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Background and Aims Sample Methods Results Conclusion This study examined the effects of working memory training (WMT) on WM and fluid intelligence. A novel four‐pronged model of mediated learning, cognitive functions, task characteristics and metacognition is presented as a conceptual basis for the Modifiability of a Working Memory Program (MWMP). Our basic assumption is that increasing WM depends on a synchronized combination of the four components.A group of typically developed preschool children (n = 62) participated in the experimental group, receiving the MWMP. They were compared with a control group (n = 56) of preschool children who engaged in a substitute program. This comparison allowed us to discern the specific effects of the MWMP.All participants received tests of WM, self‐regulation and analogical reasoning before and after the intervention. The MWMP was administered to children in the experimental group for 10 weekly sessions, each lasting 40 minutes, in small groups of two children. The children in the control group engaged in didactic activities that were part of a school curriculum routine for kindergartners for the same length of time.We used ANCOVA analysis to compare the Treatment x Time with age and socioeconomic status as covariates. The findings revealed a higher improvement in some WM and self‐regulation tests among children in the experimental group compared to those in the control group. However, no significant transfer effects were observed in analogical thinking.The findings confirm the effectiveness of a non‐computerized WMT among kindergartners and support our four‐pronged theoretical model. We also discuss earlier findings on far‐transfer effects and educational implications. We suggest that future WM studies adopt the following: (1) the development of training methods that are theoretically anchored; (2) training procedures should not rely heavily on computerized exercises but can be adapted to group characteristics, educational settings and cost‐effectiveness aspects; (3) varying the task characteristics and training strategies to stimulate task‐intrinsic motivation; (4) identifying training strategies to produce cognitive improvements underlying WM; (5) intervention should target individuals in early development as much as possible; (6) development of training procedures that facilitate motivation; and (7) providing empirical evidence of far‐transfer effects for WM training. The empirical evidence should link gains in WM capacity and achievements in academic and other life domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to test the effectiveness of cognitive interventions based on modern board games in school settings to improve memory outcomes and math skills. A parallel, quasi-experimental study was carried out with children (n = 234) into third and fourth grades (8–10 years old). School centres were allocated into a general domain intervention (playing memory board games), a specific domain intervention (playing mathematical board games) or a control group (regular classes without playing). Teachers carried out bi-weekly sessions during the last 30 min of mathematical lessons (8 weeks, 15 sessions). Before and after intervention, we individually measured verbal and visuospatial memory outcomes (short-term memory and working memory updating) and mathematical skills (number operations, number ranking, number production and problem solving). The results showed significant transfer effects of both memory and math trainings. In third grade, we found that playing math games showed medium–large effect sizes in visuospatial short-term memory and updating memory, number operations and number ranking compared to the control group. In fourth grade, we found that playing memory games showed significant small effect sizes in problem solving compared to the control group. Playing board games could be a methodology that enhances cognitive and mathematical development in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsiveness. The studies on non-pharmacological treatment for ADHD are rather sparse. In India, usually, ADHD is assessed using rating scales, and not much importance is given on selective attention, that is, auditory and/or visual. Kofler1 hypothesized a functional relationship between working memory (WM) and inattention. Aim: The current research was planned to study the effect of Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT) program on various parameters of the auditory attention span of children and adolescents having ADHD. Methods: A total of 30 children were taken for the current study. Parental consent was taken. Auditory attention span of the sample was measured by the Continuous Auditory Test of Attention (CATA). After pre-assessment, the children underwent CWMT program for 5 weeks. Cogmed is a scientifically researched program, which has been recommended to be used for improvement of WM and attention. At the end of the training, the children were reassessed by the abovementioned tool, CATA. t -test was used to analyze the pre-intervention and post- intervention data for auditory inattentiveness, impulsivity, sustained attention, and two age groups. Mann-Whitney U -test was used to analyze the comparison between male and female gender groups. Results: Results indicate the effectiveness of Cogmed Working Training Program on auditory attention span of children with ADHD. Conclusion: The results need to be validated if the improvement is sustained over a period of time with follow up assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Numerous studies confirm the effectiveness of cognitive training in older adults. However, there is limited evidence of the transfer occurrence. The part of the study presented here tested the effect of 12 process-based working memory training sessions on the performance of the trained task (training effect) and other cognitive tasks (transfer effect). A pretest-posttest study design with one experimental group and two control (passive and active) groups. The sample comprised three groups of older adults: experimental (n = 25), passive control (n = 22), active control (n = 7), and young adults: experimental (n = 25), passive control (n = 25), and