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Plant community assembly is the outcome of long-term evolutionary events (evident as taxonomic diversity; TD) and immediate adaptive fitness (functional diversity; FD); a balance expected to shift in favour of FD in 'harsh' habitats under intense selection pressures. We compared TD and FD responses along climatic and edaphic gradients for communities of two species (Dianthus pseudocrinitus and D. polylepis) endemic to the montane steppes of the Khorassan-Kopet Dagh floristic province, NE Iran. 75 plots at 15 sites were used to relate TD and FD to environmental gradients. In general, greater TD was associated with variation in soil factors (potassium, lime, organic matter contents), whereas FD was constrained by aridity (drought adaptation). Crucially, even plant communities hosting different subspecies of D. polylepis responded differently to aridity: D. polylepis subsp. binaludensis communities included a variety of broadly stress-tolerant taxa with no clear environmental response, but TD of D. polylepis subsp. polylepis communities was directly related to precipitation, with consistently low FD reflecting a few highly specialized stress-tolerators. Integrating taxonomic and functional diversity metrics is essential to understand the communities hosting even extremely closely related taxa, which respond idiosyncratically to climate and soil gradients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of the Herat War and the Ctesiphon Peace Treaty of 591 is relevant since it reveals important aspects of the political, economic and military history. These events had a significant impact on the fates of the Byzantine Empire, the Persian Empire, and the Chinese Khaganate. The study of these events provides a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interrelationships and dynamics of Eastern politics. The academic paper also attempts to summarize the facts on the history of the “Herat War” of 589 from the standpoint of geopolitical analysis. This study involves analyzing historical sources including chronicles and archaeological data to reconstruct events and assess their consequences. The interpretation and analysis of documents and written sources of the time is also an important aspect in order to understand the motives and strategies of the parties involved in the events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil mulches and conditioners have been shown to improve soil moisture conservation, infiltration, and seed germination and survival, but their interactive effects with sporadic rainfall and the existing vegetation have rarely been considered. In an experimental field study, we assessed the effects of soil additives (sawdust and hydrogel) and mulches (river sand and plant debris) on seedling emergence and survival of Astragalus nigricans Barneby, in the rangelands of Mashhad, northeast Iran. We also assessed any effects on soil moisture and temperature several days after rain in July 2017 and May 2018 and weed composition, density, and diversity. The most successful treatment was hydrogel, associated with earlier seedling emergence for A. nigricans, greater seedling survival, and biomass production. Sawdust and sand treatments were useful for root proliferation and seedling emergence in the spring of the first season, but they led to high seedling mortality under drought. Debris of Artemisia khorasanica shoots was the most efficient and consistent treatment for soil moisture conservation and temperature stability in both years, but its possible allelopathic effects led to high seedling mortality and a long delay (41 days) on seedling emergence. Plant debris also negatively affected the density, richness, and diversity of nontarget plant species. Despite differences among different rainfall events, mulch treatments have an important role in regenerating degraded rangelands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is accepted that the word "Turan" is derived from the root "Tur" in the Avesta. Most scholars argue that the word Tur refers to the name of a "tribe" rather than an ethnic origin or a geographical region. While Iran is considered as the representative of the settled culture, Tur (an) is also considered as the representative of the nomadic culture. In this context, Iran and Turan emphasize two different cultural circles. The Sassanids used the word "Iran" as the name of their political order. They based themselves on concepts and elements of the Avestan era. In addition to the concepts of the age of the Avesta, the dualist structure in Zoroastrianism was also transferred to the Sassanid ideology and geography. Terms such as Aniran, Aniranshahr were used in this period as an indication of the "dualistic" mentality. A manifestation of Zoroastrian dualism and opposing elements has also been the term Turan as an antithesis of Iran. In the early Sasanian period, Turan refers to an "enemy" people in the southeast of the country. "Turan" appears in Sasanian inscriptions as a country name towards the end of the 3rd century AD. This term was transferred from the southeast of Sasanian Iran to the northeast and began to be