Search

The main objective of the Trans2House project is to investigate how to develop driving forces and shift the social, cultural, technological, economic and political barriers to household energy consumption reduction. The focus is on personal transport, as a part of the household. Public transportation, electric scooters and bicycles however fall out of the scope of this project. This study also aims at assessing the transition towards EVs and PHEVs for Belgium and its regions, while having a critical eye on their impact on the sustainability goals as defined in the EU 20-20-20 objective. It considers also the budgetary impact on households, the impact on employment and related economic issues like the competitiveness of Belgium. Due to the higher energy efficiency, a reduction in fuel consumption is expected when introducing electrified transport. This will result in a decrease in fuel expenses for households. Whether the fuel saving leads to less CO2 emissions strongly depends on the way the extra electricityneed will be produced. The electrified vehicles can extend the green energy production by being flexible consumers if their charge moments are controlled. Other emissions as NOx and small particles are in all cases diminishing and in addition no pollutants are emitted where the vehicles are driving. These considerations have been explored in this project and transformed to the Belgian situation.

One of the main barriers to increasing the market size of lithium ion batteries for stationary applications is their lifetime. In order to select the optimal cells for integrating into grids, battery performance characterization and lifetime analysis need to be carried out to assess the battery performance and reliability under various operating conditions. In this work, a comprehensive investigation has been carried out to address these issues for a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide battery type. Moreover, an empirical ageing model for the lifetime prediction is presented.

This paper presents the results of an analysis of real-world trip and charge data from an electric vehicle (EV) fleet, deployed in the Flanders' Living Labs. The Flanders' Living Labs are life test environments for electric mobility in which companies and organizations can test innovative technologies, products, services and concept and consists of 5 EV platforms, each differing in technology, scope, size and usage [1]. These platforms have produced a large amount of data on numerous topics in the field of electric mobility. This paper focuses on available trip and charge data to analyze user behavior and EV energy consumption. It presents descriptive statistics of trips and charges, as well as EV energy consumption. By obtaining these results from real-world data on electrical vehicles, the authors are able to update statistical figures of fleet use and energy consumption, specifically for electric vehicles. Using specific electric vehicle figures has consequences on the results of (calculation) models of other research branches in electric mobility like total cost of ownership (TCO), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), etc. The potential effect of these real-world data on these models is investigated and recommendations regarding the use of these data are formulated.

