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Once the pandemic concluded, the Foreign Languages Department of a Chilean state university hired a Canadian company to implement a pre-designed language learning system (PLLS). This platform was to be used by all teachers and students, as it contained various activities to develop all four language skills, including pronunciation practice through AI-based voice recognition. This study explores the attitudes of 17 university teachers towards using these pre-elaborated resources, activities, and assessments in their communicative English and German courses. A mixed-method approach was used, involving a survey based on the Technology Adoption Model (TAM) and individual interviews. Descriptive statistics were obtained from the survey responses, and qualitative data were analysed using content analysis techniques. The results indicate that teachers' attitudes towards the PLLS were generally neutral to negative. Instructors expressed their concerns about the system's pre-designed content and perceived functionality. Perceived ease of use and usefulness were rated low, reporting difficulties in navigation and alignment with their teaching styles. Perceived enjoyment received the lowest rating, mentioning issues such as disconnected content and lack of progressive structure. Qualitative data revealed technical problems, increased workload, and concerns about the system's impact on student motivation and learning outcomes. While some positive aspects were noted, the overall attitude towards the PLLS was predominantly negative, highlighting the need for better alignment with pedagogical goals and improved implementation strategies.

Both of us were drawn into the writing assessment field initially through our lived experiences as schoolteachers. We worked in radically different contexts -- Martin was head of a languages department and teacher of French and German in the late 1990s in the UK, and David was a Grade 12 teacher of Academic English in Alberta, Canada, at the turn of the twenty-first century. In both these contexts, the traditional direct test of writing -- referred to, for example, as the 'timed impromptu writing test' (Weigle, 2002, p. 59) or the 'snapshot approach' (Hamp-Lyons & Kroll, 1997, p. 18) -- featured significantly in our practices, albeit in very different ways. This form of writing assessment still holds considerable sway across the globe. For us, however, it provoked early questions and concerns around the consequential and ethical aspects of writing assessment.

The authors present findings that emphasize a need for trauma-informed policy to mitigate vicarious trauma transmission for teachers who work in English language learning (ELL) classrooms. Qualitative data was collected from 10 stakeholders in Canada using an interpretive-phenomenological methodology. Findings assisted to better understand the impact of institutional policy, or lack thereof, on trauma-informed practices within English language teacher work. Themes that emerged were settlement factors, roles, and responsibilities (personal and professional), and organizational policies. A scan of publicly available information on trauma-informed policy suggested a gap for English language teachers. Current literature on vicarious trauma stresses that trauma-informed practice necessitates an individual and systemic approach to mitigating its effects. A basic scan of potential trauma-informed frameworks was discussed as potential institutional approaches to reduce the impact of vicarious trauma on teachers.

It is a widespread practice among Canadian school districts to assess the French language proficiency of candidates applying for French as a Second Language (FSL) teaching positions. This pan-Canadian study used surveys, interviews, and website data to examine the French language proficiency assessment practices and processes used by Canadian schools when hiring FSL teachers. The findings show that almost 90% of Canadian school districts assess French language proficiency when hiring FSL teachers and that the most common form of assessment is to ask one to three questions in French (with candidates responding in French) during the employment interview. Evaluation of the candidates' responses is rarely informed by a language proficiency framework or rubric; instead, evaluators' decisions are informed by their overall impressions of the candidate's language proficiency. Other promising assessment practices are described, along with suggestions about how districts may improve their French language proficiency assessments when hiring FSL teachers.

A wide range of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programs provide important support for international students enrolled in Canadian post-secondary contexts. While there has been a recent uptick in academic interest and research surrounding EAP programs in Canada, there has been relatively little work focused on understanding the practitioners working therein. In this article, we present and discuss data from the second phase of a sequential mixed-methods investigation of Canadian EAP programs and practitioners. Some 481 EAP practitioners from across Canadian universities, colleges, and English language institutes participated in the survey, leading to semi-structured interviews with 18 representative EAP directors and instructors. Building on quantitative results from the Phase I survey that revealed practitioners' differentially perceived professional satisfaction and agency, systematic analysis of Phase II interview data supported and expanded upon the Phase I results. Drawing on a critical conceptual lens, we interpret mixed-methods findings that highlight employment precarity as the most salient differentiator of professional satisfaction, concluding with analytically driven suggestions for post-secondary policy makers, language teacher educators, and EAP instructors, including a call for further research elevating voices of professionals working in this burgeoning field.

A lack of dialogue and collaboration between researchers and practitioners has been recognized in the field of second language education. Social media platforms such as X/Twitter have potential for connecting professionals in the teaching of English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) community and supporting professional learning and research; however, studies of TESOL professionals' uses of X/Twitter have only examined posts/tweets from a limited number of communities marked by hashtags/ keywords. This study identified 23 hashtags relevant to TESOL instruction for adults in the Canadian context and used them as search parameters to extract a data set of 4,833 posts/tweets. Eighty-two North American university professors who had published in the field of TESOL, were selected and searched for on X/Twitter. Upon locating 15 X/Twitter professor accounts, all 272 posts/tweets posted over the one-year period, were extracted. Two content analyses were conducted to infer the purpose of the posts/ tweets and identify the hashtags used by the professors. Results reveal considerable variation in the professors' and other TESOL community members' uses of X/Twitter and suggest that the two groups participate in rather separate X/Twitter communities. Recommendations for maximizing X/Twitter as a tool for professional learning and research and fostering the research-practice link are provided.

