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Simple Summary: Bait-based fertility control could contribute to rodent pest management. Bait containing 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) and triptolide (TP), registered as ContraPest®, was delivered to male common voles to assess the effects on reproductive structures and residues in the liver and testes. There were no effects or inconclusive effects for most reproductive parameters considered. However, there was an increase in sperm defects in voles treated for 14/28 days and fewer normal sperm cells in voles treated for 28 days. There were no TP residues in the testes, few and low TP residues and no VCD residues in the liver tissue. Treatments with VCD + TP seemed to have minor effects on male reproductive organs. Some rodent species cause significant damage to agriculture and forestry, and some can transmit pathogens to humans and livestock. The common vole (Microtus arvalis) is widespread in Europe, and its population outbreaks have resulted in massive crop loss. Bait-based fertility control could contribute to rodent pest management. Bait containing 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) and triptolide (TP), registered as ContraPest®, was delivered to male common voles for 14 or 28 consecutive days. The effects on reproductive structures and residues in the liver and testes were assessed. There was no effect on testis weight, sperm viability, sperm motility and oxidative stress in sperm cells. Results regarding the mitochondrial membrane potential of sperm, DNA fragmentation and progressively motile sperm cells were inconclusive. However, there was an increase in morphological sperm defects in voles treated for 14/28 days and fewer normal sperm cells in voles treated for 28 days. There were no TP residues in the testes, few and low TP residues and no VCD residues in liver tissues, making considerable secondary exposure to non-target species unlikely. Treatments with VCD + TP seemed to have minor effects on the reproductive organs of males. Further studies should evaluate the effect of VCD + TP on females and on the reproductive success of common voles and other pest rodent species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Current trends of human population growth and landscape development in Europe suggest that wildlife impacts will increase. Traditional methods to mitigate these impacts, such as culling, can be ineffective, environmentally harmful and often publicly opposed. Contraceptives might be an alternative to culling. This review focuses on contraceptives for mammals and birds, currently registered or widely tested, which might be considered for European wildlife. The review describes the effects of contraceptives on reproduction and welfare, the methods and challenges of contraceptive administration to large numbers of animals, the potential cost and feasibility of using fertility control and the knowledge gaps in this area. Contexts and species for using contraceptives to reduce the impacts of European wildlife include small, isolated wildlife populations, charismatic species and situations in which lethal control is either illegal or publicly unacceptable, such as urban environments and national parks. The review provides guidance to assist decisions about the potential use of wildlife fertility control and lists eight main reasons for Europe to invest in this area, and particularly in developing oral contraceptives which will allow large-scale applications of wildlife fertility control. This would be crucial for Europe, where humans and wildlife are increasingly sharing space and resources. Trends of human population growth and landscape development in Europe show that wildlife impacts are escalating. Lethal methods, traditionally employed to mitigate these impacts, are often ineffective, environmentally hazardous and face increasing public opposition. Fertility control is advocated as a humane tool to mitigate these impacts. This review describes mammalian and avian wildlife contraceptives' effect on reproduction of individuals and populations, delivery methods, potential costs and feasibility of using fertility control in European contexts. These contexts include small, isolated wildlife populations and situations in which lethal control is either illegal or socially unacceptable, such as urban settings, national parks and areas where rewilding occurs. The review highlights knowledge gaps, such as impact of fertility control on recruitment, social and spatial behaviour and on target and non-target species, provides a decision framework to assist decisions about the potential use of wildlife fertility control, and suggests eight reasons for Europe to invest in this area. Although developing and registering contraceptives in Europe will have substantial costs, these are relatively small when compared to wildlife's economic and environmental impact. Developing safe and effective contraceptives will be essential if European countries want to meet public demand for methods to promote human–wildlife coexistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the determinants of the fertility decline in Europe from 1830 to 1970 using a newly constructed data set of linguistic distances between European regions. The decline resulted from the gradual diffusion of new fertility behaviour from French-speaking regions to the rest of Europe. Societies with higher education, lower infant mortality, higher urbanisation and higher population density had lower levels of fertility during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. However, the fertility decline took place earlier in communities that were culturally closer to the French, while the fertility transition spread only later to societies that were more distant from the frontier. This is consistent with a process of social influence, whereby societies that were culturally closer to the French faced lower barriers to learning new information and adopting novel attitudes regarding fertility control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whole-genome sequencing is a promising approach for human autosomal dominant disease studies. However, the vast number of genetic variants observed by this method constitutes a challenge when trying to identify the causal variants. This is often handled by restricting disease studies to the most damaging variants, e.g. those found in coding regions, and overlooking the remaining genetic variation. Such a biased approach explains in part why the genetic causes of many families with dominantly inherited diseases, in spite of being included in whole-genome sequencing studies, are left unsolved today. Here we explore the use of a geographically matched control population to minimize the number of candidate disease-causing variants without excluding variants based on assumptions on genomic position or functional predictions. To exemplify the benefit of the geographically matched control population we apply a typical disease variant filtering strategy in a family with an autosomal dominant form of colorectal cancer. With the use of the geographically matched control population we end up with 26 candidate variants genome wide. This is in contrast to the tens of thousands of candidates left when only making use of available public variant datasets. The effect of the local control population is dual, it (1) reduces the total number of candidate variants shared between affected individuals, and more importantly (2) increases the rate by which the number of candidate variants are reduced as additional affected family members are included in the filtering strategy. We demonstrate that the application of a geographically matched control population effectively limits the number of candidate disease-causing variants and may provide the means by which variants suitable for functional studies are identified genome wide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on genetic engineering and its relation to the scientific industrial community. The author noted that genetic engineering leads directly to the concern of abortion, and this is an area which has affected the pharmaceutical industry. Abortion, he said, is the most practiced method of birth control. It is not considered as a preventive medical practice, but rather might be taken as a cure for a disease, if one considered an unwanted pregnancy to be a disease. He emphasized that in many countries in Eastern Europe, abortion is available free on demand and that the number of abortions surpasses the volume of births.