In this context, the CLEVER project has the intention to analyse and answer these different questions. The objectives of the project can be described as follows, with a focus on the passenger car market: * Create an objective image of the environmental impact of vehicles with conventional and alternative fuels and/or drive trains; * Investigate which price instruments and other policy measures are possible to realise a sustainable vehicle choice; * Examine the external costs and verify which barriers exist for the introduction of clean vehicle technologies on the Belgian market; * Analyse the global environmental performances of the Belgian car fleet; * Formulate recommendations for the Belgian government to stimulate the purchase and use of clean vehicles. To achieve these objectives, a multidisciplinary approach has been used, in which the different tasks are performed by the different partners. On the basis of a literature review, a preliminary "state-of-the-art" has been carried out on different topics, more specifically on vehicle technologies, existing environmental vehicle assessments, policy measures and consumer behaviour for the purchase of cars. To compare the environmental impacts of vehicles with different conventional (diesel, petrol) and alternative fuels (LPG, CNG, alcohols, biofuels, biogas, hydrogen) and/or drive trains (internal combustion engines and battery, hybrid and fuel cell electric vehicles), a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is performed, within a Belgian context. LCA studies the environmental aspects and potential impacts of a product throughout its life from raw material acquisition through production, use and disposal and presents the advantage of being standardized (ISO 14040 & 14062, 2006). Next to the well-to-wheel emissions (related to fuel production, transportation and fuel use in the vehicle), which is assessed in the Ecoscore methodology, the LCA also includes cradle-to-grave emissions (related directly and indirectly to vehicle production and end-of-life processing of the vehicle). The final aim is to develop a methodology with a per-model applicability. A detailed description of the different tasks of the LCA approach (software selection, inventory and data collection, classification and characterisation, sensitivity and probability analysis, scientific validation of the Ecoscore approach) is described further in chapter 2. To compare the cost-efficiency of different vehicle technologies, the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) methodology has been used. From a user perspective, the LCC is often a crucial factor. Life cycle costs are all the anticipated costs associated with a car throughout its life and include all user expenses to own and use vehicles. The LCC consists of the vehicle financial costs (purchase price, governmental support, registration tax), fuel operational costs and non fuel operational costs (yearly taxation, insurance, technical control, battery, tyres and maintenance). The used method within the LCC analysis is the net present value method as one has to accurately combine the initial expenses related to the purchase of the car with the future expenses related to the use of the car. A further description of the methodology and results of this task are described in chapter 3. The proposed policy measures will only be effective if they induce the right behavioural responses. That is why in a first phase a literature review of price elasticities has been performed. Additionally, price sensitivities are empirically derived through the development of a "green vehicle demand model", which enables to estimate the distribution of respondents willing to switch to a more environmentally friendly car, based on different weighted pricing levels of combined policy measures (chapter 4). The different tasks are supported with inputs of state-of-the-art external cost factors. The "ExternE" methodology for the calculation of external costs of transportation is updated and adapted for its use in a Belgian context. Attention has been paid to the best methods and their updating, in order to quantify the external effects associated with new vehicle technologies. Thanks to the knowledge of the externalities, the environmental cost can be integrated into the life cycle cost analysis of new vehicles. This approach allows a complete comparison with conventional vehicles, based on a full-cost approach (chapter 5). The main barriers impeding the development of alternative vehicles (with alternative fuels and propulsion systems) in Belgium as well as their relative importance have been identified. This objective is approached through the consultation of the different groups of stakeholders. Barriers can be grouped into the following categories: economic, technical, psychological, legislative, political, institutional, environmental/societal, market, supply and demand barriers. Strong relationships exist between the different barriers; in fact, they are integrated into an aggregation of complex causal connections. The second original objective is to derive a systemic scheme representing the inter-relations between barriers. This allows for a more global view on the barriers, which is essential for drawing effective policy measures (chapter 6). Price instruments are suitable to integrate the environmental performance of vehicles in this purchase decision. The CLEVER project allows investigating possible policies towards a more sustainable car choice (chapter 7). Implementation pathways for a consistent policy for the promotion of cleaner vehicles are being developed. These possible policies are price policies (road pricing, fiscal measures, modulated vehicle taxation, parking prices, subsidies...), regulatory policy, etc. The investigated policy instruments not only focus on individual vehicle-buying behaviour but also on policies towards companies and public authorities. The pathways have been developed based on the analysis of the environmental impact, the barriers for the purchase and use of cleaner vehicles. This was done in parallel with the international review of policy measures and related research and consultation of the different target groups in Belgium. The road emission model from VITO has been used to assess the global environmental performance of the whole Belgian vehicle fleet. From this model the Ecoscore module is applied to the different vehicle categories (defined by fuel, age, engine size, etc.) of the road emission model to result in a combined Ecoscore-emissions-road model. This allows generating an indicator of the global environmental performance of the fleet and making projections on how this will evolve in time in different scenarios. The projections have been done for the years 2010 up to 2030 in steps of 5 years, with the mid-term timeframe being 2020 and the long-term timeframe being 2030. Three scenarios have been calculated within these timeframes, and one additional, more visionary, scenario has been calculated solely for 2060. Finally, by means of a multi-criteria analysis (MCA), the scenarios (baseline, realistic, progressive), elaborated in the previous chapters, have been evaluated on several criteria for which input has been gathered throughout the other tasks of the CLEVER project (chapter 8). For this purpose, a combination of the PROMETHEE methodology and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is used. The overall aim is not to categorize the single best scenario, but to formulate suitable policy recommendations to the decision makers which take into consideration the weak and the strong points of the considered scenarios. To finalise this project, the main conclusions of all the different tasks, gathered by the different partners, have been combined in the last section of this report (chapter 9). In this chapter, answers are formulated on the different research questions of the project, which are the basis of recommendations for policy makers on how to stimulate the purchase and use of clean vehicles in a Belgian context.