Studies informed by poststructuralist theories of language have examined the relationship between language teachers' emotion labor, identity, and agency. However, research has not yet explored the relationship between emotion labor and volunteer teaching, which is an important practice in language education. Our research seeks to address this gap, drawing on a 2-year qualitative case study at the community-based Vancouver Bangla School (VBS). With emotion labor and investment as the conceptual underpinnings, our study investigated how the VBS heritage language (HL) program structured the emotion labor of seven volunteer teachers, what the feeling rules associated with the VBS program were, and the extent to which volunteer teachers' investment in HL education helped them manage their emotion labor. Data sources included participant classroom observations, field notes, focus group and interview transcripts, questionnaires, and educational resources, which were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Findings indicate that the emotion labor of volunteer teachers was structured by the following characteristics of the VBS program: lack of funding, poor organizational structure and teacher recognition, challenges of online teaching, insufficient number of teachers, limited parental support, and lack of training. This emotion labor was associated with four feeling rules implicit in the VBS program: (a) be generous and caring, (b) be committed and dedicated, (c) be a good and efficient teacher, and (d) have limited expectations of the community. Findings suggest that teachers' investment in Bangla as a mother tongue in multicultural Canada, and their investment in promoting the children's transcultural identities, was particularly powerful, and enabled the volunteer teachers to navigate and manage their emotion labor. The study suggests that an enhanced understanding of a language teacher's investment in a program, institution, or community might provide insight into the important relationship among desire, agency, and emotion labor.

This study uses narrative inquiry as a research method and intersectionality as an analytical tool to explore how a 'non-native' gay ESL teacher of Kurdish ethnic background working in Canada (re-)constructs and negotiates his identities and how these identities shape (and are shaped by) his pedagogy and practice. Data was collected through written responses to prompts about the participant's professional and social background, a one-hour follow-up interview, as well as text and voice messages. The results revealed that tensions and a feeling of self-doubt lie at the intersections of the participant's identities. These feelings manifest in his teaching practice in the form of hesitation to raise queer and ethnic/racial issues and struggles in navigating heteronormative and racialized spaces. This study's findings add further nuance and insights to the burgeoning literature on language teacher identity.

Plurilingualism is an inclusive language teaching approach to sustain multilingual societies, but there is little investigation on teacher candidates' (TCs) beliefs and challenges before and after its implementation. This interpretive qualitative study introduced plurilingualism in teacher education at a Canadian university. Sixteen TCs participated in the study, which 1) investigated TCs' conceptualizations of plurilingualism, and 2) examined TCs' perceptions of overall affordances of critical plurilingual pedagogies before and after their practicum. For four months, participants experimented with plurilingual pedagogies such as translanguaging and cross-linguistic analysis, designed tasks, and taught lessons. Five types of data were generated: 1) weekly annotations of readings on Perusall, 2) designed language tasks, 3) task delivery demonstrations, 4) lesson plans, and 5) final reflection after the teaching practicum. Inductive content analysis was conducted on NVivo with data triangulation. Findings suggest that TCs shifted their views of language, and aligned plurilingual pedagogies with equity, diversity, inclusion and decoloniality principles. Findings also show that TCs transgressed the monolingual discourses often present in schools, and felt empowered after the training. We call for the inclusion of critical plurilingual practices in teacher education programs for the sustainability of multi/plurilingualism.

Anti-oppressive global citizenship education (GCE), a specific strand of critical GCE, is a new field, especially concerning empirical studies within English classrooms. Based on an anti-oppressive GCE framework and the research question, "what does anti-oppressive theory look like in practice in English classrooms and how can this be woven into GCE?", this paper explains the results of a project which used a portraiture methodology to collect and analyze approximately 6 hours of semi-structured interviews, detailed impressionistic records, and several lessons collected with one secondary school English teacher in Ontario, Canada. The portrait showcases how the educator implements a three-pillar approach to anti-oppressive GCE language education and the need to shine light on minoritized identities, create healthy soil for the foundation of learning about systemic oppression, and give the proper amounts of water/support to each student.

This article reports on a series of carefully curated professional development (PD) activities with the secondary purpose of building and maintaining a positive school culture. The study took place in a school of foreign languages (SFL) at a state university in Turkey. Twenty-five Turkish and international teachers participated. The researchers collected data over a period of six months using a mixed-methods approach: a two-stage survey and semi-structured interviews. Three main themes emerged from the analysis; (1) the basic tenets of Continuing Professional Development (CPD), (2) factors that foster positive school culture, and (3) factors that undermine positive school culture. The results suggest that carefully curated PD has a positive impact on school culture; a combination of formal and informal PD offerings formed desired habits of mind among instructors. Moreover, instructors indicated a preference for peer-led PD. Thus, we suggest that other SFLs in Turkey likewise harness the untapped potential of the CPD Unit.

