" (shared origin) and toward those formed around commerce and evangélico (Protestant or evangelical) churches.

This thesis investigates women’s political and organizational participation in the changing process and new political context in Bolivia. Different levels of women’s positioning are examined through interviews with actors in Cochabamba, complete with observations, literature and local text-documents. The discourse of women's participation versus the actual practice of women’s decision making is taken under account. The struggle of Bolivian feminists indicates challenges of dominant patriarchal ideologies and has been named ‘postcolonial feminism’. Struggles are directed against the postcolonial state as well as against the western interests that contributes to its postcolonial status. Women’s experienced participation is shown to be very diverse, depending on their identities of class and ethnicity as well as their different location in the rural areas and in the city of the department of Cochabamba. There have been important advances achieved by women’s movements and organizations in order to stress equality between men and women, but much of the advances are still rhetorical, yet not facing legitimate implementation. There is a lack of implementation of gender issues in the government and institutions. Social movements and critics from civil society are therefore crucial in its attempt to visualize and stress the plurality of social conditions. The challenge of different women's organizations is to create and build consensus from the recognition of this diversity. In the process towards welfare and harmony in Bolivia the women and their strength constitutes a fundamental part. They have introduced new human qualities in the public sphere, raising the values associated to ‘motherhood’ as central for shaping the wider order of political community.

This presentation describes a case study done in the Bolivian Andes that addresses questions pertaining to market participation and marketing performance. By using surveys and other data collection methods, researchers evaluated the effects of prices, marketing strategies, location, and many other factors on the amount of potatoes sold and on overall market participation. This study concluded that a farmer's income can be increased by improving access to market information, improving road quality to reduce transportation costs, and creating microfinance programs in Bolivia. LTRA-3 (Watershed-based NRM for Small-scale Agriculture)

Das Formativum in den Anden (2000 v. Chr. – 200 n. Chr.) wird oft regional differenziert. Man unterscheidet die Entwicklung in den Bewässerungsoasen der peruanischen Zentral- und Nordküste, die sich durch Handwerk, Zeremonialbauten und eine elaborierte Ikonographie manifestiert, von der Entwicklung der im Handel aktiven und vornehmlich im südzentralen Andenraum tätigen Hirtengesellschaften des Hochlands. Letztere zeichnet sich durch das Fehlen von Monumentalarchitektur und einer stratifizierten Gesellschaftsstruktur aus. Dabei sollten beide Prozesse nicht voneinander getrennt, sondern eher als komplementäre, ineinandergreifende Entwicklungen angesehen werden. Mit Santa Lucía wurde eine Siedlung untersucht, die seit dem Ende des 2. Jtsds. v. Chr. für die Dauer von über 1000 Jahren besiedelt war. Sie liegt am Ostabhang der südzentralen Anden im Hochtal von Cochabamba, Bolivien. Während der Arbeiten wurde ein komplettes Aufmaß der oberflächlich erkennbaren Siedlungssektoren erstellt. Die Oberfläche weist über 200 erodierte Brennstellen zur Keramikherstellung, etwa 50 Reste rundovaler Hausgrundrisse und einen Bestattungsplatz auf. In einer frühen Phase (ca. 1000 – 700 v. Chr.) fand die Keramikproduktion im häuslichen Umfeld statt. Die Grabungen ergaben jedoch eine intentionelle räumliche Trennung von Wohn- und Werkstätten durch eine gezielte Aufschüttung des Areals um 700 – 500 v. Chr. Dabei wurden die Werkstätten ringförmig um den zentralen Wohnsektor angelegt. Es handelt sich hierbei um individuell genutzte Werkstätten und keine gemeinschaftliche Manufaktur. Dennoch deuten die Umstrukturierungsmaßnahmen auf kollektive Mechanismen hin. Zudem beschäftigten sich die Bewohner der Siedlung mit der Herstellung von Perlen aus Halbedelsteinen (Malachit, Sodalith), die wahrscheinlich im Zuge anderer Produkte (Keramik und Agrarprodukte) verhandelt wurden. Fragmente eines polychrom bemalten Wandverputzes, der in deutlichem Kontrast zur ausnahmslos monochromen Keramik steht, geben hier Hinweise auf die Präsenz von prestigeträchtigen Individuen im Späten Formativum (ab 500 v. Chr.). Die Arbeit befasst sich gezielt mit der technologischen und organisatorischen Seite des Handwerks bzw. der Töpferei in Santa Lucía im 1. Jtsd. v. Chr., deren Produktion weit über den Eigenbedarf hinausgeht. Interessanterweise stellt Santa Lucía nicht die einzige formativzeitliche Keramikproduktionsstätte im Tal dar, doch die hergestellten Formen können klar von den anderen Produktionen abgegrenzt werden. Somit wurde ein Modell zur komplementären Versorgung der Bevölkerung des Tals postuliert, in welchem neben Keramikgefäßen auch die