Long charging times are still a problem when slow charging have been one of the barriers for the adoption of electric vehicles (EV). Charging may results in people getting stuck for some time at a charging station while recharging their car and possibly losing time for other activities. Time is a valuable resource and is monetized in this paper. We propose a persona-based approach for time valuation of charging events of electric cars. The value of time approach is subsequently combined to a Total Cost of Ownership analysis.

Li-ion battery technology, widely used in the electric automotive branche, is known for safety risks when abused and not handled properly. One of the issues is the flammability of certain battery materials. The battery risks and ignition consequences are evaluated for safety.

Electrically propelled vehicles unite diverse technologies and diverse standardization and regulation cultures. The relevant standardization landscape is thus a complex one, particularly if new energy vectors such as hydrogen are taken into account. The proposed paper will highlight current evolutions in the field, discussing the interaction between various international standardization committees (particularly ISO TC22 SC21 and IEC TC69). Particular attention will be given to a number of pending issues such as the definition of reliable performance and energy consumption tests for plug-in hybrid vehicles with both fuel and electricity energy supply, as well as to the impact of the introduction of new technologies such as hydrogen on vehicle safety standardization. The growing interest for the deployment of hybrid electric drive technology has given rise to specific standardization issues, which are being tackled by specific technical teams. Current rating standards to evaluate the performance of ground vehicles must in fact be adapted to hybrid electric vehicles, with particular problems arising when considering plug-in hybrids. New standards are needed to evaluate the potential benefits of the hybrid systems against the future vehicle requirements with the specific bounds and regulations. The paper will report on activities in this field and will recommend specific work areas for standardization, highlighting the potential interaction of ongoing international standardization work activities.

This paper presents a co-design optimization framework for the heavy-duty trucks as a part of the ORCA European project. The proposed co-design framework composes of an optimal control strategy using the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS), which is nested into a component sizing optimization loop employing Genetic Algorithms (GA). Considering a particular transport assignment, the optimization objective is to find optimal sizing of key components such as Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), Electric Motor (EM) and battery system to minimize a Total Cost of Ownership for hybrid heavy-duty powertrain (denoted as pTCO) without impairing the performance requirements. The pTCO includes the investment cost of main powertrain components and operational cost over the lifetime of vehicle. In the co-design framework, maximum power (kW) of the ICE (kW), EM (kW) and battery capacity (kWh) are selected as design variables of optimization problem. Optimal solution of the developed GA-based co-design frameworkis verified via a comparison with that of Brute Force (BF) search method.

Super Capacitors (SCs) are appealing in industrial application for energy recovery (to replace mechanical energy storage like flywheels or springs). In some applications, the energy flowing back from the load is sinusoidal ripple currents. The lifetime performance of SCs in these applications is questionable and the frequency level which has the most impact on the lifetime need to be determined. As the threshold frequency differs for different SC cells, the determination of frequency that accelerates the aging process is a key factor for appropriate cell selection for these applications. In this study a method for threshold frequency determination is defined and then experiments are performed to study the impact of this frequency on the super capacitor aging. The result reveals that this low frequency current ripple for the selected SC cell creates aging mechanisms.

This paper introduces a novel methodology for analysis in the frequency domain. This methodology looks to the battery from a different point of view and covers aspects of the battery that is often neglected in other works and analysis battery precisely. Using periodic signals such as random phase multisine for system identification, allows separating noise and nonlinear distortions from the linear part of the system’s response. In addition to a shorter test time in comparison with conventional single sine EIS, by performing extra periods and different phase realizations, transients are eliminated and noise disturbance and also nonlinear distortion is detected.

This paper proposes a new closed loop speed control of an induction motor fed by a high performance Z-source inverter (ZSI), the speed control is based on direct torque control space vector modulation (DTC-SVM) control strategy. The modified space vector modulation (MSVM) is used to insert the shoot-through state within the switching signals for the ZSL A dual loop controller is designed to control the peak dc-link voltage of the ZSI, where the peak dc-link voltage is estimated by measuring both the input and capacitor voltages. The peak dc-link voltage control is designed based on small signal model using the Bode diagram. Also, the parameters of the PI controllers in the DTC-SVM control strategy are calculated based on the required dynamic specifications. The proposed speed control method, with reduced DC input voltage compared with the standard adjustable speed drives (ASD), are able to change the motor speed from zero to the rated speed with rated load torque. The performance of the proposed speed control methods is verified by MATLAB simulation of a 15 kW induction motor fed by a high performance ZSL The simulation results during start up, load disturbance and input voltage change are presented. The simulation results have verified the validity of the proposed DTC-SVM closed loop speed control method.