Teachers often face pressures both from above and from below as they adhere to their supervisors' requirements and work with students who may be disengaged from the learning process. These interpersonal influences are argued to thwart instructors' teaching motivation and result in a more controlled teaching experience and a more controlling teaching style, whereas supportive supervisors and engaged learners could promote a self-determined motivational orientation and greater teaching engagement. Regression analyses of survey responses collected from 63 English language instructors in Canada showed that supportive supervisors helped satisfy English language teachers' psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which in turn promoted self-determined motivation and teaching engagement. Student disengagement undermined the satisfaction of instructors' needs and led to more controlled teaching motivation, but student engagement enhanced teachers' self-determined motivation and/or teaching engagement. These results underscore the importance of supervisory attentiveness to instructors' psychological needs. As well, they suggest that whereas teachers might be inspired by engaged students, they might also need to find strategies to cope with the potentially negative impact of disaffected students on their own teaching motivation and engagement.

The study critically examines the features of three e-learning platforms: Blackboard (BB), Google Classroom, and Zoom. It provides an in-depth analysis of the digital learning platform's effectiveness in a pandemic like the COVID-19. It synthesizes the strengths and limitations of the selected e-learning platforms for English language teaching. The study focuses on authentic e-learning platforms' potential to encourage English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and learners to take the challenge of adapting to a transforming world that could engage them in e-learning innovation. The research was conducted in the first period of quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia. An electronic survey of 36 items was conducted to identify three different countries' 101 EFL teachers' perceptions about the performance of these platforms. The survey comprised three questionnaires for each e-learning platform with six parts, namely, accessibility and usability, efficiency and convenience, communication and interaction, teacher's attitude, teacher's satisfaction, and e-learning experience during the COVID-19 pandemic. The data was analysed using Minitab 16 Statistical software. The internal consistency of the survey was measured through the values of Cronbach's Alpha. Other statistical measures such as mean, standard deviation, and agreeable rate (AR) were used to portray the efficacy of each application. The results of the survey indicate that Google Classroom (Ave. AR = 72.92%, Ave. Mean = 3.887) is the most effective e-learning platform, followed by BB (Ave. AR = 68.09%, Ave. Mean = 3.694), and lastly Zoom (Ave. AR = 61.85%, Ave. Mean = 3.544), according to the participants. Furthermore, the findings indicate that free E-learning platforms like Google Classroom could be more beneficial for developing countries, whereas BB Learning Management System (LMS) works best for the developed countries. The research findings should be of interest to the language learners and help teachers and policymakers design e-learning environments to make the learning process feasible in and out of an international global crisis.

Linguistic identity is deeply embedded in how individuals identify within groups and cultures (Gee, 2000; Sachs, 2005). The contexts of English as a second language (ESL) teaching in Quebec and ESL teachers' range of linguistic repertoires provide an interesting landscape for considering issues of identity, equity, and acceptance (De Costa & Norton, 2017; Norton, 2014). Through surveys, interviews and focus groups with pre- and in-service ESL teachers, we explore how language and professional identities develop through the lens of French/English identity intersections and acceptance in these teaching contexts. Our findings show a pattern that is unique to the ESL Quebec context: In French-language schools it is often how an ESL teacher's linguistic identity is seen, rather than how they self-identity that appears to be essential to their success in integrating into teaching communities. Our research has important implications for our understanding of the ways ESL teachers' linguistic identities are performed and accepted within plurilingual contexts of teaching.

This Perspectives article proposes a renewed vision of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) through a translanguaging (TL) stance, grounded in critical sociolinguistic inquiry and embodied practice. A TL theory of language asserts an activist agenda to dismantle mono/lingualism, inviting a more dynamic and expansive view of multilingualism that actively challenges linguistic hierarchies and associated ideologies to recognize networks of meaning distributed across linguistic and nonlinguistic forms. This openness to all resources beyond language commensurates with the emerging posthumanist and new materialist perspectives in applied linguistics to consider how bodies, objects, and space intersect as wider assemblages, inciting critical citizenship in ethical interdependence between the human and natural world. Grounded in this understanding, we propose a systematic, coherent TL methodology for TESOL and teacher education, engaging teachers and students in critical sociolinguistic inquiry and embodied practice to support interrogation of language and power, mapping inter- and intra-actions in the human, social and eco-environment. With this approach teachers might explore with students' ways of doing/being/knowing in reflexivity towards all forms of inequities, particularly one's privilege and complicity and what ethical responsibility entails in the sociocultural, sociopolitical, and eco-world. Providing examples from classroom studies and teacher education research, we discuss implications for both K-12 classrooms and postsecondary educational contexts.

In 2020, the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic forced teachers in Ontario to move online. Since then, teaching online or in hybrid models has been common across the province. To understand how French as a Second Language (FSL) teachers navigated these spaces, four Ontario French teachers were interviewed about their experience using educational technology and teaching online. Findings were analyzed in light of Hargreaves and Fullan's (2020) reframing of classic understandings of teachers' work in the context of the global pandemic. Findings show that factors influencing these teachers' professional capital reflect common concerns among Canadian educators, alongside those specific to the FSL context. Participants' professional marginalization and seclusion demonstrates the importance of both the psychic rewards of teaching and cultures of collaboration. Ongoing efforts to capture ways in which teaching FSL has been shaped by the pandemic experience, therefore, require looking beyond individual classrooms to connected systems and systematic efforts of reform.