gleichzeitige Verhandlung von Agrarprodukten eine Rolle spielt (periodische Märkte). Eine ähnliches unabhängiges System kann für die anderen Cochabamba-Täler vermutet werden. Darüber hinaus wurde die Teilnahme an einem Fernhandelssystem für den Austausch exotischer Güter aus Regionen der Küste, des Hochlands und des Tieflands (Sodalith, Malachit, Basalt, Pazifikmuscheln, große Landschnecken) festgestellt. Die Intensivierung des Fernhandels ab 500 v. Chr. dürfte mit der sozio-politischen Konsolidierung der Täler als Antwort auf die Erstarkung des formativzeitlichen Zentrums Chiripa am Südende des Titicaca-Sees und dessen Ausweitung der wirtschaftlichen Interessen in Richtung der südöstlichen Täler einhergehen. Trotz seiner peripheren Lage spielt Santa Lucía eine wesentliche Rolle als Handelsplatz im sozio-ökonomischen Zusammenspiel der unterschiedlichen ökologischen Regionen von den südzentralen Hochanden bis zum Tiefland. Auch wenn die formativzeitliche Gesellschaftsordnung nicht mit der Situation an der peruanischen Nordküste zu vergleichen ist, trifft die häufig vertretene Forschungsmeinung von der Präsenz homogener Bauerngesellschaften für die Cochabamba-Täler definitiv nicht zu., The Formative Period in the Andes (2000 BC – 200 AD) is often divided according to two different societal processes. The formative development in the river deltas of the Peruvian Central and North Coast is separated from that of the highland llama herders, especially those active in the South- Central Andes. While the coast is distinguished by craftsmanship, monumental architecture and an elaborate iconography, these characteristics are often absent in the southern highlands. But the different developments should not be treated separately, but rather linked in a complementary way, as shown by the trading activity of highland llama herders, who often move between different ecological regions in order to trade their products. The site of Santa Lucía is located on the Eastern slopes of the South-Central Andes in the High Valley of Cochabamba, Bolivia. It was occupied for more than 1.000 years, beginning at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. During the archaeological investigation conducted here all visible surface sectors of the settlement were mapped, revealing more than 200 eroded firing facilities for the pottery production and the remnants of about 50 house structures. During an early occupation phase (ca. 1000 – 700 BC) pottery production took place within the domestic realm, while during the later phase (beginning about 500 BC) a spatial division between domestic and productive area became visible. Excavations revealed evidence of an intentional fill to restructure the settlement. The firing facilities and workshops were arranged around the domestic sector. They were individual workshops; no sign of a common manufacturing place was found. Nevertheless, the massive restructuring measures show the presence of collective mechanisms in this society. The people of Santa Lucía were not only potters, but also produced beads of semi-precious stone (malachite, sodalite) as objects of trade. The presence of prestige-laden individuals is, therefore, highly probable during the Late Formative (500 BC – 200 AD), as also indicated by fragments of elaborately painted polychrome wall plaster, which stands in clear contrast to the non-painted pottery. Furthermore, the technological and organizational part of the productive process in pottery craft during the 1st millennium BC was of interest for this investigation. Clearly, the production output in Santa Lucía went beyond the limits of local demand. It is even more interesting that Santa Lucía was not the only pottery production site in the valley, but produced its own distinctive range of vessel forms. This specialization can be explained by a complementary exchange system (like periodical markets), through which the different local products became evenly distributed within the valley. A similar independent system can be assumed for the other Cochabamba valleys, which display their own pottery production sites. Santa Lucía was also connected to a long-distance exchange system, which brought exotic goods like Pacific shell, malachite, sodalite and giant land snails from the coast, the highlands or the lowlands to the site. This long-distance trade was intensified at about 500 BC, at a time when Chiripa became a powerful center at the southern end of Lake Titicaca. Chiripa sought to extend its economical links towards the south-east, and Santa Lucía became a port-of-trade. The former semi-autonomous Cochabamba valleys cooperated more closely and entered the economical sphere of the Circum-Titicaca area. Despite its peripheral location, due to which this region is often neglected, Santa Lucía played an important role in the socio-economic landscape of the different ecological levels between the South-Central Andes and the lowlands. Even though societal stratification is not as tiered as is the case in the Peruvian North Coast Formative, in the Cochabamba valleys we definitely do not have homogeneous agrarian societies, as many scholars maintain.