Het document is een schriftelijke weergave van de belangrijkste aandachtspunten en tests die uit te voeren zijn op een van de elektrische voertuigen gebruikt in het EV Pilot Project in samenwerking met Electrabel-Laborelec. Een belangrijk aspect daarin is nog een bijdrage leveren aan de identificatie van slecht gekende signalen die op de CAN-bus wordt geregistreerd. Verder is er oog voor de maximale consumptie van nevenverbruikers, de efficiëntie van het propulsiesysteem, het opnemen van een batterijlaadcyclus en een nazicht of een batterijtemperatuursregistratie op de CAN-bus kan geidentificeerd worden.

This paper aims to use cascaded multilevel converters for connecting several battery modules to a single-phase AC grid or load. Electrical power is exchanged either from storage to AC side to discharge battery modules, or from AC side to the storage to charge battery modules. Charging and discharging operations are performed while battery modules’ state of charges get equalized. AC side current is also controlled to follow its reference while high differential-mode dv⁄dt on load are avoided using adjacent voltage levels assignment. For these purposes, no additional controlling circuit is implemented and only one controlling block is defined to handle AC current reference tracking, and state of charge balancing tasks. Model predictive control, as a technique capable of multi-parameter controlling, is used to achieve beforementioned system objectives in a simple, efficient, and scalable manner. MATLAB Simulink simulations demonstrate the feasibility of proposed controlling strategy for this sort of application.

The first part of this report analyses the new vehicle fleet of Belgium and its different regions, registered in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010, while the second part focuses on the second hand vehicle fleet of the same period. This report allows the follow-up and evolution of the vehicle fleet especially concerning its environmental performance. The Flemish, Walloon and Brussels Capital Region (BCR) can be mutually compared, as well as different years of registration. Different technical and environmental indicators are considered in these analyses: fuel type, displacement, power, vehicle weight, emissions (particulate matter or PM and CO2) and Ecoscore. This report is an update of the previous report written by VUB-ETEC, in which new vehicles registered from 2006 to 2009 were analysed. Analyses on new company cars and second hand vehicles have been included as well. It must be noted that these analyses concern specifically vehicle registrations, hence they don't reflect what is actually drivingon the roads of the different regions. Especially for company cars, very high numbers are registered in the BCR due to the companies' locations. These cars are however used in the other regions as well. The necessary databases to perform these analyses were provided by VITO, based on data originally obtained from DIV ('Dienst Inschrijving Voertuigen', the Belgian vehicle registration service). This database was matched with the Ecoscore database, so to each car in the database the Ecoscore was added. If an exact matching was not possible, the car was compared with equivalent cars and the mean Ecoscore of those cars was used. Each record in the final databases contains information on the vehicle model, technical specifications (displacement, power, weight, dimensions, top speed), region, euro standard, year of first registration, fuel type, Ecoscore, emissions (CO, HC, NOx, PM and CO2), fuel consumption, Ecoscore and number of vehicles. It should be noted that not all information is completed in the database. Concerning our investigated indicators, this is especially the case for vehicle weight, and emissions of CO2 and PM for second hand car registrations. In addition to the previous report, the CO2 emissions of the second hand registrations have been complemented with data from RDW in case these values were not available from DIV.