If teachers have previously used technology (e.g., Learning Management Systems, document sharing, video-conferencing, gamification, social media or video-recording), they are likely to use it again. For second language teachers, sudden or planned-for online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic may have resulted in their using new or familiar technology to support their pedagogy, engage students, or provide authentic target language input. However, since online instruction was temporary, perhaps their use of certain technologies was temporary as well. To investigate L2 teachers' use of technology before, during, and (anticipatedly) after the pandemic, this study statistically analyzed data on technology use (n = 18 items) from a survey of Canadian L2 teachers (n = 203). It inquired about their use of Learning Management Systems, document sharing, video-conferencing, gamification, social media, and video-recording. Findings reveal that teachers' use of technology during the pandemic predicted their anticipated use post-pandemic. Teachers who used any of the six technologies during the pandemic were significantly more likely to anticipate using those same ones post-pandemic than those who did not. Despite the challenges of implementing these tools under these circumstances, these six technologies may remain as part of L2 teaching in the future.

Learning Mandarin Chinese as a heritage or additional language at Chinese complementary schools has long been a tradition for many Asian Canadians. However, research that looks at teachers' experiences and perceptions in Canadian settings, especially the power dynamics embedded in biliteracy development at complementary schools, is scant. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic brought challenges and opportunities to Chinese complementary schools. In this paper, we, as two Mandarin teachers and literacy researchers, used collaborative autobiographical narrative inquiry to tell our stories to unfold (1) how power dynamics regarding biliteracy/multiliteracy were enacted and reflected in a Chinese complementary school during the pandemic and (2) our re-understanding of Mandarin teaching and learning from critical literacy and translanguaging perspectives. Although the pandemic is over, racial discrimination and social inequity continue to remain in our lives. By analysing our teaching moments and reflections, we hope this study could provide some insights into how critical literacy and translanguaging can be integrated into language and literacy education in multilingual and multimodal settings in the pandemic and post-pandemic contexts.

As the popularity of short-term teacher-facilitated language study abroad (SA) programs grows, it is becoming increasingly important to understand how classroom language-teaching methods can best be adapted to meet learners' overseas needs. However, adapting one's methods places high cognitive demands on teachers who may already be overburdened with the challenges of planning and organizing SA. The purpose of this study is to compare the experiences of novice, intermediate, and experienced teachers as they plan and facilitate short-term language SA in order to identify how their perceptions of effective practices differ and how newer facilitators can be best be helped. The results of a thematic narrative analysis of interviews with 21 participants point to three implications: providing more worked examples and macrostrategies for novice teachers; encouraging novice and intermediate teachers to rely on paid services; and collaborating with extensive social networks to reduce the individual teacher's cognitive load.

This study explores the impact of professional learning about the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) on second language (L2) teachers' classroom practice. Ninety self-selected French as a second language (FSL) teachers across Canada responded to an online survey about their planning, teaching, and assessment/evaluation practices before versus after their professional learning. The results revealed that the impact of such professional learning is wide-reaching and remarkably consistent across all three areas of practice. The teachers reported that their professional learning spurred them to start presenting language through speech acts and based on students' needs, to emphasize not only linguistic but sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence as well, and to focus more intently on students' ability to communicate in the L2. The teachers also reported that they increased the use of authentic materials and developed communicative and action-oriented tasks that simulate real-life situations. The findings suggest that CEFR-related professional learning may be used successfully to inspire L2 teachers to implement CEFR-informed classroom practices.

This article describes an initiative launched at a Canadian bilingual university in order to encourage L2 French and L2 English learners to take 'linguistic risks': authentic, autonomous communicative acts where learners are pushed out of their linguistic comfort zone. The initiative was operationalized through the development of a Linguistic Risk-Taking Passport, which contains 74 linguistic risks that students can take in their L2 across the university campus and in their everyday life. An analysis of interviews with participating teachers (n=6) and learner self-report data from completed passports (n=410) examines how the initiative was integrated into the classroom and which passport items were perceived by students as particularly high-risk. A cyclical process of risk-taking within a broad Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) framework is described in which risks are viewed as learner-selected tasks with a dynamic affective slant; risks can be used to connect classroom learning with real-life L2 use and vice versa. The data illustrate that linguistic risk-taking can help TBLT practitioners generate ideas on how to narrow the gap between the classroom and the real-world. The article concludes with a list of practical implications and suggestions for adapting linguistic risk-taking to other institutional contexts.

Writing native-like has always been a primary purpose for non-native writers of English and, accordingly, many language components have been investigated to develop writers' fluency. One of these language components is syntactic complexity (SC), which is often regarded as a reliable way to grade any texts from easy to difficult. This study aims to compare native and non-native writers' fluency by measuring their SC and to create a reference SC point for non-native writers of English. To achieve this, the study comprised two groups: Group 1 was composed of native speakers from Inner-circle countries, namely USA, England, Canada, and Australia, and Group 2 was composed of non-native speakers from Expanding countries, namely Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Russia, and China. The data were composed of 200 MA dissertations in ELT equally collected from countries in Group 1 and Group 2. SC realisations were divided into 14 subcategories. The 14 sub-categories constituted a taxonomy for SC and they were analysed through ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis, Independent sample t-test, and Mann-Whitney tests. The results showed that there is a statistically significant difference in 9 categories in favour of Group 1 and that the average SC scores of Group1 are significantly high compared to Group 2. The study suggests that writers of MA dissertations pay particular attention to SC, if native-like fluency is sought because it was concluded that native writers of MA dissertations are prone to write with higher SC level when compared to non-native writers of MA dissertations.