Today 1 billion people in the world lack safe drinking water and 2.6 billion people do not have access to basic sanitation (WSP, 2006). This causes large health- and contamination problems, especially in urban areas. Due to UN Habitat (2003) the world’s urban population will increase from 3 to 5 billions within 20 years. Many developing countries do not have an adequate municipal drinking-water service and it is common that the water is provided by small water communities. The work is often carried out by non-professionals and control of the drinking-water quality is uncommon. To simplify the work with drinking water control WHO has developed guidelines for water monitoring adapted to small water communities. Since the early 1990’s the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) has been working with the concept of ecological sanitation (eco-san) to advance in the development of safe, robust and economical sanitary solutions. The challenge is to create systems that consume little or no water, minimize the contamination risk and allows recycling of nutrients to agriculture. In Bolivia, South America’s second poorest country, diseases caused by lack of safe drinking water and proper sanitation are common. The health situation has improved the last 30 years as more people have gained access to improved drinking water (85%) and sanitation (46%). The Bolivian company Agua Tuya has been working with drinking water systems in peri-urban areas of Cochabamba, Bolivia, for 15 years. During the last years the demand for sanitation has increased and to meet that demand cooperation with the research organization EcoSanRes has been established. In a pilot project 20 urine-diverting toilets will be built in Challacaba, Cochabamba. Agua Tuya also plans to open a Resource Center that among other things will offer a monitoring program for small-scale water distribution. This Master’s thesis at Luleå University of Technology will contribute with tools to improved drinking water monitoring and sanitation in peri-urban areas. It includes a two months field study in Cochabamba during autumn 2006 as well as a literature study performed in Luleå. The Master’s thesis resulted in a monitoring program for water quality, adapted to small water communities based on sanitary surveys and preventing acts. Analyses of water samples are subordinated as parameters measuring changes in the water quality such as pH, smell and taste are prioritized. In Challacaba 19 urine- diverting toilets were built. Recommendations for use, cleaning and emptying of the toilets, storage times and treatment for faeces as well as spreading of excreta were established in line with WHO’s guidelines. The Bolivian law does not show any obvious obstacles against the use of human excreta in agriculture as long as the recommendations are followed. Validerat; 20101217 (root)

In 1984, employees from the water company SEMAPA founded the housing area of SEMAPA. The area is a sub-area of District 1, a city district situated in the north part of the city of Cochabamba. This area consists of detached houses provided with technical infrastructure, such as water and sewage network. SEMAPA is in need of improvements concerning the outdoor environment. Within the housing area, there is a lack of public spaces and the majority of the streets are in poor condition. Furthermore the neighbourhood is divided in two separate parts; therefore the area does not work as a functional entity. To make proposals for the upgrading of this area have been in focus for my diploma work. SEMAPA constitutes a so-called Base Territorial Organization (OTB, Organization Territorial del Base), an entity at the most local level of the administrative system in Bolivia. In the 1990s, there were administrative reforms carried out in the country. The decentralisation of some power and the construction of the local administrative units of OTB were created to, among other things, promote popular participation among the inhabitants. I was given the task about planning of public spaces in this particular housing area through PROCASHA, an NGO (Non Governmental Organization) that promotes cooperative housing. The present process