To achieve a high-performance index and accurate controllability of power electronics converters (PEC), generalized small-signal analysis of the closed-loop power electronics converters is a key aspect. This article presents a detailed generalized small-signal averaged switch model (GSSASM) of a Wide Bandgap (WBG)-based Interleaved DC/DC Buck converter (IBC) for electric vehicle (EV) drivetrains to better understand the circuit characteristics, performance, stability and control systems. The derived GSSASM considers the power electronics device (e.g., switch & diode) and passive components (inductor, capacitor and internal resistance of input source), which can result in an accurate mathematical model representing the real-time (RT) system. The proposed model can be utilized for any number of phases in the IBC systems. Furthermore, a field-programmable gate array-based (FPGA) programming board of dSPACE MicroLabBox, is used to validate the proper control compensators towards high dynamic performance in the Real-Time Workshop (RTW)-system. Finally, the performance of the proposed mathematical model is verified with a 30-kW SiC-based IBC prototype in both transient and steady-state conditions, respectively.

Air cooling technologies are of great significance for ensuring the robustness of lithium-ion capacitor (LiC) batteries due to its simple structure and high cooling performance. However, the air-cooling system is encountering structure optimization challenges because of some variable factors. In this paper, a simple but effective air-cooling system is proposed to overcome the high generated heat issues in high power applications. Hence, a LiC battery with a two-side fan has been studied to investigate the cooling performance of the proposed thermal management system (TMS). On one side, the fan blows the air and on the other side, the other fan sucks the air. In the optimization part, the impact of the inlet-outlet of the system and inlet air velocity are studied to optimize the active cooling structure. The results indicate that the most significant factor is the inlet velocity, which has the most influence on the cooling performance. Results demonstrate that without a cooling system, the temperature of the LiC cell goes beyond 55 °C, which reduces the lifespan of the battery. After adding the active air-cooling system to the cell, the temperature is controlled at 37.9 °C, which shows the performance of the proposed optimized cooling system. Besides, by utilizing the optimization method in which the inlet air velocity increased to 3 m/s, the maximum battery temperature of the LiC cell is reduced by 14% compared to the main case in which the air inlet velocity is 2 m/s.

Lithium-ion capacitor (LiC) is a hybrid energy storage device which compounds the energy storage mechanisms of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs). Its structure is composed of a positive electrode with activated carbon as in double-layer capacitor and a negative electrode based on Li-doped carbon like the Li-ion battery. The advantage of the LiC technology compared to the conventional storage device is because of the power density, the nominal voltage, and the energy density is higher than the EDLCs. Due to their inherent long cycle life, it is indispensable to predict the cycle life of this cell type. The objective of this paper is to investigate the capacitance degradation of LiCs by calendar life test and power-cycling test. In the calendar life test, the degradation is measured at different floating voltages and temperatures. In the power cycling test, the degradation corresponding to the current level and the temperature is evaluated. The resulting capacitance retention trends declare a dependency to temperature, SoC, and current levels.

Uncertainties in Modern Power Systems combines several aspects of uncertainty management in power systems at the planning and operation stages within an integrated framework. This book provides the state-of-the-art in electric network planning, including time-scales, reliability, quality, optimal allocation of compensators and distributed generators, mathematical formulation, and search algorithms. The book introduces innovative research outcomes, programs, algorithms, and approaches that consolidate the present status and future opportunities and challenges of power systems. The book also offers a comprehensive description of the overall process in terms of understanding, creating, data gathering, and managing complex electrical engineering applications with uncertainties.

Light Electric Vehicles (LEV) form a group of promising alternative vehicles for personal mobility and goods delivery. This manuscript reports about the European industrial EUREKA project called ‘New Electric Postman Helper.’ This project aims to develop the drive train for a range of mobility devices for postal distribution. The severe postal requirements which are not fully fulfilled by the vehicles on the European market today, and the strong interest of the postal organizations in solutions towards this issue, induced the set-up of this project in 2005. The introduction of LEV, in particular two- and three-wheelers, in the postal delivery business allows longer, more efficient and more sustainable delivery rounds. The close collaboration with several European postal organizations has allowed definition of the specifications of the electric power systems with characteristics meeting their specific needs. From an extensive questionnaire, the requirements of the different European postal operators were determined. A set of discriminating parameters was identified and used to calculate the design parameters of the electrical power system range starting from the postal requirements. The required energy capacity of the battery pack and the required motor torque were calculated from the postal parameters by using a dedicated design tool and resulted in the conception of a modular concept for postal electric vehicles.