Unintended pregnancy is a public health concern throughout Europe. There is no common definition and no standard way to measure unintended pregnancy. Identifying unintended births is difficult and prevalence estimates vary depending on how and when the question is asked. Abortion rates are not a proxy and are themselves notoriously inaccurate. An estimated 34% (in Western Europe) to 54% (in Eastern Europe) of pregnancies are unintended. The determinants of unintended pregnancy are the length of the reproductive span and exposure to the risk of conception; the desired number of children and contraceptive use and effectiveness. The age of sexual debut fell during the 20th century in Europe to between 15 and 18 years of age. Mean age at first birth for women is now over 30 years in most European countries and most couples want no more than two children. Thus most couples must use contraception perfectly for many years in order to avoid unintended pregnancy. Use of effective contraception is high throughout most of Europe but there is scope, through better provision of sexual health services, better formal sex education and better training of providers, to increase the uptake of the most effective contraceptives and improve use of all methods. For individual women unintended pregnancy can be a disaster and recourse to induced abortion should be freely available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this research was to develop a questionnaire to facilitate choice of the most appropriate contraceptive method for individual women.Methods: A literature review was conducted to identify key aspects influencing contraceptive choice and inform development of a questionnaire for online completion. Questionnaire development was overseen by a steering committee consisting of eight gynaecologists from across Europe. The initial draft underwent conceptual validation through cognitive debriefing interviews with six native English-speaking women. A qualitative content analysis was conducted to accurately identify potential issues and areas for questionnaire improvement. A revised version of the questionnaire then underwent face-to-face and online evaluation by 115 international gynaecologists/obstetricians with expertise in contraception, prior to development of a final version.Results: The final conceptually validated Contraception: HeLping for wOmen's choicE (CHLOE) questionnaire takes ≤10 min to complete and includes three sections to elicit general information about the individual, the health conditions that might influence contraceptive choice, and the woman's needs and preferences that might influence contraceptive choice. The questionnaire captures the core aspects of personalisation, efficacy and safety, identified as key attributes influencing contraceptive choice, and consists of 24 closed-ended questions for online completion prior to a health care provider (HCP) consultation. The HCP receives a summary of the responses.Conclusion: The CHLOE questionnaire has been developed to help women choose the contraception that best suits their needs and situation while optimising the HCP's time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between 2010 and 2015, births to teenage mothers were more frequent in England than in France, due partly to alower level of contraceptive use and less frequent recourseto abortion. But behaviours are changing. Thanks to effortsto inform young people about sexuality and contraception,along with greater use of contraceptives and recourse toabortion, the teenage fertility rate has fallen sharply inEngland in recent years and is moving closer to the levelsobserved in the rest of western Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: The choice of a birth control method is influenced by sociocultural and personal factors. We explored the perceived influences in women''s choice of a birth control method in five European countries (Germany, France, the UK, Romania and Sweden), where contraception is widely used. Study Design: This is a cross-sectional study of 1137 randomly selected women aged 18–49 years. An anonymous, 31-item questionnaire related to birth control methods was used. Logistic regression was used to identify variables associated with partner participation in choice of a contraceptive. Results: Oral contraceptives were mainly used in Germany (54.3%), France (50.5%) and Sweden (34.6%) and condoms in the UK (29.6%) and Romania (22.9%). Sweden showed the highest use of intrauterine devices (IUD, 19%). Romania had the lowest use of contraception. Oral contraceptives and IUDs use were frequently suggested by providers instead of by women. Choosing the method with the partner was associated with age [odds ratio (OR)=0.97, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.94–0.99], being a university graduate (OR=1.59, 95% CI 1.01–2.29), married (OR=1.52, 95% CI 1.01–2.29) and with using a method that requires partner''s cooperation (OR=8.18, 95% CI 5.46–12.27). Conclusions: Hormonal contraceptives and IUDs are commonly recommended by providers rather than requested by women. Partner preferences are taken into account when his cooperation in the use of the method is needed. As fertility care is a male and female issue, there is still more room for actively involving both women and men in their choice of a birth control method. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The making of the modern Ottoman state in the 19th century was closely interrelated with population issues and policies. ‘Population’ became an important component of Ottoman history throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. As the state identified the ‘population’ as a source of income after the Tanzimat, it tried to protect and procreate it through certain institutional arrangements and regulations. These policies consisted of protecting the existing population, controlling population movements, promoting procreation, and giving subsidies and lending money at interest to peasant families. The procreation policies included enforcement of marriages and encouragement of reproduction within marriages while they discouraged traditional birth control methods and practices. As in any other context, Ottoman families resisted the policies of procreation and pressures coming from the central government. This paper will examine the state''s policies toward families and individuals as well as the responses of the people to these policies. I will attempt to construct a model based on the protection and the procreation policies of the modern Ottoman state, which will be an important springboard toward building a basis for conducting comparative analysis with other European states. By doing this, I will try to challenge some of the established assumptions on the nature of the ‘modern state’ in the 19th century. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this paper, I argue that living with no or few children and low fertility was widespread in pre-industrial societies. After a critical discussion of demographic transition theory and the concept of "natural fertility", I investigate fertility in early modern Europe. In doing so, I follow the suggestion of "cultural demography" and combine quantitative and qualitative research. I show a great extent and many variations of deliberate birth control before the "fertility decline" took place. This finding should help to see the actual level of fertility as less exceptional and dramatic than it is often claimed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most of the publications on isotretinoin, pregnancy and compliance with the pregnancy prevention programme (PPP) originate from North America. Information specific for the European situation is very limited. The aim of this study was to identify publications describing the use of isotretinoin in humans and the compliance with the PPP in Europe, a systematic search in Medline and Embase was conducted using the terms 'isotretinoin, pregnancy (and Europe)'. Furthermore, a manual search in publications was performed. A total of 17 publications were identified. Publications consisted of case reports of exposed pregnancies, surveys among dermatologists or pharmacists and database studies evaluating compliance with the PPP. The studies and surveys dealt with groups of patients exposed to isotretinoin before or during pregnancy and/or compliance with the isotretinoin PPP. Where the information was provided, in 6-26% of cases isotretinoin was prescribed in full accordance with the PPP. Pregnancy incidence was seen in 0·2-1·0 per 1000 women of childbearing age using isotretinoin. Between 65% and 87% of these pregnancies were terminated. This review of studies in Europe performed to date shows failures in the implementation of the PPP. Therefore, the isotretinoin PPP must be scrutinized to identify whether new measures should be taken or whether the failures in the implementation need to be corrected. New measures should take into account the definition of the ultimate goal of a PPP and the acceptable burden. In the meantime, stakeholders could make a start with adjustments in the implementation of the PPP by taking responsibility and enhancing the performance by explicit instructions, monitoring the performance and adjusting, if necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This introduction discusses the contributions in the special issue. The articles present results concerning the practice of birth control, mainly at the family level. They represent different analytical approaches where both interviews, letters, surveys and micro-level data have been used. The European fertility decline has made a fundamental change to the societies in the 20th and 21st centuries. Birth control spreads rapidly. Research in this field requires both qualitative and quantitative studies, where both approaches contribute to different perspectives on the transition. The articles in the issue discuss several themes in relation to birth control, of which three are developed in the introduction. These are gender and fertility, gender and health and finally how to control fertility. The presented results demonstrate the importance of including gender in the analyses of the fertility decline. A gender perspective makes it natural to consider historical persons as agents. It is also necessary to acknowledge that we should not treat the married couple as a single unit. They may have conflicting interests, something that several of the articles illustrate. One aspect we would like to emphasize is how health problems can influence the will to have more children and this affects birth control. This is a theme that in different forms is taken up by several of the authors. Finally, families practiced birth control with several different methods that also changed throughout the married years, thus demonstrating a flexibility that is often overlooked in conventional methods for the analysis of fertility. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objectives To assess the profile of long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs) users in Europe. Methods A random sample of women aged 15-49 years in 14 European countries (Germany, France, UK, Spain, Italy, Russian Federation, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) underwent web-based or computer-aided face-to-face interviews in June 2006. In this paper data pertaining to a subgroup of women using LARCs are presented. Results A total of 11,490 women participated in the full study. Of these, 1,188 (10%) women were LARC (hormonal implant, injectables, levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system [LNG-IUS], copper intrauterine device [Cu-IUD]) users. The age of the LARC users exceeded 30 years for 57-91% of them. Furthermore, more than half of them found convenience an extremely important factor when selecting the LARC as a contraceptive method. As compared to those wearing a Cu-IUD, women using hormonal LARCs experienced fewer physical and emotional symptoms that appeared or worsened during menstruation. Conclusions LARCs have their place in the contraceptive market in Europe. The most popular LARCs among European women were the LNG-IUS and the Cu-IUD; both were mainly used by women who had children and had no wish to have more in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most European countries face regulatory challenges in the reproduction field that were triggered by feminist claims for reproductive rights and by the technological development of assisted reproductive technologies (ART). State responses to these reproductive challenges differ strongly in terms of regulatory scope and content. By reviewing the explanations offered in the literature, this paper concludes that if institutional arrangements at the national level do not tend to