used to include all the steppe peoples of that period. The most important detail of this usage is that no ethnic distinction is made between the peoples called Turanians. This period, which corresponds to the 4th and 5th centuries AD, is a period in which the Huns began to appear in the east of the Sassanids. When the Sassanids encountered these tribes, they identified themselves with the rulers who struggled with the "Turs" in the Avesta. Thus, these tribes, which are the other, were called Turan. Just as the Tur has transformed into Turan, the east of Iran has also transformed into a hybrid structure. Thus, the east of Iran was included in "Transeurasian" line. This has caused Iran to be exposed to the Turanian culture. According to numismatic data, Turan was used synonymously with the word "Turkestan" at the beginning of the 7th century AD. It is not possible for this synonymy/identity to emerge suddenly. Therefore, it can be said that this process started in the Sassanid period at the latest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article concerns the composition and the origin of prestige markers from burial contexts of the Volga-Don region in four chronological groups (3rd–2nd c. BC, 1st c. BC, 1st–mid-2nd c. AD, mid-2nd–mid-3rd c. AD). Certain 'core features' were noticed among male and female sets of prestige goods, which did not change with time, as well as other changing elements in each period. By the origin, the prestige goods are divided into intra-cultural, cross-cultural, and external-cultural ones. The use of prestige goods of different origins at the funerals of the social élite members reflects the inclusion of the societies in various contemporary networks. Thus, during the first period, there are noted connections of the élites of the Western Volga-Don subregion with the élites of the Northern Black Sea (mostly Lower Dnieper and Dniester regions) and Eastern Europe, while the élites of the Eastern subregion were focused on communication with nomadic communities of the Eurasian steppe belt (Siberia, Mongolia, Transbaikalia). In the second period, these interactions generally persisted, while the links with élites of the Iranian world markedly intensified, particularly in the Eastern subregion. In the third period, the Volga-Don élites were predominantly oriented in the direction of Parthian Iran. In the fourth period, the contacts of the barbarian élites of the region are noted mainly with the Bosporan kingdom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elamite Kingdom, which takes its name from the rugged and high geography it reigns, is expressed in cuneiform sources with “Elamtu” meaning “High Land” and its derivative words. The Elamite Kingdom ruled between 3rd-1st millennium BC in the geography known as Southwestern Iran, which includes the Khuzestan, Fars, Luristan, Kerman and Senendaj regions of today's Iran. Considering the cities of Susa and Anshan, which were the capitals of the kingdom, the provinces of Khuzestan and Fars formed the core region of Elamite. Southwestern Iran is a geography rich in landforms and natural resources, where high mountains and wide plains, especially the Zagros Mountains and the Khuzestan Plain, coexist, along with lakes such as Bakhtegan and Maharloo as well as rivers such as Karun and Karkheh. The region, which is adjacent to Mesopotamia, hosts to different climates and plant species. In the region where the arid climate prevails in places, while the high parts are partially covered with trees, the steppe vegetation comes to the fore in the plains. All these geographical factors allow the Southwestern Iran geography to be characterized as a mosaic structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to analyze vegetation data using a phytosociological method and to identify species composition and relationships between vegetation and environmental data in communities that include two threatened species (Dianthus pseudocrinitus Behrooz. & Joharchi and D. polylepis Bien. ex Boiss.) endemic to the montane steppes of Khorassan‐Kopet Dagh floristic province in northeastern Iran. We sampled 75 vegetation plots in 15 sites where the endemic Dianthus species occur. In order to evaluate community characterization of the species, we investigated floristic composition, life‐form spectrum and the phytogeography of the study sites. In all, 370 plant species were recorded, belonging to 184 genera in 45 families. Floristic analysis revealed that Hemicryptophytes are the dominant life‐form in these habitats, and Iran‐Turanian floristic elements contributed 74.5% of the total number of species. Classification analysis based on TWINSPAN showed a clear separation of the study sites based on Dianthus taxa, which was confirmed by detrended correspondence analysis (DCA). The results reflected the highly diverse flora at all Dianthus sites. Species composition and the distribution of vegetation groups were influenced by some environmental factors. Habitats for both species could be managed by a community ecological approach; our study provided a better knowledge of these communities' ecological and floristic composition to enhance effective management and