of democratisation in Bolivia has contributed to an increased interest for cooperative housing as an alternative way to attain acceptable housing for everyone. Today, there is no cooperative organization in the neighbourhood SEMAPA but discussions have begun concerning a future possibility to finance improvements of the public spaces by founding one. Among the inhabitants of SEMAPA, there is a general awareness about the shortcomings within the housing area. A willingness to accomplish changes is also apparent. A lack of communication between the inhabitants complicates though any development to support collective and cooperative arrangements. The overall aim of the study is to, on the basis of social and physical requirements specific for the area, make a proposal for improvements of the housing area. The main focus is on the design of public spaces in order to facilitate social activities. In order to reach this goal, an important issue concerns the identification of the interests and aspirations among the inhabitants as well as physical deficiencies restraining the inhabitants from carrying out social activities and collaboration. At present, the neighbourhood does not work as a functional unity; it is split up in two separated housing entities. Therefore, an additional purpose of this project is to connect the entities through spatial planning, and by doing so, increase the opportunities for future cooperative and collective organisation of the inhabitants. I have developed a proposal and it comprises two sections; the street pattern and the recreational area. The overall aim of the proposal is to by means of physical changes facilitate social life with the purpose of increasing the possibilities to develop a community feeling. The proposal includes a number of measures to improve the street pattern in the housing area. At present, there is no clear hierarchy concerning the streets and in general, most of the streets are physically in bad condition. This entails limited accessibility for both cars and pedestrians. Since only few inhabitants do possess cars it is above all important to create a safe street environment for the unprotected road users. In order to improve the street environment, I propose a hierarchical street net. The cars will still have access to all the streets but by means of re-designing of the streets the drivers will be encouraged to use only some for through traffic. The particular street leading through the recreational area will remain since this makes the entire housing area easily accessible. Nonetheless, the traffic and speed will be circumscribed by physical measures. Physical improvements of the streets, such as pavements, are also proposed to increase the safety and the accessibility for the pedestrians. Moreover, a new street and improvements of entrances will increase the accessibility to the housing area but also the exit from the area. In order to facilitate social life, one of the most important measurements is the construction of public spaces for various activities and public meetings. Therefore, a central area aimed for recreational facilities is at the core of this proposal. The area will consist of public spaces suitable for different kind of activities, and parks to increase the green structure in the housing area. The covering of some parts of the canal is proposed, above all in order to create connected areas for the activities and to link together the separated housing area. In addition, the covering diminishes some of the problems due to the canal. A number of measures are also suggested concerning the remaining open parts of the canal in order to improve the perilous environment around the canal. To make the public spaces accessible, they are connected through a net of footpaths and streets designed mainly for unprotected road users. The footpaths facilitate also moving within the entire housing area. New buildings are suggested to be located along the sides in the recreational area, in connection to other buildings. To increase safety in SEMAPA measures are proposed concerning public lightning. The proposal includes also suggestions how to deal with and diminish the refuse problems.

