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Every year, approximately 700,000 people die from complications associated with etiologic disease agents transmitted by mosquitoes. While insecticide-based vector control strategies are important for the management of mosquito-borne diseases, insecticide-resistance and other logistical hurdles may lower the efficacy of this approach, especially in developing countries. Repellent technologies represent another fundamental aspect of preventing mosquito-borne disease transmission. Among these technologies, spatial repellents are promising alternatives to the currently utilized contact repellents and may significantly aid in the prevention of mosquito-borne disease if properly incorporated into integrated pest management approaches. As their deployment would not rely on prohibitively expensive or impractical novel accessory technologies and resources, they have potential utility in developing countries where the burden of mosquito-borne disease is most prevalent. This review aims to describe the history of various repellent technologies, highlight the potential of repellent technologies in preventing the spread of mosquito-borne disease, and discuss currently known mechanisms that confer resistance to current contact and spatial repellents, which may lead to the failures of these repellents. In the subsequent section, current and future research projects aimed at exploring long-lasting non-pyrethroid spatial repellent molecules along with new paradigms and rationale for their development will be discussed.

The integrated whitefly control systems are based on the contribution of chemical and biological control fostered by conservation of natural enemies. This study attempts to establish the integrated impact of the parasitoid Encarsia inaron Walker (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in junction with the biorational imidacloprid against the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorumWestwood (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae), feeding on bean plants cv. Contender under greenhouse condition. Experiments were carried out to establish the individual and combined effects of the parasitoid and insecticide to control the greenhouse whitefly. A synergy effect was observed in the simultaneous use of E. inaron and imidacloprid causing 97.2% mortality in the population of immature whiteflies. There was no significant difference between the application of imidacloprid and the introduction of E. inaron alone which caused 90.1% and 78.7% whitefly mortality, respectively. The application of imidacloprid significantly reduced the percentage of the adult emergence and parasitism of E. inaron to 18% and 25% respectively, compared to control with 47% adult emergence and 57.9% parasitism. The current results suggest that despite some negative impacts of imidacloprid on E. inaron, the combination of these two factors works more efficiently than the use of them separately against the greenhouse whitefly., El control integrado de la mosca blanca utiliza un control químico complementado con un control biológico que fomenta la conservación de sus enemigos naturales. Este estudio intenta establecer el impacto de la utilización conjunta del parasitoide Encarsia inaron Walker (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) con el insecticida biorracional imidacloprid, en la lucha contra la mosca blanca Trialeurodes vaporariorum, al colonizar plantas de judía cv. Contender bajo condiciones de invernadero. Se llevaron a cabo experimentos para establecer los efectos individuales y combinados del parasitoide e insecticida sobre la mosca blanca, observándose un efecto de sinergia que causó un 97,2% de mortalidad en la población de moscas inmaduras. No hubo diferencias significativas entre la aplicación de imidacloprid y la introducción de E. inaron por separado, que causaron un 90,1% y 78,7% de mortalidad, respectivamente. La aplicación de imidacloprid redujo significativamente el porcentaje de la emergencia de adultos y el parasitismo de E. inaron al 18% y 25% respectivamente, comparado con el control (47% de emergencia de adultos y el 57,9% de parasitismo). Estos resultados sugieren que a pesar de algunos efectos negativos de imidacloprid sobre E. inaron, la combinación de los dos factores es más eficiente que el uso de ellos por separado contra la mosca blanca en invernadero.

The integrated whitefly control systems are based on the contribution of chemical and biological control fostered by conservation of natural enemies. This study attempts to establish the integrated impact of the parasitoid Encarsia inaron Walker (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in junction with the biorational imidacloprid against the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorumWestwood (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae), feeding on bean plants cv. Contender under greenhouse condition. Experiments were carried out to establish the individual and combined effects of the parasitoid and insecticide to control the greenhouse whitefly. A synergy effect was observed in the simultaneous use of E. inaron and imidacloprid causing 97.2% mortality in the population of immature whiteflies. There was no significant difference between the application of imidacloprid and the introduction of E. inaron alone which caused 90.1% and 78.7% whitefly mortality, respectively. The application of imidacloprid significantly reduced the percentage of the adult emergence and parasitism of E. inaron to 18% and 25% respectively, compared to control with 47% adult emergence and 57.9% parasitism. The current results suggest that despite some negative impacts of imidacloprid on E. inaron, the combination of these two factors works more efficiently than the use of them separately against the greenhouse whitefly. El control integrado de la mosca blanca utiliza un control químico complementado con un control biológico que fomenta la conservación de sus enemigos naturales. Este estudio intenta establecer el impacto de la utilización conjunta del parasitoide Encarsia inaron Walker (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) con el insecticida biorracional imidacloprid, en la lucha contra la mosca blanca Trialeurodes vaporariorum, al colonizar plantas de judía cv. Contender bajo condiciones de invernadero. Se llevaron a cabo experimentos para establecer los efectos individuales y combinados del parasitoide e insecticida sobre la mosca blanca, observándose un efecto de sinergia que causó un 97,2% de mortalidad en la población de moscas inmaduras. No hubo diferencias significativas entre la aplicación de imidacloprid y la introducción de E. inaron por separado, que causaron un 90,1% y 78,7% de mortalidad, respectivamente. La aplicación de imidacloprid redujo significativamente el porcentaje de la emergencia de adultos y el parasitismo de E. inaron al 18% y 25% respectivamente, comparado con el control (47% de emergencia de adultos y el 57,9% de parasitismo). Estos resultados sugieren que a pesar de algunos efectos negativos de imidacloprid sobre E. inaron, la combinación de los dos factores es más eficiente que el uso de ellos por separado contra la mosca blanca en invernadero.