conservation of the threatened species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historical experience of the region on the frontier of civilizations that is the South Caucasus is marked by alternating periods of short-term independence and long-term subordination. The geographical location at the meeting point of the Great Steppe, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia invariably means that political and strategic interests intersect in the region. Thus, since ancient times, the subjugation of the South Caucasus has been a goal within the imperial policies of the powers located south of the Arax River and north of the Great Caucasus range (the most commonly accepted borders of the region). Short-lived periods of formal independence usually did not entail full internal sovereignty and subjectivity in external actions. Different forms of dependency – political, economic, military or cultural and social – defined the internal situation in the region. Historically, the South Caucasus has been stuck between Rome and Persia, Arab caliphates and Byzantium, Turkish states and Persia, being also the object of destructive Mongol and Tamerlan invasions. Since early modernity, the region has been a space of clashing influences and attempts to gain dominance of three imperial ideologies and, at the same time, civilizational visions – Persian (Iranian), Turkish (Ottoman) and Russian (including a somewhat different form of Soviet) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions: (a) Are there contrasting short- and long-term effects of shrubs on understorey species that may balance at the community level? (b) Are these effects due to the responses of different understorey species groups? (c) Are these effects contributing to community composition? Location: An Artemisia steppe community in Golestan National Park (North-East Iran). Methods: We used both the removal and observational methods to separate shortfrom long-term effects of Artemisia sieberi Besser on the cover of 18 subordinate species and the relative interaction index (RII) to calculate species' responses. We conducted a principal components analysis (PCA) on species RII and grouped species with a cluster analysis depending on their responses to the shrubs. Another PCA on understorey composition plots was conducted to assess the consequences of shrub effects for community composition. Results: Artemisia had negative short-term and positive long-term community-level effects that balanced each other to produce neutral net effects. Short- and long-term effects were due to the responses of different species groups, dominantly annuals and perennial grasses, respectively. Although balancing at the community level, the different shrub effects significantly contributed to explain community composition. Conclusions: Our study highlights that a dominant foundation shrub may have contrasting short- and long-term effects on different groups of understorey species that contribute to explain community composition, although balancing at the community level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been a growing interest in understanding how biodiversity affects the functioning of ecosystems, while, it is still unclear how and to what extent different aspects of biodiversity are related to ecosystems function. We tested the relationship between aboveground biomass (AGB) and various aspects of functional diversity (functional richness (FRic), functional evenness (FEve) and functional divergence (FDiv)), functional β diversity and functional composition. Our study areas were located in four different bioclimatic regions including desert-steppe, steppe, semi-steppe, and Mediterranean rangelands extending along a productivity gradient created by the elevational-rainfall variations in the central Zagros Mountains of Iran. The results showed that FDiv positively predicted AGB in more productive (i.e., Mediterranean) and negatively in less productive rangelands of desert-steppe, steppe and semi-steppe. Functional β diversity predicted AGB only in more productive regions in semi-steppe and Mediterranean rangelands. Functional β diversity decomposed into turnover and nestedness, with turnover being more important in more productive and nestedness being more important in less productive ecosystems. The results also showed that the effects of FD and functional β diversity on AGB are generally directed by animal grazing through homogenizing community - wide trait composition in less productive ecosystems and inducing shifting mosaics across locations in more productive ecosystem. The results indicate that different components of FD were significantly related to AGB and the strength and direction of these effects vary with the different components studied and the bioclimatic regions under the study. In higher productive ecosystems, both functional diversity and functional β diversity are likely to contribute more to AGB through the complementary use of the resources. In less productive ecosystems, however , the functional identity of dominant species and traits would drive AGB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions: Studies in