Lack of housing is a problem in Bolivia, migrations from rural areas to towns causes problems in the fast growing cities. Since urban planning does not have the resources to keep up with the need for housing many settlements are illegal and often lead to a land use conflict. In some cities large parts of the population live in spontaneous settlements, often in areas planned for another use of land. In Cochabamba the number of inhabitants has grown rapidly, particularly in the past few decades. Many of the immigrants are low-income people who search housing in areas accessible to their incomes. Low-income groups search housing through illegal establishment in peripheral zones. The high housing costs in most of the districts of the city make housing provided through legal conditions unaffordable for them. In Cochabamba the expansion takes place in the outskirts of the city and the land use conflict is about the conflict between land set aside for agriculture purpose and illegal settlements. In focus for our study has been the area Maria Auxiliadora in District 9, Cochabamba. A group of women got together with a wish to build houses of their own. The area is situated on a hillside in an area for agricultural use but on a piece of land not suitable for this use because of the steep and rocky terrain. There are several non governmental organizations involved with a common ambition to build a cooperative housing area. Cooperative housing is a new experience in Bolivia which could be a beginning of a new way of thinking and a new way to solve the housing problem in the country. There is a growing interest, both from the government and from people that need land for housing, of this new form of living. The Bolivian cooperative housing program is formed out of a concept used in Uruguay. In this study we focus on spatial planning issues for cooperative housing. Through spatial planning we demonstrate how housing areas can be planned in the future with focus on cooperative thinking and living. The project area, Maria Auxiliadora, has been used as a case study. Maria Auxiliadora has a spatial plan and houses are already under construction but the plan does not consider cooperative thoughts and needs. We have developed two individual proposals and one proposal jointly. The first individual proposal treats generally aspects of how to plan a cooperative housing area in Bolivia. The proposal treats for example how many inhabitants that is to prefer in a cooperative, physical aspects of the outdoor environment and other physical arrangements that can give the area great opportunities to be a well functioning cooperative housing area. It also illustrates house types that can be used in a cooperative and how the houses can be grouped to promote the cooperative thoughts. One part is treating how to build in steep terrain though many of the new housing areas is situated in steep terrain. The second individual proposal illustrates how an area like Maria Auxiliadora can be planned in the future. The proposal consider cooperative thinking and needs in line with the first individual proposal. Maria Auxiliadora is situated in steep terrain and it is likely that other new housing areas will be planned in similar terrain. The proposal illustrates the possibility to place houses in groups around a shared garden even in steep terrain to give the area great opportunities to act as a well functioning cooperative housing area. Even a design proposal have been created to illustrate the importance of an coherent appearance of an cooperative housing area. The third proposal is drawn jointly and illustrates improvements of the existing plan for Maria Auxiliadora. In this proposal we have been taken the built houses and roads into consideration. The plan is adjusted to fit the steep terrain and considers cooperative housing. I Bolivia är bristen på bostäder för fattiga ett stort problem där inflyttningen från landsbygden skapar stora problem i de snabbt växande städerna. Planering av nya bostadsområden har halkat efter och många illegala bostadsområden har vuxit upp i städernas utkanter på land som är planlagt för annat ändamål eller på annat sätt olämpligt för bostäder. I utkanten av Cochabamba finns ett så kallat ”illegalt bostadsområde”, Maria Auxiliadora, beläget på mark som är avsedd för jordbruk, terrängen är brant och stenig och lämpar sig dåligt för sitt ändamål. En grupp kvinnor med en gemensam önskan att bygga sina egna hem gick ihop och köpte marken. Gruppen fick hjälp av ett antal NGO (Non Governmental Organization) och tankarna på att bygga kooperativt föddes. Kooperativt byggande och boende är nytt för Bolivia, det innebär ett nytt sätt att leva och tänka och det är svårt att se hur detta kommer att fungera i landet. I vårt examensarbete har vi behandlat fysisk planering för kooperativt boende. Vi har med hjälp av fysisk planering velat visa hur ett kooperativt bostadsområde i Bolivia kan planeras och se ut i framtiden. Projektområdet Maria Auxiladora har använts som fallstudie. Två individuella förslag har utarbetats, det första behandlar planering för kooperativt boende med fokus på hur det kan fungera i Bolivia. Det andra förslaget utgörs av en plan som visar hur ett område som Maria Auxiliadora skulle kunna planeras genom att använda sig av kooperativa tankar och idéer. ida.h@home.se, annaolausson80@hotmail.com