Grounded in the three-tiered transdisciplinary SLA framework of the Douglas Fir Group (2016), we explore how the concept of 'semiotic resources' may be integrated into CALL activity designs. Starting at the macro level, we discuss how language ideology may influence where to situate semiotic resources within initial design considerations. We next move to the meso level, the site of community and social negotiation, to look at how the departmental culture and personal orientation may influence design choices. Our attention then turns to the micro level where we define the roles semiotic resources may play through concepts used in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Moving from theory to practice, we describe how 14 pre-service ESL/EFL teachers in a graduate-level course designed CALL activities. Based on an analysis of their CALL activity designs and research-informed commentaries, we show how students were concerned with designs that highlighted textual aspects of semiotic resources. Such results, not surprisingly, point to the ways macro and meso levels may influence how semiotic resources surface within micro-level activity designs. We conclude by discussing the importance of taking a transdisciplinary approach to promoting language learning as semiotic learning in CALL designs and propose several areas for future research.

This article describes how discourses of professionalism, insecurity, and exploitation among English as a second language/English for Academic Purposes (hereinafter ESL/EAP) instructors and curriculum-level administrators at two Canadian universities relate to their understanding of fair work. These understandings are examined in a nested manner, in keeping with social positioning theory. Via discourse and thematic analysis of job advertisements and semi-structured interviews, we illuminate aspects of the gigification of ESL/EAP in Canada, wherein ESL/EAP instructor work is increasingly rendered un(der)paid, constantly evaluated, surveilled, and precarious. Viewed through the lens of "magic time," an infinite category of work time, we document the frustrations of ESL/EAP instructors who recognize their own exploitation. The relevance of this study is described in relation to the growing numbers of international students at English-speaking universities throughout the world requiring a robust program infrastructure supporting their success, while the ESL/EAP instructors who provide these programs are increasingly made disposable through contingent employment relationships. The increasing reliance on contract professors teaching for-credit courses in higher education has come to be known as adjunctification. In the noncredit, the more marginal context of ESL/EAP instructors subject to the forces of international student supply and demand, underpaid even by contract faculty standards, and engaged in often cutthroat competition for the few remaining contracts, we reference contextual differences by calling it gigification.

This paper reports on the narrative of Shannon, a Taiwanese Canadian female assistant language teacher (ALT) of the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Programme, one of the world's largest government-sponsored programmes for recruiting English language teachers to teach overseas [Nagatomo (2016). "Identity, gender and teaching English in Japan." Multilingual Matters]. The interview data were analyzed with the methodology of critical discursive psychology (CDP), a version of discourse analysis developed by Wetherall and Potter (1992. "Mapping the language of racism: Discourse and the legitimation of exploitation." Harvester Wheatsheaf). CDP allows the researchers to engage in 'double movement' of Marxist ideological critique and Foucauldian genealogical analysis, with which I demonstrate how Shannon's subject position was conditioned by broader ideologies and discourses about race, gender, and language. My analysis highlights how the ideology of native speakerism impacts an Asian native speaker's experience as an ALT in Japan with a particular focus on Shannon's struggle in a dilemmatic subject position between Asian Self and foreign Other. Due to her Asian appearance, Shannon constantly felt that she was 'not foreign enough' to fulfil the role of an exoticised native speaker and struggled to negotiate her legitimacy as an English teacher. Taking dilemma as a generative space for change, I discuss potential pathways for ideological critique and discursive transformation.

This article focuses on the implementation of a flipped classroom approach in two different levels of Spanish foreign language university courses for beginner and intermediate learners. The flipped classroom approach delivers course content that prioritizes both digital technology and active learning. Despite its potential advantages in the language classroom, empirical research in this area remains limited. The present study addresses the gap by investigating the effects of the flipped classroom approach on Spanish as a foreign language by comparing student attitudes in flipped and traditional classrooms in beginner and intermediate Spanish courses at a university level. Specifically, this research explores the use of the flipped classroom approach in a second language classroom as a way to present grammar content prior to the in-class lesson and compares the results to those of a traditional, lecture-like delivery of the same grammar content. Drawing on data elicited from students and instructors in these course levels, this study investigates student and instructor perceptions, as well as student autonomy, engagement, and achievement through a qualitative lens. By foreign language (FL), the authors mean modern language (ML), as strongly suggested by the European Commission.

Institutions strive to offer programs that address both the needs of the educational system and incorporate current pedagogical research. Creating a program that is relevant, inspiring, and accessible to aspiring French as a Second Language (FSL) teachers, while also equipping them with the skills and knowledge deemed necessary by the education system, is a delicate balancing act. This study reviewed 44 FSL teacher education programs that lead to professional certification across Canada. Environmental scans drew information from the program websites related to admission requirements, program structure and content, practicum, and graduation criteria. Follow-up interviews with program stakeholders were conducted to verify or clarify the data. The results highlight the inconsistencies that exist among programs for developing FSL educators. We position the ways in which Canadian faculties of education might provide a more holistic "pathway" approach to recruiting, preparing, and retaining emerging FSL teachers.