PHEVs and BEVs make use of battery cells optimized for high energy rather than for high power. This means that the power abilities of these batteries are limited. In order to enhance their performance, a hybrid Rechargeable Energy Storage System (RESS) architecture can be used combining batteries with electrical double layer capacitors (EDLCs). Such a hybridized architecture can be accomplished using passive or active systems. In this paper, the characteristics of these topologies have been analyzed and compared based on a newly developed hybridization simulation tool for association of lithium ion batteries and EDLCs. The analysis shows that the beneficial impact of the EDLCs brings about enhanced battery performances in terms of energy efficiency and voltage drops, rather than extension of vehicle range. These issues have been particularly studied for the passive and active hybrid topologies. The classical passive and active topologies being expensive and less beneficial in term of cost, volume and weight, a new hybrid configuration based on the parallel combination of lithium ion and EDLCs on cell level has been proposed in this article. This topology allows reducing cost, volume, and weight and system complexity in a significant way. Furthermore, a number of experimental setups have illustrated the power of the novel topology in terms of battery capacity increase and power capabilities during charging and discharging. Finally, a unique cycle life test campaign demonstrated that the lifetime of highly optimized lithium-ion batteries can be extended up to 30%-40%.

The development of Hybrid Electric Vehicles is one of the most effective solutions to improve our environment. For the purposes of improving the characteristic and efficiency of Hybrid Electric Vehicles, different hybrid drive train topologies with super capacitor based energy storages have been studied with concern about energy sources control and management. The methods of controlling mean power and controlling peak power according to the load current have been presented in this paper. The experimental results proved that the super capacitor based energy storage is fully controlled by using our strategy of control and management, and that the main power supply system (even without mean power control) is controlled to only supply the mean power. The efficiency and lifecycle of the main power supply system (e.g. fuel cell) can be improved. And good dynamics of the Hybrid Electric Vehicle have been achieved.

The effective fast-charging power (≥100kW) is inevitable to extend the driving range of battery electric vehicles. Nevertheless, lithium-ion batteries suffer from high-heat generation at these high-current charging rates. Hence, a proper thermal management system (TMS) is urgently needed to address this issue. In this paper, a refrigerant-based TMS has been simulated for a fast-charging regime (5C or 115A) of a lithium-ion titanate battery pack. To investigate the benefits of the refrigerant-based TMS in battery electric vehicles, the model is built in Simcenter AMESim to simulate the battery cooling system and its transient interaction with the heat pump system during a current profileA liquid cooling system is developed in the chiller coolant loop which is integrated with an accumulator, a compressor, a condenser, and an electric expansion valve.. Results show that adding a refrigerant-based TMS to cool down the lithium-ion battery pack under a fast-charging scenarios can control the temperature in the desired range (below 45°C). According to the simulation results, during the fast charging process, the battery pack temperature starting at 25°C reaches to 40.2 °C, which leads to decay of the battery pack’s lifetime. Considering the refrigerant-based TMS during the fast-charging process, the temperature of the pack is controlled at 28.8 °C, which shows that by employing the proposed TMS, 28% improvement can be achieved.

Interleaving techniques are widely used to reduce the input/output ripples, to increase the efficiency and to increase the power capacity of the boost converters. This paper presents an analysis, design and implementation of a high-power multileg interleaved DC/DC boost converter with a digital signal processor (DSP) based controller. This research focuses on non-isolated DC/DC converter that interfaces the fuel cell to the powertrain of the hybrid electric vehicles. In this paper, two-phase interleaved boost converter (IBC) with digital phase-shift control scheme is proposed in order to reduce the input/output ripples and to reduce the size of the passive components with high efficiency for high power applications. On the other hand, the digital control based on DSP is more convenient than other methods to achieve the synchronization and phase shifted operation for interleaved converters. To realize the proposed control in DSP, a real time workshop (RTW) is used for automatic real-time code generation. The proposed converter, IBC, is compared with other topologies, such as conventional boost converter (BC) and multi-device boost converter (MDBC) in order to examine its performance. Moreover, a generalized small-signal model with complete parameters of these DC/DC converters is derived, which has not been discussed earlier The PWM DC/DC converter topologies and their control are designed and investigated by using Matlab/Simulink. A 30 kW two-phase interleaved boost converter has been realized and successfully tested in our laboratory. Experimentally, a dual-loop average current control implemented in TMS320F2808 DSP is employed to achieve the fast transient response. Furthermore, the simulation and experimental results are provided.