alpine environments have highlighted dominant facilitative effects of cushion species for diversity. Many fewer studies have assessed the effects of cushion shrubs in drier and less cold mountain habitats and how these effects vary within the shrub canopy and with increasing drought stress with exposure and disturbance by fire. Location: A mountain steppe of the Golestan National Park in the semi-arid climate of northeast Iran. Methods: We quantified the cover of understorey species at the center and edge of the canopy of the thorny cushion shrub Onobrychis cornuta and in paired open areas, in north and south exposures and unburned and burned plots, two years after a fire. Soil chemical variables and moisture were measured in treatments. We quantified cushions' center and edge effects on understorey species cover with the Relative Interaction Index (RII). Treatment effects on RII cover were analyzed with generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLMM) and species composition with Correspondence Analysis. Results: In unburned plots, competition for cover was very high at cushion centers and strongly decreased at cushion edges. Exposure stress did not affect competition in unburned plots. Fire slightly decreased competition but only at center cushion shrub position and at south exposure. Species composition was mostly affected by exposure and fire treatments, although there was subtle variation in species composition among patches due to fire. Cushion position, fire and exposure treatments affected soil moisture and chemical variables, but soil changes did not explain cushion effects on understorey cover and their variations along treatments. Conclusions: The effects of the cushion shrub were highly negative and in particular at cushion center, likely due to interference and competition for light in a dry and not too cold environment. Fire only slightly decreased competition in the short term, likely due to the delayed response of understorey species to disturbance induced by fire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This case study examined the effect of grazing exclusion on the soil and vegetation characteristics to provide support for the restoration of the degraded desert steppe rangelands of the Arshagh ecoregion. Six sampling sites were selected (three overgrazed and three not grazed sites) from the ecoregion. Vegetation sampling (1 m2 area at 10 intervals) was carried out along 18 pieces of 90 m long transects. Soil samples were collected from the plots at the beginning, middle, and end of each transect from 0–15 cm depths and then combined to get one sample per transect. Differences between vegetation and soil properties of the grazing exclusion and overgrazed sites were analyzed using the t-test statistic. Species richness index (2.32), the diversity index (1.87), and plant cover (69.46%) were maximum at sites after 20-years of grazing exclusion. All species of plant functional types at the exclusion sites were significantly (p < 0.05) different from those at the overgrazed site. Total aboveground net primary production was greater at the exclusion sites (56.50 g/m2) than at the overgrazed sites. Soil pH was significantly (p < 0.05) higher at the exclusion site than at the overgrazed sites. Electrical conductivity was significantly higher at the overgrazed sites than at the exclusion sites. These results imply that livestock exclusion plays an important role in such vegetation parameters as the diversity, cover and soil properties of degraded rangeland ecosystems. Moreover, grazing exclusion in Arshagh rangelands may be a promising management option for the restoration of such rangelands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palynological analysis and radiocarbon dating of a short sediment core from a high-altitude mire in the Arasbaran area of northwestern Iran reveals long-term vegetation dynamics, climate change and anthropogenic impact. Our findings indicate the prevalence of semi-desert steppe vegetation, with a variety of Asteraceae – mainly Lactuceae – species from 3000 to 1440 cal yr BP. This period is followed by a higher occurrence of Artemisia spp. and Brassicaceae (1440–1330 cal yr BP), a re-expansion of Lactuceae (1330–1030 cal yr BP) and Brassicaceae (1030–330 cal yr BP) and, finally, Caryophyllaceae species (since 330 cal yr BP). The reconstructed millennia-long dry climate in the highlands of northwestern Iran is in good accordance with climate reconstructions from other east Mediterranean sites. Two phases of moister conditions between 2100–1400 and 1000–350 cal yr BP would correspond to altitudinal Quercus–Carpinus forest expansion in the Arasbaran area. The earliest indication of anthropogenic activity in the area dates back to the onset of the record, around 3000 cal yr BP. The occurrence of small maxima of Juglans regia, Corylus avellana and Cornus mas pollen at around 1350 cal yr BP is interpreted to reflect a temporary expansion of fruit cultivation. For the last millennium the occurrence of pollen attributable to Polygonum, Euphorbia, Plantago and Rumex suggests a diversification of steppe vegetation, which may reflect intensified agropastoral