This study compares the effect of ZPD feedback with explicit feedback on accuracy in second language (L2) writing. It also examines the effect of focused vs. unfocused ZPD feedback on L2 writing development during teacher-student tutorial sessions. Four participants wrote five persuasive essays and were provided with ZPD or explicit feedback either in focused or unfocused form during five tutorial sessions. Following sociocultural theory (SCT) principles, the ZPD feedback provided was graduated, contingent, and dialogical. The results revealed that the learners who received ZPD feedback performed better than those who received explicit feedback in terms of accuracy. The results also showed that the use of focused and unfocused ZPD feedback yields different results both in terms of accuracy across sessions and shifts in the quality of feedback learners need within and across sessions. The findings lend support to the supremacy of SCT-inspired ZPD feedback in general and focused ZPD feedback in particular but raise important questions regarding the nature of teacher-student interaction during tutorial sessions, and the number and function of linguistic targets. The findings are discussed in the light of SCT and cognitive-interactionist views of corrective feedback, and their implications for theory, practice, and research are discussed in detail.

French as a second language (FSL) teachers in Canada face unique circumstances and challenges in the profession, from their initial teacher preparation into the beginning years of teaching and beyond. These challenges play a role in the long-standing FSL teacher shortage across Canada. To better understand the complexity and nuance of issues facing teachers of FSL in minority settings, we conducted a study in 2021 across different regions in Canada that included 29 focus groups with a total of 89 participants from three key stakeholder groups: teacher educators working in faculties of education; school district and board representatives; and FSL teachers, with a focus on recently graduated novice teachers. In our analysis, we found that participants' unique and contextualized experiences are framed around two key points of convergence in our data: access and conceptualizations. We present and discuss these findings, considering practical and ideological elements stemming from these points of convergence. We then conclude the paper with a synthesis of the complexities and interconnectedness inherent in the factors related to FSL teacher preparation and support, including a reflection on what this might ultimately tell us about the FSL teacher shortage.

The field of language instruction is crucial in Canada, given the number of newcomers seeking to improve their English (or French) language skills after arrival. For those who plan to enter post-secondary education but do not meet required language proficiency scores, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programs provide opportunities to strengthen linguistic and academic skills. These inarguably pragmatic goals are often unquestioned, yet EAP instruction is an ideological undertaking with social, economic, and political consequences. This qualitative study investigates language ideologies - rationalizations and justifications for language use and form - through interviews with EAP writing instructors. As participants discussed the material they taught, the language skills students developed, and the consequences of studying EAP writing, ideologies regarding what forms of language should be taught, the purposes of academic writing (instruction), and the social and political dimensions of language were (re)produced and resisted. Formative influences on these ideologies included education, upbringing, and personal language learning experiences. Developing a critical awareness of the understandings of language that inform teaching and learning can make more transparent the linguistic and social discourses that circulate within and beyond EAP writing classrooms and help instructors, students, and other EAP community members (re)produce or resist them strategically.

Teachers' English proficiency is a significant qualification for successful teaching of English. However, the issue of what level of proficiency teachers believe they need for different settings has not received much attention. This study investigates this issue by looking at novice Chinese pre-service teachers (N = 113) in an MA TESOL program in Ontario, Canada. Data are drawn from surveys and reflective writing pieces to investigate teachers' self-perceived English proficiency based on the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), the minimum level of proficiency these teachers believe is required to teach across different settings based on students' level of proficiency, student age, and context (e.g., EFL vs ESL), and finally, how their own self-perceived proficiency compares with these minimum levels. Results show teachers perceive their proficiency around the B2-C1 level. Looking at the minimum level required for various settings, teachers perceived ESL contexts to require higher levels. However, for many of the settings, teachers' self-perceived proficiency appeared inadequate, suggesting these teachers did not feel their general proficiency was suitable. The results are discussed along with implications for language teacher education programs.

Translanguaging theory highlights linguistic and semiotic resources as an integrated communicative repertoire for knowledge construction (Li, 2018). Language is learned and used in conjunction with other modalities through processes of resemiotization (Iedema, 2003) or transmediation (Suhor, 1984) where meaning is made and remade across modes. Through this translanguaging lens, dynamic integration of languages with expressive arts helps mobilize embodied resources, whether cognitive, sensory, or affective, for alternate avenues of knowing and awareness, an aspect much neglected in traditional critical literacy approaches focusing heavily on rational ideological critique (Janks, 2002). A trans-systemic approach also facilities second language learners' full agentive participation as their multilingual and multisensory resources are valorized for complex learning often considered beyond their abilities. This article describes a university-school participatory action research study in a Quebec elementary classroom, where the English Language Arts and French Second Language teachers, through coordinated translanguaging pedagogy (Gort & Sembiante, 2015), facilitated critical bilingual learning while providing respective language models. The children were engaged in a yearlong inquiry into the issue of refugees, through discussing stories of migration and interviewing with refugee background students in both languages while engaging in visual arts for deepened understanding and embodied reflections. Students responded positively to the coordinated bilingual engagements and multisensory approaches to critical literacy, which afforded an aesthetic experience that fostered reflexivity and civic empathy (Mirra, 2018). The study points to the affordances of translanguaging in critical education, underscoring how embodied multilingual engagements allow students to be "affected" and to "affect" (Ahmed, 2010) others.