International audience; This paper represents a simulation model for a 2D-thermal model applied on a Lithium-ion pouch battery. This model is able to describe the transient response of the thermal distribution accurately. The heat generation parameters used in this model have been obtained experimentally from dedicated estimation technique. The experimental and simulation are performed at different charge and discharge current rates. The experimental results are in good agreement with the developed model. The battery thermal distributions using natural and forced convection cooling are studied.

Despite the electric vehicle’s (EV) environmental benefits, its market penetration and widespread adoption is moderately progressing. For a transition towards mass adoption of alternative fuel technology, and electric vehicles in particular, the European Parliament and council of the European Union adopted a directive on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure (Directive 2014/94/EU). The directive ordains EU member states to establish a national policy framework for the deployment of the market as regards alternative fuels in the transport sector and the deployment of relevant infrastructure, conform minimum requirements and taking into account technical specification stipulated in the directive, in order to establish a common framework in the Union to minimize oil dependence and mitigate the environmental impact of transport. This study reports on the Belgian national policy framework, split for the Flemish Region, Brussels Capital Region and Walloon Region, and how the frameworks influence the current EV charging infrastructure market in Belgium. It summarizes the views different stakeholders have on the definition of interoperability and ad-hoc charging, concepts that are not stringently defined in the Directive.

This paper reviews different configurations of the hybrid-energy-storage-system (HESS), a combination of a Li-ion Battery (LiB) pack, a Li-ion capacitor (LiC) bank, and DC-DC converters, for Plug-in hybrid electric (PHE) buses. A new HESS configuration is proposed to improve the efficiency of power transfer from battery and to reduce the voltage rating of LiC bank associated the cell balancing problem. The simulation results with a standard SORT driving cycle will be used to optimize the sizing of LiB and LiC packs. The comparative analysis illustrates that the proposed configuration has several merits against the conventional hybrid topology based on high-energy batteries and electrical double-layer capacitors in terms of weight and volume.

There is a close relationship between transport and environment. Due to its toxic emissions, transport has an important impact on the environment, especially in urban areas. Therefore, when searching for ways to lower the ecological impact, our transport system has to change. Moreover, oil supply is limited and the usage of fossil fuels leads to more CO2 emissions. In this article, both the environmental as well as the financial aspects of electric vehicles are analysed. The first study is done through a life cycle assessment (LCA), in which the influence of the product on the environment during its entire lifecycle is calculated (from cradle to grave). The latter study consists of a total cost of ownership (TCO)model, in which the cost structure of conventional cars is compared with that of electric versions.

Freight transport has an important impact on urban welfare. It is estimated to be responsible for 25% of CO2 emissions and up to 50% of particles matters generated by the transport sector in cities. Facing that problem, the European Commission set the objective of reaching free CO2 city logistics by 2030 in major urban areas. In order to achieve this goal, electric vehicles could be an important part of the solution. However, this technology still faces a number of barriers, in particular high purchase costs and limited driving range. This paper explores the possible integration of electric vehicles in urban logistics operations. In order to answer this research question, the authors have developed a fleet size and mix vehicle routing problem with time windows for electric vehicles. In particular, an energy consumption model is integrated in order to consider variable range of electric vehicles. Based on generated instances, the authors analyse different sets of vehicles in terms of vehicle class (quadricycles, small vans, large vans, and trucks) and vehicle technology (petrol, hybrid, diesel, and electric vehicles). Results show that a fleet with different technologies has the opportunity of reducing costs of the last mile. ispartof: ScientificWorldJournal vol:2015 pages:302867- ispartof: location:United States status: Published online