exert a clear systematic and direct impact on abortion and ART policy outputs, strong coherence within the medical community does explain a great deal of the variation among policies. However, it shows that physicians, confronted to strong public controversy, have been forced to accept compromise with their challengers by forging alliances either with women's movements or with pro-life actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives To assess current and past contraceptive usage, awareness of and satisfaction with available methods, and sexual and reproductive behaviour of women in 14 European countries (Spain, Italy, UK, France, Germany, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Czech Republic, Austria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Russian Federation). Methods A random sample of women aged 15–49 years underwent web-based or computer-aided face-to-face interviews in June 2006. All data were weighted to correct for differences between the samples surveyed in each country relative to their general population, and further weighted relative to the size of the overall female population across the participating countries. Results A total of 11,490 women participated in the study. The mean age at first sexual intercourse ranged between 16.5 and 18.5 years. The use of contraception at first intercourse varied significantly across Europe – the rates were the highest in Germany (76%) and France (72%), and the lowest in Russia, the Czech Republic and the Baltic States (29–40%). There was considerable heterogeneity in the general pattern of current contraceptive usage between countries. Oral contraceptives were the most popular current method of contraception, with usage rates highest in France (49%) and the Czech Republic (44%) and lowest in Russia, the Baltic States and Spain (15–18%). The current absence of contraception was fairly consistent across countries, ranging from 21–30%. However, Russia (57%) and the Baltic States (50%) had the highest proportion of women using either no contraception or ‘other methods’ (mostly methods considered unreliable). Conclusions Oral contraceptives remain a popular method of contraception in Europe; however, great differences exist in contraception acceptance and in the rates of use of the various methods. A sizeable proportion of women do not currently use contraception or use contraceptive methods considered to be unreliable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 34 years since the 25 April 1974 Carnation Revolution, there have been sporadic efforts by progressive forces to legalize abortion in Portugal. This activity has intensified over the past nine years, culminating with two national referenda on the subject. This article investigates the Roman Catholic Church's contemporary role in Portuguese society. That is, would the Church maintain its traditional influential role over public policy formation in a secularizing Portugal, especially related to its moral teaching? Additionally, the authors identify another dimension of the national debate over abortion: the pro-choice side's successful harmonization of its rhetoric to certain traditional communal values found in Portuguese society - namely compassion, solidarity and support - and, in so doing, forged a recovery of those values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with sociological, demographical and demogeographical aspects of the singles phenomenon in Europe and in Slovakia. Since issues such as the increasing number of singles, cohabitations, and individualism are being reflected in everyday popular culture, clichés arise depicting the singles as people who are high earning egoists having uninhibited sexual life. The main aim of the article is to overview the existing definitions of such phenomena since in Slovakia they are not yet conceptually, empirically and critically elaborated. Another aim of the article is to depict general situation in European countries paying special attention to Slovak-specific features. Singles represent and will represent serious structural element of the future demographical change. This is why they enter population forecasting and should be concerned in population policy decisions and family planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The accessibility and availability of abortion are a reflection of abortion law and the accessibility and availability of abortion services. Experiences from six European countries with different political, cultural, social and religious backgrounds (the Netherlands, France, Great Britain, Slovenia, Hungary and Turkey) are presented. Results: Abortion laws in Europe range from complete prohibition to complete liberalization of abortion. Some countries demand a waiting period for the procedure, pre-abortion counseling, parental approval for minors, and in the others there are no mandatory requirements. Abortions are generally performed in authorized facilities by gynecologists or general practitioners. Abortion services are easily accessible, in terms of the law, availability of facilities and health insurance coverage of the procedure in the Netherlands, France and Slovenia. Abortion service is less accessible in United Kingdom, Hungary and Turkey, as a result of limited accessibility to abortion services or a relatively high abortion fee. In some Eastern European countries there has been a tendency in the last decade to limit the availability and access to abortion. Conclusions: In Europe abortion is generally well accessible in terms of abortion laws. There are differences in accessibility to abortion services between the countries, and in some countries, also between different areas of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers the economic implications of the stalling birth rates and demographic development in Europe. To remedy for this it proposes a child pension system. This system allows additional pension facilities depending on the number of children raised. It should be a PAYG pension financed with an income tax. The main motivation for this is that parents have invested resources which also benefit society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The choice of currently available contraceptive methods has increased considerably in recent years, offering women of reproductive age a variety of different methods dependent on their needs and lifestyle. In order to