activities in the Arasbaran highlands. Based on our pollen record, the regional vegetation in the Kalan area remained largely stable over the last three millennia. However, changes in local hydrology caused substantial changes in wetland vegetation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endemic species are believed to converge on narrow ranges of traits, with rarity reflecting adaptation to specific environmental regimes. We hypothesized that endemism is characterized by limited trait variability and environmental tolerances in two Dianthus species (Dianthus pseudocrinitus and Dianthus polylepis) endemic to the montane steppes of northeastern Iran. We measured leaf functional traits and calculated Grime's competitor/stress-tolerator/ruderal (CSR) adaptive strategies for these and co-occurring species in seventy-five 25-m2 quadrats at 15 sites, also measuring a range of edaphic, climatic, and topographic parameters. While plant communities converged on the stress-tolerator strategy, D. pseudocrinitus exhibited functional divergence from S- to R-selected (C:S:R = 12.0:7.2:80.8% to 6.8:82.3:10.9%). Canonical correspondence analysis, in concert with Pearson's correlation coefficients, suggested the strongest associations with elevation, annual temperature, precipitation seasonality, and soil fertility. Indeed, variance (s2) in R- and S-values for D. pseudocrinitus at two sites was exceptionally high, refuting the hypothesis of rarity via specialization. Rarity, in this case, is probably related to recent speciation by polyploidy (neoendemism) and dispersal limitation. Dianthus polylepis, in contrast, converged towards stress-tolerance. 'Endemism' is not synonymous with 'incapable', and polyploid neoendemics promise to be particularly responsive to conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mt Kuh-e Siah of Lendeh in Dehdasht (Kohgiloyeh and Boyer Ahmad Province, SW Iran) is part of the Zagros Mountain Range with amplitude from 1000 m to 3000 m a.s.l. Floristic characteristics and vegetation structure of the mountain were surveyed during the growing seasons of 2011 and 2012. Altogether, 282 vascular plant taxa belonging to 198 genera and 65 families were identified in the area. Asteraceae and Fabaceae were the species-richest families. A floristic analysis indicated that hemicryptophytes were the predominating life forms in that mountain. Moreover, from phytogeographical point of view and despite the area’s closeness to the Saharo-Sindian and Saharo-Arabian phytogeographical regions, Irano-Turanian elements were the dominant chorotype in the flora of the area. More importantly, 32 Iranian endemic species and 38 threatened plant taxa existed in that region. As the area is one of the least known and inaccessible points of the Zagros oak woodlands, the result of the current study could serve as a scientific backbone for biodiversity conservation of these important ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The floristic composition of pistachio-woodland (Pistacieta atlantici) of Georgia (South Caucasus) is studied. 250 species of vascular plants, which belong to 174 genera and 50 families, were recorded. Floristic structure, composition of chorotypes and life forms are commented. Based on the systematic structure of this flora and composition of chorotypes, 3 the main directions of florogenetic connections are identified: 1. South-West Asia, 2. Mediterranean, 3. Eurasian steppe. Attenuated form shows the impact of Iran-Turan deserts and connections to Europe. It was found that the formation of pistachio-woodland of Georgia was implemented in the bosom of Ancient Mediterranean with close contact with the boreal flora. Connection with savannas is not observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two key moments shaped the extant South Asian gene pool within the last 10 thousand years (ka): the Neolithic period, with the advent of agriculture and the rise of the Harappan/Indus Valley Civilisation; and Late Bronze Age events that witnessed the abrupt fall of the Harappan Civilisation and the arrival of Indo-European speakers. This study focuses on the phylogeographic patterns of mitochondrial haplogroups H2 and H13 in the Indian Subcontinent and incorporates evidence from recently released ancient genomes from Central and South Asia. It found signals of Neolithic arrivals from Iran and later movements in the Bronze Age from Central Asia that derived ultimately from the Steppe. This study shows how a detailed mtDNA phylogeographic approach, combining both modern and ancient variation, can provide evidence of population movements, even in a scenario of strong male bias such as in the case of the Bronze Age Steppe dispersals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study traces the evolution of quruq - a Mongol term referring to something restricted, embargoed - from its original meaning as a royal burial or hunting ground off-limits to commoners, to what it came to signify in the (late) Safavid period - the embargoed, male-free and eunuch-controlled zone surrounding royal females during their appearance in the public arena. I show how the growing incidence of quruq in 17th-century Iran reflects the transition of the Safavid polity from a steppe dispensation to a sedentary order, turning what used to be the freerange mobility of an ambulant court into controlled mobility fit for urban royal living. The final part of the study documents how quruq persisted long beyond the safavids, only to fade in the late 19th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Marmara University Journal of Turkology / Marmara Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi is the property of Marmara University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