European cities have to face new important challenges given the objective of reaching CO2-free city logistics in major urban centres by 2030. In that context, battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are considered as a promising technology by the authorities. Still, sales for electric freight vehicles remain today limited. More attention to transport companies is therefore needed, in particular to the way they value BEVs. This paper investigates the choice behaviour of transport companies by means of a conjoint based choice experiment. In each choice task, we presented to the respondents three different vehicles described by a common set of attributes: volume of the vehicle, the purchase costs, the running costs, the range, the charging/refuelling time and the ecoscore of the vehicle. After contacting all the relevant transport companies located in the Brussels Capital Region, we collected 320 choice tasks completed. Based on that sample, a Hierarchical Bayes estimation gave individual utilities for each respondent. However, the goodness of fit of the model was assessed to be below average. As a result, the estimated utilities of some attributes were not always consistent. Still the results presented in the paper can give first insights on the preferences of transport companies for electric vehicles. The environmental performance of the electric vehicle is observed to have a limited influence on the transporters. The most important advantage of the electric vehicle is their low running costs. Still, the utility of the electric vehicle is entailed by its high purchase cost. But the most important disadvantage of the electric vehicle according transporters is the limited range. Finally, charging operations were not seen as a barrier if fast charging is available at the depot.

This paper presents the current evolution in the field of charging infrastructure, highlighting the role of international standardization to achieve safety, compatibility and performance. It reports from the frontline of the standardization scene, benefiting of direct feedback from the work of relevant technical committees, as to focus on current evolutions on the global level, to highlight the latest developments and to identify the gaps where further work is needed.

A clear interest for light electric post delivery vehicles exists among the European postal operators. In particular electrically assisted bicycles for postal delivery seem to have a high market potential. An alternative method has been developed to estimate the required energy to perform a certain journey or postal distribution round. This alternative calculation method uses a set postal mission parameters (trip length, payload, number of stops etc.) as an input. This calculation method was employed in a calculation tool that can be utilized to estimate the required energy of the battery pack in case of an electric postal bicycle. The calculation tool allows forecasting the performance of a specific configuration of the electric drive train for an electric postal delivery bicycle. The calculation tool will allow each postal organization to compose their postal electric bicycles, corresponding to their specific needs and will allow them matching and optimizing the distribution rounds to the capacity of electric postal delivery bicycles

This paper represents the thermal behaviour of an energy storage system based on advanced lithium-ion capacitors. In the proposed study, an extended statistical analysis has been performed for evaluating the main thermal parameters. Based on the performed analysis, an electro-thermal model and a 3D thermal model have been developed for optimization of the thermal management strategy. The models have been developed for a 2300F lithium ion capacitor cell. The developed models are in good agreement with the experimental results, which indicates that the models can be used for the design and optimization of the thermal management.

Objectives The battery is often considered to be an important environmental concern when analysing electric vehicles. Therefore this study deals with the environmental impact of traction batteries. This research has been performed as a part of the SUBAT-project, which evaluated the opportunity to keep nickel-cadmium traction batteries for electric vehicles on the exemption list of the European Union 'End-of-Life Vehicles Directive' (2000/53). The impacts of the different battery technologies are analysed individually and compared to allow defining the 'cleanest' electric vehicle battery technology. Methodology Five technologies were selected for quantitative analysis: lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, sodium-nickel chloride and lithium-ion. Because the main environmental burdens can lie in different life stages for different products (battery technologies), an overall approach is a must. To this purpose, the most adapted approach is life-cycle analysis. The functional unit has been defined as a battery enabling the car to cover a determined range with a single charge. The combined use of the Simapro software and the life-cycle impact assessment method Eco-indicator 99 allows attributing a single-score to each of the battery technologies. The environmental interaction is assessed considering: extraction of raw materials, processing of materials and components, use phase, recycling of discarded batteries, final disposal and/or incineration. Attributing a single-score to each of the assessed battery technologies is performed after normalisation and weighting. These overall scores allow ranking according to environmental performances. The robustness of the conclusions is demonstrated through sensitivity analysis. Results and conclusions Globally, the lead-acid, nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride technologies have comparable environmental burdens, which is higher than the burden of the other technologies (lithium-ion and sodium-nickel chloride). Amongst others, the environmental impacts are dependent of the performances of each battery technology. They can also be compensated to a large extent if collection and recycling are performed efficiently and on a large scale.