determine the pattern of use of current methods in contraception, a survey was conducted in a large population of women drawn from five European countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom).Method: More than 12,000 randomly selected women, aged 15-49 years, were interviewed using a standardized questionnaire which addressed the use of current methods of contraception. The responses were analyzed for the total study population, and, where appropriate, by country and age.Results: An oral contraceptive (OC) was confirmed as the most widely used method of contraception for women in the European study population, with an estimated 22 million users in the five countries. Women using an OC reported very high levels of satisfaction (>90%). Male and female sterilization were the main methods of contraception in women aged 40 years and older. One-half of the women had undergone their sterilization before the age of 35 years. More than 50% of the women who had undergone sterilization had not been adequately informed and counselled about alternative reversible contraceptive options. No method of contraception was being used currently by 23% of the European study population, and unreliable methods of contraception (including cap/diaphragm, chemical, and natural and withdrawal methods) were being used by a further 6% of the population. Although valid reasons (e.g. not in a sexual relationship, wish to become pregnant) were given by many women who were not using contraception, there still remains a large number of women who need counselling regarding the importance of using reliable contraceptive methods. The number of women aged 15-49 years in the five European countries who are considered at risk of an unwanted pregnancy is estimated to be 4.7 million (6.5%).Conclusions: Differences in the use pattern of contraceptive methods were demonstrated that emphasize the social and cultural differences between the countries. The findings in the current study can be used as a baseline from which to monitor trends in contraceptive use and behavior in subsequent studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many scholars have argued that deliberate birth spacing may have played a role before and during the modern fertility transition. There are good historical and theoretical reasons for this view, but it has proved to be hard to demonstrate convincingly that birth intervals were in fact partly determined by attempts at deliberate fertility control. This paper suggests a method of securing evidence on the issue for married couples. The method is applied to three cohorts living in a Belgian town in the nineteenth century. The findings indicate that, even before the fertility transition, couples in the working class were controlling their fertility by deliberate spacing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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BACKGROUND: A number of menstrual cycle monitors have been developed to detect the fertile window of the menstrual cycle, mainly for contraceptive purposes. Reliable data on most of these systems are still missing but are urgently needed because many women use them and the tested systems differ enormously in price and effectiveness. We suggest a new efficacy estimating method to evaluate cycle monitors prior to full prospective clinical trials. METHODS: Sixty-two women prospectively tested seven cycle monitors and the symptothermal method (STM) of natural family planning (NFP) but not more than two different systems at the same time. The clinical fertile window was determined by detecting the day of ovulation using daily urinary LH measurements and daily ultrasonic folliculometry. This was compared to the fertile phase predicted by the systems. Maximum failure rates were estimated for each cycle monitor and the STM, using the daily conception probability rates taken from the European Fecundability Study. Intercourse was assumed to occur on each of all falsely predicted days of infertility. RESULTS: Sixty-two women with a mean age of 31 years (range: 21-42 years) contributed a total of 122 cycles to this study. Monitors based on the microscopic evaluation of saliva or mucus had many more false infertile days than the other methods based on temperature or hormonal measurements (225 versus 42 days). The maximum unintended pregnancy rates per cycle for temperature computers were estimated to be 0.0134-0.0336, for the hormonal computer 0.1155 and for mini-microscopes 0.2313-0.2369. For the STM of NFP, there were no false infertile days. CONCLUSIONS: The STM of NFP proved to be the most effective contraceptive method to detect the fertile window among all the methods tested. The estimated efficacy of the other cycle monitors range from the temperature computers (upper level) to the hormonal computer (medium level) and the mini-microscopes with very low estimated contraceptive efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on medical professionals of Great Britain and also emphasizes on radical social and sexual reformers during the interwar years. It considers some of the interpersonal politics surrounding sexual reform in Europe. The World League for Sexual Reform (WLSR) was not a medical organization, although the League stipulated that its work was based upon the findings of sexual science and many doctors were involved in it. The WLSR was predominantly an organization committed to reforming society's attitudes about sexuality and consequently its ranks included many people from outside medical profession. Dora Winifred Russell, wife of Cambridge philosopher and radical Bertrand Russell, was born in Thornton Heath, Croydon, on April 3, 1894. She remained committed to leftist politics throughout her adult life. She went to Russia on a peace mission in 1920, was interested in Communism, stood (unsuccessfully) for Parliament as the Labor candidate and was involved in feminism, birth control, education, and sexual reforms. She herself suggested that her involvement with the League was fundamental in stimulating her later ties to other political movements. Norman Haire was born in Sydney on January 21, 1892, was educated there at Fort St. School and trained in medicine at the University of Sydney. He served his residency at Sydney Hospital and the Royal Women's Hospital, Paddington. He made a name for himself through his brutal frankness about birth control and sex.