One of the famous theories in ecology is the humped-back model (HBM) which explains that habitats with intermediate productivity and disturbance support the most species. Most studies on HBM patterns have been conducted for herbaceous species. Knowledge about this theory in arid and semi-arid communities is still weak, especially with severe environments and disturbances containing woody plants. In this study, an analysis is presented on species richness–productivity relationship along a gradient of disturbance and stress in some steppe and semi steppe rangelands in Iran. A nonlinear curve-fitting approach was used that fitted a three-parameter Gaussian curve between species richness and productivity across 180 plots (1 m 2 ). Mitchell-Olds and Shaw 's test (MOS) was used to assess the significance of the humped-back curve. Data were collected from six rangelands, including all life forms of species (grasses, forbs and small shrubs) with litter. Fitted Gaussian curve showed a positive trend between productivity and species richness across a decreasing gradient of disturbance in which species richness was increased. Maximum values for species richness correspond to values of plant productivity in undisturbed sites with a moderate stress. The MOS test showed a significant positive trend in the curve which means that the observed shape in the species richness–productivity relationship covers the mechanisms located in low to medium productivity in the left-hand side of the humped-back model. In other words, this research did not detect a full unimodal curve. This is because of less productivity in the arid and semi-arid ecosystems with abiotic stress. However, there was a partial support for the humped-back model in this study. Hence, more studies to test the existence of a humped-back model in such areas, would be required to reveal all aspects of this relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Basic & Applied Ecology is the property of Urban & Fischer Verlag and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

• Our study investigated diversity of different guilds of species (i.e. annuals, lichens) in Artemisia sieberi dominated steppes in Irano-Turanian region. • High diversity of lichens and plant species were observed in Artemisia steppes. • There are highly significant relationship between the lichen composition and annual plant species composition. • Artemisia dominated landscapes look homogenous but there are significant differences in species composition of different guilds among locations, which result in highly diverse habitats. In this study, we aim to evaluate the diversity of vascular plants and lichens coexisting in Artemisia sieberi dominated landscapes of northern Iran. Specifically, we wanted to unveil to what extent Artemisia plant cover and soil features affected species diversity and composition of annuals and lichens growing beneath them, and if annual plants and lichen species were associated at fine spatial scales. The study area was located in Artemisia steppes in North-Eastern Iran. Therefore, four localities dominated by Artemisia sieberi in Golestan National Park and Alagol wetland were selected. We quantified plant and lichen species cover in 5 plots in each location, including 25 subplots and five soil samples to characterize edaphic heterogeneity. Data were analyzed using GLM, NMDS, PERMANOVA, and Mantel Tests. We recorded 19 lichen species, three moss species, and 21 annual plant species in the four localities. Alagol and Alikhani had the most similar lichen compositions and Almeh showed great differences with other sites. However, Bagh and Almeh had the most similar and the most different annual species composition comparing the rest locations, respectively. Location explained 50% and 30% of the variance in lichens and annuals species composition, respectively. Soil chemical properties had no significant influences on lichens and annuals parameters except for Mg content in lichen evenness and clay content on total plant cover. We found a highly significant relationship between the lichen composition and annual plant species composition on fine scale (Mantel r: 0.13; p = 0.0003). The cover of Artemisia explained significant but tiny fractions of lichen species composition (1%) and annual plant species composition (2%) at subplot level. Artemisia steppes of northeastern Iran are not homogeneous habitats and shelter high diversity in lichen and annual plant species. Site location conditions may explain the differences among lichens and annuals compositions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Our