active control (n = 12). The study was registered after completion with a ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT06235840 on 31 January 2024. Results: Under the influence of training, the performance of the trained task improved significantly, but only in young adults. Transfer of WM training effects was not revealed. Among young adults, a testing effect was observed for the indicator of attentional focus and psychomotor speed. Moreover, the obtained results suggest the transfer from practice in multi-domain training, implemented in the active control group, to tasks that require the use of fluid intelligence. However, this finding should be interpreted with great caution due to the small size of active control groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working Memory (WM) considers the ability to process and store information and is commonly translated into the acquisition of new knowledge and skills, e.g., in the form of a memory strategy, such as an information grouping strategy. Therefore, increasing the efficiency of WM, particularly through non-invasive methods, such as training, becomes one of the crucial issues in enhancing one's cognitive functioning. Considering the average mobile device usage time, smartphones can be considered up-to-date training tools. Cognitive training using mobile devices can contribute to improvements in the field of online learning by providing a tool for improving students' cognitive skills. This study investigated the effectiveness of memory training using a mobile device, i.e., a smartphone. The training was assessed in a sample of young adults (N = 59) within a longitudinal design involving a pre-test and double post-test with a training and control group. The Dual N-back training improved WM capacity and boosted important proximal and distal outcomes. Overall, our study indicated an increase in WM as a result of the training using smartphones, thus providing important cues for enhancing WM capacity by use of digital training on mobile devices on a daily basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Episodic memory (EM) and working memory (WM) are negatively affected by healthy ageing, and additional memory impairment typically occurs in clinical ageing‐related conditions such as amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). Recent studies on musical mnemonics in Alzheimer's dementia (AD) showed promising results on EM performance. However, the effects of musical mnemonics on WM performance have not yet been studied in (a)MCI or AD. Particularly in (a)MCI the use of musical mnemonics may benefit the optimisation of (working) memory performance. Therefore, in the present study, we examined the effects of musical presentation of digits consisting of pre‐recorded rhythms, sung unfamiliar pitch sequences, and their combinations, as compared to spoken presentation. Furthermore, musical expertise was assessed with two perceptual tests and the Self‐Report Inventory of the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index. Thirty‐two persons with aMCI and 32 cognitively unimpaired older adults (OA) participated in this study. Confirming and extending previous findings in research on ageing, our results show a facilitating effect of rhythm in both cognitively unimpaired OA and persons with aMCI (p =.001, ηp2 =.158). Furthermore, pitch (p =.048, ηp2 =.062) and melody (p =.012, ηp2 =.098) negatively affected performance in both groups. Musical expertise increased this beneficial effect of musical mnemonics (p =.021, ηp2 =.090). Implications for the future design of music‐based memorisation strategies in (a)MCI are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the idea that music acts as a mnemonic aid, musical mnemonics (i.e., sung presentation of information, also referred to as 'music as a structural prompt'), are being used in educational and therapeutic settings. However, evidence in general and patient populations is still scarce. We investigated whether musical mnemonics affect working and episodic memory performance in cognitively unimpaired individuals and persons with Alzheimer's dementia (AD). Furthermore, we examined the possible contribution of musical expertise. We comprehensively searched the PubMed and PsycINFO databases for studies published between 1970 and 2022. Also, reference lists of all identified papers were manually extracted to identify additional articles. Of 1,126 records identified, 37 were eligible and included. Beneficial effects of musical mnemonics on some aspect of memory performance were reported in 28 of 37 studies, including nine on AD. Nine studies found no beneficial effect. Familiarity contributed positively to this beneficial effect in cognitively unimpaired adults, but require more extensive investigation in AD. Musical expertise generally did not lead to additional benefits for cognitively unimpaired participants, but may benefit people with AD. Musical mnemonics may help to learn and remember verbal information in cognitively unimpaired individuals and individuals with memory impairment. Here, we provide a theoretical model of the possible underlying mechanisms of musical mnemonics, building on previous frameworks. We also discuss the implications for designing music-based mnemonics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The results of working memory (WM) training to improve episodic memory in older people are inconsistent. This inconsistency could be due to the fact that the episodic memory tests used do not share the same cognitive resources as the trained WM task. The aim of this study was to assess whether performance on an episodic memory test will improve only when this test requires controlled processes of retrieval of information from secondary memory or recollection, similar to the processes exercised during WM training. Method: Fifty-five people over 60 years of age participated in the study: 27 were randomly assigned to the experimental group (EG) and the rest to the control group (CG). The EG was trained in complex span tasks. Before and after training, both groups were tested on episodic memory tests (a verbal and a visuospatial recognition test) and WM span tasks (reading, digit and spatial location). Results: ANOVAs revealed