The number of inhabitants in Cochabamba has expanded enormously during the last decades and the expansion takes place in the fringe areas, usually on the forested mountains in the north or on land for agriculture use in the south. One of these agricultural areas is our project area in Pukara, District 9. Pukara has grown a lot over the years and the population has increased considerably. Some expansion has taken place in areas not suitable for residential purposes. The rapid growth of the area has resulted in an occupation of areas for agriculture, illegal settlements, lack of necessary infrastructure and service and environmental degradation. In this study we have focused on the spatial planning issues, the aim has been to present an overall layout for the area to show how the area can be developed. An analysis has been done to define potentials, shortcomings and various kinds of land use conflicts of the area. We have also made a classification of business activities that generate most environmental problems. The classification is made to be aware of what kind of business that cause most negative effects and which environmental problems that have to be considered to create a sustainable and attractive area. The project area contains resources and potentials that could be developed and become qualities for the area. Land uses today are for agriculture and cattle raising, for housing and for business activities. In general the big agricultural land is gathered in the outskirts of the area, whereas most of the buildings and the business activities are situated in the middle. The farming landscape gives the area character. The different business activities are sources of employment and income and they create activity in the area. The nearness to urban centres is another advantage, which make Pukara to an attractive place to live in. Due to lack of spatial planning, the expansion takes place without control. The main problems are occupation of agricultural land, illegal settlements and unsuitable and disturbing activities. Some of the illegal settlements occur on land suitable for agricultural use and the inhabitants lack adequate infrastructure and service. Furthermore the area contains unsuitable and disturbing activities, which deteriorate the environment and the living conditions and make the land unsuitable for housing and unfit for agricultural use. The main environmental problems are the adobe- and brickyards because they destroy the land and the brickyards with kilns that discharge poisoned gas into the air. To be able to meet anticipated demands the following questions have been studied: the density of the area, the provisions for economical opportunities, the infrastructure and service aswell as the accessibility to green open spaces and recreation. There are three fundamental features in our proposal. The first feature is that the large agricultural areas are preserved at the same time as the already half urbanised areas are made denser. In this way it is possible to take one-step forward to solve the land use conflict between the illegal settlements and the agricultural land. The second feature is to improve the housing situation with infrastructure and service. To do that it is important that existing housing development is legalized and therefore we suggest that the municipality will start a legalizing project. The third feature in our overall proposal is that the unsuitable and disturbing activities, which today are located in the housing areas, are moved and concentrated to an area in the outskirts of the half rural parts in the north-west of the area. In this way the areas from the former brickyards could be used for new dwellings. With the overall proposal as a basis we have individually developed parts of the area in more detail. These sections aim at illustrating how the overall proposal can be applied on the two specific sites, east and west of Avenida Panamericana, in Pukara. We have concentrated on the densification of the half-rural and half-urban part. The intention has been to show some principals of the planning of District 9, which need further development before implementation. We propose that the area is still used for agricultural use, for housing and for business activities. Since it is unrealistic and inconceivable to move the illegal settlements and since the demand for land for housing increases all the time, we have tried to find a balance between the various uses. The increasing population growth and the depletion of the environment have been taken into consideration. We propose a suitable plot division to create more plots and a higher density. We have suggested areas for new dwellings and developed different types of housing. We have created places for meetings, recreation and plays. Suitable places for service and different kind of business activities are suggested, for example a new area for the adobe- and brickyards is proposed. The demands for infrastructure and service that is needed in a more densely built-up and populated area have been taken into account. We have made proposals for how to arrange a new street network and how to improve the streets and make them safer both for vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists. We have also defined what technical infrastructure that needs to be improved and what the most urgent measures are. The