The purpose of this interpretative phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of ESL secondary teachers and their perceptions towards the use, effects, and integration of iLit ELL, a technology-based language program designed for English language learners, as well as the perceived effects the program had on students' motivation and attitudes towards learning English. Data were collected using teacher interviews, student focus groups, and final reflections, as well as researcher observations and field notes. The collected data were analyzed through the steps of Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis to broaden the breadth and depth of the content and complexity of each narrative independently. Data were then compared across individual experiences and interpreted in a dynamic and active process that involved double hermeneutics. Based on the data collected throughout the study, findings indicated that technology integration is affected by teachers' adaptability to change; teacher mindset affects teachers' acceptance, integration, and effective use of technology; when applied purposefully, technology and differentiated instruction increases student motivation and teachers' efficiency; and technology with embedded scaffolds can enhance student autonomy and motivate student learning. From the emerging themes, the following recommendations are suggested for stakeholders and future research: differentiated professional development for teachers; applying consistent school and system-wide supports and beliefs on technology; adopting a universal designs method to teaching; further exploring teacher perceived efficacy and actual performance of technology integration; and a comparative study exploring best instructional models.

This study examined and compared different written corrective feedback techniques used by English as a second language (ESL) teachers in three different educational contexts and levels (primary, secondary, and college) in Quebec, Canada. In particular, it examined whether there were any differences in the types of errors made, the kind and degree of feedback provided, as well as the students' ability to incorporate the feedback while revising their texts. Data were collected at the three aforementioned contexts from six ESL teachers in their intact classes when they corrected their students' (N = 128) written essays (drafts and revisions). Results revealed an important difference across the three levels in terms of students' errors, teachers' feedback, and students' revisions. They showed that (a) while grammatical errors were made more frequently by primary students, lexical errors were made more frequently by college students; (b) primary and secondary students received more direct than indirect feedback, while college students received more indirect feedback; (c) the secondary and college students were more successful in incorporating the feedback into their revisions than primary students.

This exploratory study examined the spontaneous use of gestures occurring in general as well as the corrective behaviour of two English for academic purposes (EAP) teachers at a Canadian university. Data were collected by way of an interview, lesson observation, and a stimulated recall session. Prior to the observation, each teacher was interviewed to identify practices (as they relate to gesture and CF) they found effective and employed regularly in their teaching. After the lesson, the teachers watched extracts from their lessons to reflect on the use of gestures in general and in CF episodes specifically, and to explain the motivations and/or reasons behind their choices. Results indicate that the EAP teachers actively used gestures, with many occurring alongside CF moves. They were also strategic in the amount and types of both CF and gesture they used.

The issue of whether, when, and how to respond to learners' oral errors is something every teacher has to consider. Early studies of teachers' feedback practices consisted of observations of how they managed this complex process (e.g., Lyster & Ranta, 1997). Beginning with these descriptions, a large body of research on types of oral corrective feedback (OCF) and their relative impact on L2 learning has emerged over the past few decades. OCF is thus an ideal topic for examining the degree to which second language acquisition (SLA) research-based discourse has influenced pedagogical discourse (Ellis & Shintani, 2014). This study examined how the topic of OCF is represented in 30 textbooks used in language teacher education courses. The amount of text dealing with OCF and the number of cited SLA references were quantified, and the textbooks' advice was analyzed and compared to the findings from research. The results revealed variability across the textbooks in the degree to which OCF is treated, what is said about it, and the extent to which research is cited. Some textbook authors clearly have chosen not to highlight the contribution of research for language teaching, thus potentially limiting novice teachers' exposure to researchers' insights about error correction.

While the Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) document has been a milestone in supporting the teaching of English as an additional language to adults in Canada, few studies examined practitioners' experiences with the language standard. The expectation of ongoing use of the CLB by teachers in the Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC) program became a rigid requirement with the implementation of portfolio-based language assessment (PBLA). However, the CLB-related literature has been mostly conceptual and aspirational, while practitioners' voices have been on the margins of research and policy making. This article examines teacher comments on the CLB, as collected during a large mixed-methods exploratory project on PBLA implementation (Desyatova, 2018, 2020). While some practitioners appreciated the standard and its impact, the majority of comments reflected comprehensibility and interpretation challenges, experienced by both teachers and learners. These challenges were further aggravated by the pressures of PBLA as a mandatory assessment protocol.

Teaching multilingual, multilevel language classes presents many challenges including helping students learn level-appropriate language. This learner-centred approach is complicated in a multilevel classroom where the teacher cannot always focus on each student's needs. As a result, learner motivation and attendance are frequent problems. This article details the adaptation of the Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) into a badge system to help learners in a community English as a Second Language (ESL) program set and track personalized language learning goals. The authors explain the purposes of badges, including motivation and assessment, and describe how to create a CLB-based badge system for curriculum and assessment purposes. The authors also share feedback from students and instructors in the community ESL program about the badge-based curriculum.

How does a person decide whether she or he is willing to communicate? Dual-process theories have been influential in the literature on the psychology of making judgments and decisions. Dual-process theories make a distinction between cognitive processes that are fast, automatic, and unconscious (also called 'experiential' thinking) and those that are slow, deliberative, and conscious (also called 'rational' thinking). The study assesses differences in willingness to communicate (WTC) ratings made based on rational and experiential processes, and differences between native to second language WTC. Data were collected from a sample of 84 students in Iran and 82 students in Canada. Both groups assessed their WTC using English as a second language in Iran and as a native language in the Canadian sample. Data analysis showed that a preference for using rational thinking, as measured by the Rational-Experiential Inventory (Pacini & Epstein, 1999), was correlated with WTC ratings made fast and slow, but only in the second language. We also found WTC ratings were significantly higher when made fast compared to slow, regardless of language group. Pedagogical implications are discussed with advice to teachers how to capitalize on rational thinking and to avoid hesitation in communication.