study investigated the effect of smoke and heat on three perennial grasses species from Western Asian grasslands. • Germination of the study species was reduced by the heat treatments. • Germination of S. zalesskii was increased in parental burn environment. • The effects of parental burn environment should be considered to better understand fire impacts in different ecossystems. Smoke and heat as germination cues are some of the most important drivers stimulating seed germination. However, the impact of germination factors from wildfire (i.e., smoke and heat) on the germination of species occurring in western Asia has rarely been investigated. We aimed to analyze the effects of different smoke and heat treatments on seed germination of three perennial grasses (Festuca valesiaca, Poa densa, and Stipa zalesskii) collected from two non-burned and burned environments of the mountain steppes in Golestan National Park, Iran. Seeds were germinated on filter paper following smoke (1:2000, 1:1000, and 1:500, v/v) or heat (50, 80, 100°C) treatments. Results showed that the germination of study species was reduced by heat treatments, whereas no particular response was observed with the smoke treatments. Interestingly, the fire history influenced magnitude of effects of fire-related germination cues, leading to slightly lower germination for F. valesiaca and P. densa and higher germination for S. zalesskii. Our results indicate that fire-related germination cues have different impacts on these grassland species. The consideration of the fire history of specific sites on germination ecology seems important to understand the effects of fire on the plant communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the modern pollen rain in Western Iran, particularly in the Mesopotamian steppe or lower elevations and piedmont savanna. It also focuses on the pollen rain's association with quaternary vegetational history and plant geography. A high percentage of Plantago, Zagros oak woodland by Quercus, and the plateau steppe by Artemisua and chenopods are found in the region. Through the comparison of pollen content with tree counts and herb plots, it was concluded that in the pollen rain, the Pistacia pollen, and other pollinated trees are under-represented.

Next generation sequencing has revolutionised biology. Restriction-associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) has primarily been used to study infraspecific relationships but has also been applied in multi-species phylogenomic analyses. In this study, we used a combination of phylogenomic (with RADseq data) and phylogenetic (with sequences of the nuclear internal transcribed spacer, ITS) methods to explore relationships within the taxonomically intricate Euphorbia seguieriana s. l., one of the most widespread Euphorbia taxa inhabiting zonal and extrazonal steppes from Iberia to Central Asia. In the inferred phylogenies the southeastern Balkan and Anatolian populations were clearly separated, supporting the distinction of E. niciciana from E. seguieriana at the species level. Within E. seguieriana, the populations from the Caucasus, Iran, and easternmost Anatolia were sister to all other populations based on RADseq, making necessary the description of a new, morphologically divergent subspecies, E. seguieriana subsp. armeniaca. Conversely, additional studies are needed to understand the status of E. seguieriana subsp. hohenackeri, which is sympatric with E. seguieriana subsp. armeniaca. Niche analyses indicated that differences in the climatic niche between E. niciciana and E. seguieriana are relatively small compared with the climatic differences between the regions over which they are distributed. Contrary to previous believes, E. niciciana and E. seguieriana are allopatric and have likely diverged during the Pleistocene in two different glacial refugia as suggested by distribution modelling. Euphorbia niciciana nowadays has a submediterranean distribution, occupying habitats that are slightly warmer, moister, and less seasonal in temperature but more seasonal in precipitation than E. seguieriana, a characteristic species of continental steppes. Using flow cytometry, we demonstrate that the relative genome sizes of E. niciciana and E. seguieriana differ significantly. Additionally, multivariate morphometric analyses of 56 morphological characters indicated clear morphological divergence of the two species. Importantly, we also provide a revised taxonomic treatment including formal nomenclatural changes, an identification key and species descriptions. Our study demonstrates that an integrative approach, combining modern phylogenomic methods with traditional phylogenetic, cytogenetic, environmental and morphological analyses can result in satisfactorily resolved relationships in intricate groups of closely related species. Finally, phylogenetic inference using ITS sequences is still a useful tool for resolving relationships among the taxa at the species level, but the phylogenomic approach based on RADseq data certainly provides better resolution both among and within species., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)