Medieval and Renaissance tales are remarkable for their frank discussion of sexual practices, including birth control. Italian and French writings are the most explicit. Contraception and abortions are often treated as 'secrets', esoteric practices acquired from experts. The concealment of pregnancy is presented as an alternative form of birth control, often used after the others have failed. In the narratives, the use of birth control is mostly confined to premarital relations, although contraception by married women appears at the end of the period in a few French examples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: The measurement of unmet need for family planning--the discrepancy between individuals' sexual and contraceptive behavior and their stated fertility preferences--has generally focused on developing countries. There has so far been little effort to measure how low unmet family planning needs can go in more developed countries, where contraceptive practice is supposedly (nearly) perfect. Methods: Data were taken from Fertility and Family Surveys (FFS) conducted in recent years in selected member states of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, and minimum and maximum estimates of unmet need were calculated for 10 countries with the requisite data. Results: The proportion of individuals with an unmet need for family planning (i.e., who have a current unwanted pregnancy or who are fecund, are sexually active, want no more births but are not using contraceptives) is as low as 3% in two European countries and below 10% in most. However, levels of unmet need in countries with economies in transition (13% in Latvia and Lithuania and 23% in Bulgaria) surpass some of the lowest levels observed for developing countries. Considerable within-country variations are seen. For instance, unmet need is more prominent among men than among women in seven of the nine countries for which there are data. Moreover, unmet need increases with family size and with age, suggesting an unmet need for limiting rather than for spacing births. In all of the countries except Hungary, unmet need is higher among those in marital unions than among those in less formal relationships. Level of education is another important dimension of unmet need, with less-educated respondents having the highest level of unmet need in nine of the 10 countries. Multivariate analyses confirm most of these results. Moreover, there is a clear association between unmet need and abortion ratios: Where levels of unmet need are high, the number of abortions per 100 live births is also relatively high.... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the existence of a significant minority of fertility controllers in European pretransition populations. Use of data from England and Wales; Research concerning historical fertility patterns; Variation in marital fertility; Suggestions of deliberate fertility control; View of fertility transition as an innovation in deliberate marital fertility control.

It is widely known that modern economic development has been accompanied by the initiation and spread of effective limitation of fertility, and that generally the populations which experienced development at a late date also had a belated reduction in childbearing. Here a surprising relation is found between (and within) broad regions: the areas in which traditional age of entry into marriage was late were the areas in which marital fertility was reduced first. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A decomposition of age-specific marital fertility rates into indices related to spacing and stopping is developed by using Coale and Trussell's indices and the first few parity progression ratios. This approach leads to estimates of the mean birth interval among low-parity births that can be used to address the issue of fertility control early in marriage. In this way the model addresses several of the most serious limitations of Coale and Trussell's approach. The usefulness of the proposed indices is demonstrated by applications to historical data from the United States and Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The last three decades have seen a vigorous debate over the nature of pre-industrial European demographic conditions and the population changes of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The controversy has been especially hard fought in the case of the English experience. The orthodox wisdom of the 1940s and early 1950s emphasized positive checks, usually in the context of the theory of the demographic transition, with the implication that variations in mortality were the main determinants of population change before and during the demographic revolution. The existence of regional variations in the relative importance of these factors compared with positive checks, lags and imperfections in the equilibrating mechanism and the possibility that fortuitous events may dominate demographic changes in the short term is acknowledged. The underlying determinants of the fertility-real wage relationship are behavioural responses to changes in real wages, and efficacy of family limitation strategies either of contraception within marriage or changes in age at marriage. There is also another potentially more serious problem in the possible existence of association between natural fertility and age at marriage. This could arise, for example, from selective postponement of marriage or by a substantial proportion of shotgun weddings occurring being more likely to be cases of premarital pregnancy.