The privileging of French and English in Canada has led to an official language policy that minimizes the country's long-established multilingual realities in favour of a socio-politically constructed linguistic and cultural duality. The impact of this policy directly shapes the linguistically diverse yet monoglossically constructed French language classroom with teachers overwhelmingly orientated to "balanced" bilingualism. Research narratives generated with Western Canadian French as a second language (FSL) teachers show how an emphasis on official languages constrains the construction of a legitimate professional identity, especially among multilingual teachers of French. The article argues that official French/English bilingualism in Canada constitutes a key obstacle to moving beyond monolingual and racializing language ideologies associated with standardized French and has a significant impact on FSL teacher professional identity. The analysis of interview extracts shows teacher-participants prioritizing English and French at the expense of their heritage (non-official) languages, in effect erasing dimensions of their linguistic, racial, and cultural identities. The article concludes by considering how a lack of researcher reflexivity with regard to issues of race can reinforce both monoglossic ideologies and a well-entrenched disregard for multilingual knowledge in teacher education programs.

The practice of English language teaching has long been an important part of socializing transnational migrants and international students into ongoing English-dominant settler-colonial projects in North America and beyond. The professional activities, knowledge, and identities of English language instructors are therefore central to the reproduction of the settler-colonial order. In this article, I investigate the relationship between language-teacher identities and settler-colonial discourses of raciolinguistic differentiation and hierarchy in Canada. Working in a discursive constructionist conceptual framework, I adopt occasioned semantics to analyze excerpts from research interviews with two ELT instructors in post-secondary and adult ESL contexts. I demonstrate how these instructors' talk about students and languages performed language-teacher identities-in-discourse and argue that these performances reflected and contributed to reproduction of settler-colonial discourse patterns. I further suggest that settler colonialism constitutes for ELT practice in Canada a hermetic "universe" with its own internal logics and relations that must be examined and made explicit through reflection. Some pedagogical implications of this analysis include the need for ELT instructors as well as English-language teacher educators to develop an awareness of local settler-colonial histories, teach for truth and reconciliation, and embrace strategies for de-naturalizing the settler-colonial "universe" as they create spaces of possibility for decolonization to be carried out. One research implication is that language-teacher identity scholarship would be strengthened by embracing epistemological and methodological decolonization.

Addressing race/racism and colonialism in French as a second language (FSL) education is essential to preparing culturally responsive teachers and meeting the Ministry mandate to teach students equitably and with respect. This article describes whether, and if so, how, candidates are being prepared to disrupt colonial ideologies and practices with data from a three-year project on FSL teacher preparation in two Ontario faculties of education. Interviews were conducted with professors and teacher candidates. Using a critical qualitative approach to identify emerging themes, the study applied an anti-biased, anti-racist (ABAR) lens to identify racialized power inequities that can form across French languages, cultures, and marginalized groups, oppressive common-sense principles, and systemic influences around three main themes: teaching culture and promoting intercultural competence; addressing equity, inclusion, and racism explicitly; and Whiteness, Eurocentrism, and representation in FSL. Findings indicate that while programs have begun to integrate equity, inclusion, interculturality, and the representation of the global francophonie, there is a pressing need for more preparation and training for professors and teacher candidates to develop critical equity skills that lead to their becoming culturally responsive teachers. Practical strategies and theory building through collaborative research are needed to support educators in taking up an ABAR stance in FSL teacher education programs.

While calls have been made for a multi/plural turn in Applied Linguistics, there remains a paucity of research investigating instruction that addresses the turn and its effects on student learning compared with monolingual one-language-only instruction. This study examines the effects of plurilingual instruction on students' plurilingual and pluricultural competence (PPC) relative to monolingual English-only instruction. Moreover, it investigates potential additional affordances. Seven teachers in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) program in a Canadian university taught two intact groups for four months: treatment (plurilingual instruction, n = 79) and comparison (monolingual instruction, n = 50) groups. Results from "pre"- and "post"-tests of the PPC scale show that students in the treatment group had higher PPC levels over time relative to students in the comparison group. Moreover, analyses of diaries and focus groups with students in the treatment group show that plurilingual instruction offers affordances such as cognition, empathy, and criticality. These results are significant as they suggest that plurilingual instruction may be more effective than monolingual instruction in the development of PPC and it offers several additional affordances.

This article presents a case study that examined the perceptions of non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs) in relation to their experiences in a one-year study abroad TESOL program in Canada and its potential for enhancing their language proficiency. Sixty-nine novice teachers, originally from China, placed in four different cohorts, participated in the study. Data was collected through self-reported proficiency appraisals using the Common European Framework of Reference (Council of Europe, 2001) scales, completed at the beginning and end of the program, and a reflective assignment completed at the end of the program that centred on if and how the pre-service teachers' study abroad experience helped them improve their English proficiency. Overall, participants felt that their level of English improved by about half a level on the CEFR scales, largely attributing this increase to the benefits of English-medium courses and learning about language teaching/learning. While many participants embraced the benefits of living abroad for their language development, some acknowledged the struggle to take full advantage of the study abroad experience, noting difficulty in building relationships and social networks outside of their first language group.