plan contains proposals to provide the settlements with pleasant surroundings. In dense neighbourhoods the public open space will be utilized to a large extent. Therefore new places for green open spaces and recreation areas are proposed within the area. We have also defined which green areas that are important to preserve. Antalet invånare i Cochabamba har ökat kraftigt de senaste årtiondena och expansionen sker i utkanterna av staden, vanligtvis på de skogsklädda bergssluttningarna i norr eller på jordbruksmark i söder. Ett av dessa jordbruksområden är vårt projektområde i Pukara i distrikt 9. Pukara har växt mycket de senaste åren och antalet invånare har ökat kraftigt. En del av utvecklingen har skett på mark som inte är lämplig för bostäder. Beroende på bristen på fysisk planering, har expansionen skett utan kontroll. Den snabba utvecklingen av området har lett till ockupation av jordbruksmark, illegal bebyggelse och störande och miljöfarliga verksamheter. En del av den illegala bebyggelsen breder ut sig på mark som är mer lämplig för odling och invånarna saknar fullgod infrastruktur och service. Dessutom innehåller området olämpliga och störande verksamheter som förstör miljön och levnadsförhållandena samt gör marken olämplig för bostäder och oanvändbar för jordbruk. De huvudsakliga miljöproblemen beror på adobe- och tegelbruken. Arbetet är inriktat på frågor som rör den fysiska planeringen. Syftet är att ta fram en övergripande plan över området för att visa hur det kan utvecklas. För att möta framtida behov har följande frågor studerats: områdets täthet, förutsättningarna för verksamheter, infrastruktur och service och tillgängligheten till grönområden och rekreation. En analys har gjorts för att definiera fördelar, nackdelar och olika markanvändningskonflikter som finns i området. Även en klassificering av de verksamheter som genererar de kraftigaste miljöproblemen har gjorts. Klassificeringen är gjord för att uppmärksamma vilka verksamheter som orsakar mest negativa effekter och vilka miljöproblem som måste beaktas för att skapa ett hållbart och attraktivt område. Idag är markanvändningen huvudsakligen jordbruk, boskapsuppfödning, bostäder och verksamheter. Största delen av jordbruksmarken är koncentrerad till de västra och södra delarna medan en stor del av bebyggelsen och verksamheterna ligger centralt i området. Variationen av jordbruk och andra verksamheter skapar arbetstillfällen och är viktiga inkomstkällor samtidigt som de skapar liv och rörelse i området. Närheten till Cochabamba och andra tätorter är ytterligare en fördel som gör Pukara till ett attraktivt område att bo och leva i. De tre grundläggande principerna i förslaget är: 1. bevara de stora sammanhängande jordbruksområdena och förtäta de områden som redan är urbaniserade. 2. förbättra bostadssituationen med infrastruktur och service. 3. flytta de störande och miljöfarliga verksamheterna Med det övergripande förslaget som grund har två delområden utvecklats mer detaljerat, öster och väster om Avenida Panamericana. Dessa två områden är de två mest tätbebyggda delarna i området. Förslaget innebär att området även fortsättningsvis består av en blandning av jordbruk, bostäder och verksamheter. Eftersom det är orealistiskt att flytta de illegala bostäderna föreslås att de illegala bostäderna bevaras och legaliseras. Eftersom behovet av mark för bostäder ökar hela tiden, har en balans mellan de olika intressena skapats. Förslaget innebär att det skapas områden för nya bostäder med olika typer av bostäder. Vi föreslår en lämplig tomtindelning för att skapa fler tomter och en högre täthet. Förslaget innebär att den befintliga bebyggelsen förtätas och att nya bostäder planeras på mark som inte används för jordbruk. Planen innehåller också förslag på åtgärder för att förbättra bostädernas omgivningar. I förslaget ingår en ny marknadsplats, nya mötesplatser och fler platser för grönområden och rekreation. Vi har också definierat vilka grönområden som är viktiga att bevara. Även lämpliga platser för service och olika slags verksamheter föreslås, till exempel ett nytt område för adobe- och tegelbruken. Hänsyn har tagits till behovet av infrastruktur och service. Vi har gjort förslag på hur ett nytt vägsystem kan struktureras och hur man kan förbättra vägarna och göra dem säkrare för både bilister, gående och cyklister. Vi har också definierat vilken teknisk infrastruktur som behöver förbättras och vilka åtgärder som är mest akuta.

International audience; DNA sequence comparison of 412 base-pairs fragments of the mitochondrial cytochrome B gene was used to infer the genetic structure of nine geographical #Triatoma infestans$ populations and their phylogenetic relationship with #T. melanosoma$ and #T. brasiliensis$. #T. infestans$ and #T. melanosoma$ were compared by morphometry, allozyme and cytogenetic analyses, as well as subjected to reciprocal crosses, in order to clarify the taxonomic status of the latter. No differences were found to distinguish the two species and the crosses between them yielded progeny. #T. infestans$ populations presented four haplotypes that could be separated in two clusters : one formed by the samples from Bolivia (Andes and Chaco) and the other formed by samples from Argentina and Brazil. Silvatic and domestic #T. infestans$ populations from Bolivia (Andes) were genetically identical. (Résumé d'auteur)