Ulipristal acetate (UPA) was licensed as an emergency contraceptive (EC) in Europe in 2009. By the end of May 2013, over 1.4 million courses had been used. The rationale for using UPA for EC in favor of the much more commonly used levonorgestrel (LNG) is based on data on efficacy, safety and side effects. Efficacy: In two large clinical trials among women presenting for EC up to 120 hours after unprotected sex, UPA was as effective as LNG at preventing pregnancy. When the two trials were combined in a meta analysis UPA was superior, almost halving the risk of pregnancy compared with LNG. Biomedical studies have shown that UPA inhibits or delays ovulation more effectively than LNG at a stage of the cycle when the risk of pregnancy is highest. Safety and side effects: UPA and LNG have similar side effect profiles and to date no serious adverse events have been attributed to use of UPA for EC. Data on pregnancies conceived in association with UPA use are reassuring. There is no evidence for teratogenesis or for any increased risk of ectopic pregnancy or miscarriage. Availability: Use of UPA will remain limited until it is available without a doctor's prescription. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article briefly reviews the history and methods of the birth control movement, then draws a few conclusions and formulates a statement of the ultimate values upon which this movement has been based. The birth control movement, which is analyzed in the article, is that portion of the universal search for contraceptive knowledge which has been gathered up by the leadership of researcher Margaret Sanger and organized into an effective force for social progress. In other words, the article is primarily concerned with the years since 1912 during which great advances have been made in the national and international fields. Margaret Sanger's dedication to the problem of birth control began in 1912 when, as a visiting nurse in the East Side of New York City, she was aroused to the imperative need for spreading contraceptive education to poor women, as she stood over the bed of a young mother dying from a self-inflicted abortion. Realizing that without knowledge work could not be started, Sanger set out to learn what contraceptive methods were then in use both in the United States and Europe.

I have examined cross-section evidence on differential fertility in Israel, focusing on the relation between education and fertility. The interpretation of this relation as reflecting the relation between education and the cost of women's time and the relation between cost of time and the "price" of children is helpful in understanding some of the phenomena; what is left unexplained is the large decline in fertility at the bottom of the education ladder.
This sharp decline may be dominated by informational and cultural differences concerning family planning, of the sort suggested by sociologists (see, e.g., the evidence presented by Bachi and Matras [1962], Matras and Auerbach [1962], and Peled [1969]). Several pieces of evidence are consistent with a view that most of the cross-section and time-series variation in fertility reflects differential movement to a low level of fertility where the long-term optima do not vary much. (Thus, see the very flat curve relating fertility to education among couples of European origin married in Israel.)
Even if such a view were to be accepted, the need for explaining the mechanisms of transition remains. The possibilities of the simple cost-of-time hypothesis are far from exhausted in this paper: a more explicit treatment of the cost of time (see Gronau's paper in this Supplement), a more satisfactory treatment of husbands' lifetime or permanent income, and a fertility variable that takes timing and survival into account are some of the more immediate needs. What seems to be quite important is a simultaneous examination of several aspects of behavior.
In the specific Israeli context, I regard as the main challenge the understanding of the differentials between those born in Europe-America, Asia-Africa, and Israel and the linking of the cross section to the changes over time. The unexplained differences between these groups are partly a result of measurement problems of the economic variables. Better u... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between 1880 and 1940, to take approximate dates, illegitimate fertility rates in Europe dropped precipitously, falling in most countries by 50 percent or more. The rates used throughout this article relate extra-marital births to the number of unmarried women. Although there are interesting exceptions related to the existing census, the general picture is clear; a decline in illegitimate fertility commenced in most countries in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and was arrested in the 1920's and 1930's. Once it had begun in a country, the downward course was swift and uninterrupted, until non-marital fertility had been cut in half. The study of illegitimate fertility suggests the importance of interaction and communication in the diffusion of birth control. The behavior of unmarried and married women was modified, not as a result of a change in their respective sets of motivation, but as the result of obscure changes in the attitudes towards reproduction, and in the knowledge and acceptability of contraception and abortion. Married and un-married women shared these changes, and they adapted the new knowledge and the new techniques to their own private situations.

This article attempts to explain cross-cultural variations in age at marriage and proportions never marrying. The purpose of this paper is to develop a framework in which the causes of current variations in the timing and quantity of nuptiality are explored. Although timing and quantity tend to be related, each is an analytically distinct component of the marriage pattern and each contributes independently to variations in birth rates. Sometimes treated as independent variables or as determinants of other processes, they are in this analysis treated as dependent variables, themselves in need of explanation. Five geographical regions are included in the analysis: Western Europe, Eastern Europe, the English-speaking nations overseas, the Middle East, and Asia. The original intention was to include all countries in the world with populations over 100,000 hut the countries included in the final analysis cover only half the population of the world in 1960. The U.S.S.R., China and other socialist Asian countries are excluded because of lack of data. The Caribbean, Central America and South America are excluded because of difficulties in interpreting available data due to the high incidence of consensual unions.

An editorial is presented which offers information on the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) regulations on valproate prescribing. Topics discussed include risk associated with valproate such as major congenital malformations (MCM;) information of valproate as an effective medication to manage uncontrolled seizure activity in emergency situations; and concerns related to implementing the MHRA regulations such as depriving the right to choice of contraception.

Background: In women with a singleton pregnancy and sonographic short cervix in midgestation, vaginal administration of progesterone reduces the risk of early preterm birth and improves neonatal outcomes without any demonstrable deleterious effects on childhood neurodevelopment. In women with twin pregnancies, the rate of spontaneous early preterm birth is 10 times higher than that in singletons, and in this respect, all twins are at an increased risk of preterm birth. However, 6 trials in unselected twin pregnancies reported that vaginal administration of progesterone from midgestation had no significant effect on the incidence of early preterm birth. Such apparent lack of effectiveness of progesterone in twins may be due to inadequate dosage or treatment that is started too late in pregnancy.Objective: The early vaginal progesterone for the prevention of spontaneous preterm birth in twins, a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial, was designed to test the hypothesis that among women with twin pregnancies, vaginal progesterone at a dose of 600 mg per day from 11 to 14 until 34 weeks' gestation, as compared with placebo, would result in a significant reduction in the incidence of spontaneous preterm birth between 24+0 and 33+6 weeks.Study Design: The trial was conducted at 22 hospitals in England, Spain, Bulgaria, Italy, Belgium, and France. Women were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to receive either progesterone or placebo, and in the random-sequence generation, there was stratification according to the participating center. The primary outcome was spontaneous birth between 24+0 and 33+6 weeks' gestation. Statistical analyses were performed on an intention-to-treat basis. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the significance of difference in the incidence of spontaneous birth between 24+0 and 33+6 weeks' gestation between the progesterone and placebo groups, adjusting for the effect of participating center, chorionicity, parity, and method of conception. Prespecified tests of treatment interaction effects with chorionicity, parity, method of conception, compliance, and cervical length at recruitment were performed. A post hoc analysis using mixed-effects Cox regression was used for further exploration of the effect of progesterone on preterm birth.Results: We recruited 1194 women between May 2017 and April 2019; 21 withdrew consent and 4 were lost to follow-up, which left 582 in the progesterone group and 587 in the placebo group. Adherence was good, with reported intake of ≥80% of the required number of capsules in 81.4% of the participants. After excluding births before 24 weeks and indicated deliveries before 34 weeks, spontaneous birth between 24+0 and 33+6 weeks occurred in 10.4% (56/541) of participants in the progesterone group and in 8.2% (44/538) in the placebo group (odds ratio in the progesterone group, adjusting for the effect of participating center, chorionicity, parity, and method of conception, 1.35; 95% confidence interval, 0.88-2.05; P=.17). There was no evidence of interaction between the effects of treatment and chorionicity (P=.28), parity (P=.35), method of conception (P=.56), and adherence (P=.34); however, there was weak evidence of an interaction with cervical length (P=.08) suggestive of harm to those with a cervical length of ≥30 mm (odds ratio, 1.61; 95% confidence interval, 1.01-2.59) and potential benefit for those with a cervical length of <30 mm (odds ratio, 0.56; 95% confidence interval, 0.20-1.60). There was no evidence of difference between the 2 treatment groups for stillbirth or neonatal death, neonatal complications, neonatal therapy, and poor fetal growth. In the progesterone group, 1.4% (8/582) of women and 1.9% (22/1164) of fetuses experienced at least 1 serious adverse event; the respective numbers for the placebo group were 1.2% (7/587) and 3.2% (37/1174) (P=.80 and P=.06, respectively). In the post hoc time-to-event analysis, miscarriage or spontaneous preterm birth between randomization and 31+6 weeks' gestation was reduced in the progesterone group relative to the placebo group (hazard ratio, 0.23; 95% confidence interval, 0.08-0.69).Conclusion: In women with twin pregnancies, universal treatment with vaginal progesterone did not reduce the incidence of spontaneous birth between 24+0 and 33+6 weeks' gestation. Post hoc time-to-event analysis led to the suggestion that progesterone may reduce the risk of spontaneous birth before 32 weeks' gestation in women with a cervical length of <30 mm, and it may increase the risk for those with a cervical length of ≥30 mm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents abstracts on European reproductive health topics which include satisfaction of contraceptive services and contraceptive behavior, trends in family planning Russia from 1994 to 2004, and cesarean delivery and maternal outcomes in Italy.

The article focuses on the Council of Europe, an organization founded in 1949 with the aim of achieving greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realizing the ideals and principles shared by member states and to facilitate their economic and social progress. Noting that the World Population Plan of Action adopted by the World Population Conference held in Bucharest in August 1974 affirms that all couples and individuals have the right to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children. To make family planning information, advice and means available to all sections of the population as an integral part of health and social services, by means of increasing the range and efficiency of family planning services and ensuring that they are well distributed geographically so as to be within easy reach of the whole population, special attention needs to be paid to rural areas and the socially disadvantaged areas of large cities. It also discusses problems and objectives of family planning and about the relative advantages and disadvantages of the various methods available.