a greater improvement of recollection estimates in the EG than in the CG for both verbal recognition (p = 0.023) and visuospatial recognition (p = 0.014). Discussion: Our results provide support for a cognitive mechanism whose shared presence favored transfer from training on a WM task to a test of episodic memory. Consistent with our predictions, training on complex span tasks improved performance on recognition tests only when recall required a controlled search process in secondary memory, or recollection. We therefore stress the importance of identifying other cognitive resources that are susceptible to transfer from a training task to other untrained tasks. A better understanding of the phenomenon of transfer is crucial for the design of increasingly effective intervention programs for older people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Mnemonic strategies can facilitate working memory performance, but our knowledge on strategy use as a function of task characteristics remains limited. We examined self-reported strategy use in several working memory tasks with pretest data from two large-scale online training experiments. A three-level measure of strategy sophistication (no strategy, maintenance, manipulation) was coded based on participants’ open-ended strategy reports. A considerable portion of participants reported some memory strategy, and strategy sophistication was associated with objective task performance. We found a consistent effect of stimulus type: verbal stimuli (letters or digits) elicited higher strategy sophistication than nonverbal ones (colours or spatial positions). In contrast, the association between task paradigm and strategy sophistication was less consistent in the two experiments. The present results highlight the importance of self-generated strategies in understanding individual differences in working memory performance and the role of stimulus characteristics as one of the task-related determinants of strategy use.

Mnemonic strategies can facilitate working memory performance, but our knowledge on strategy use as a function of task characteristics remains limited. We examined self-reported strategy use in several working memory tasks with pretest data from two large-scale online training experiments. A three-level measure of strategy sophistication (no strategy, maintenance, manipulation) was coded based on participants' open-ended strategy reports. A considerable portion of participants reported some memory strategy, and strategy sophistication was associated with objective task performance. We found a consistent effect of stimulus type: verbal stimuli (letters or digits) elicited higher strategy sophistication than nonverbal ones (colours or spatial positions). In contrast, the association between task paradigm and strategy sophistication was less consistent in the two experiments. The present results highlight the importance of self-generated strategies in understanding individual differences in working memory performance and the role of stimulus characteristics as one of the task-related determinants of strategy use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working memory training (WM-T), as an intervention strategy to improve emotion regulation (ER), has become popular in cognitive psychology. However, it poses many different challenges for researchers, and far-transfer effects on subsequent ER have been debated. This systematic exploratory review investigates how the WM-ER dyad is implicated in WM-T as an intervention strategy for improving ER. Systematic review protocols were followed for the selection of studies investigating the relationship between WM and ER, and WM-T to improve ER. An electronic database search following the PRISMA statement was conducted in which 15 studies were considered eligible. The studies were assessed for quality control using an adapted Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tool for quantitative studies. Studies were analysed using the population, variables, and outcomes (PVO) strategy for systematic exploratory reviews. Five studies included psychological disorders and one study used brain imaging. From a neural perspective, the coupling of the prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex over the amygdala was involved in the WM-ER dyad. Although there was a lack of evidence of far-transfer effects of WM-T to improve ER, the mechanisms of reward-enhancing effects in WM-T, as well as dopamine release (involved in brain-reward circuitry), should be explored further. This will allow researchers to re-evaluate the direction that the investigation is taking. More concerningly, there is a need for quality control in WM-T studies due to several studies acking sufficient attention to ethical considerations standardisation. Future WM-T studies must ensure that research is founded on quality evidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attention has been regarded as the 'gatekeeper' of working memory. However, this conventional view is challenged by recent demonstrations of attribute amnesia. Attribute amnesia is a counterintuitive phenomenon where participants fail to remember a simple piece of information that had just been attended to several seconds ago. This phenomenon is not due to perceptual failure or forgetting, but instead is related to adaptive filters that affect memory encoding. We propose the theory of memory reselection to explain attribute amnesia. Reselection is a secondary round of selection among information that had initially been selected by attention. This mechanism allows attention and working memory to be dissociated. Memory reselection is achieved through an adaptive tuning of memory encoding which might be due to active inhibition of the information, preventing it from being stored in memory. Attention has been regarded as the 'gatekeeper' controlling what information gets selected into working memory. However, a new perspective has emerged with the discovery of attribute amnesia, a phenomenon revealing that people are frequently unable to report information they have just attended to moments ago. This report failure is thought to stem from a lack of consolidating the attended information into working memory, indicating a dissociation between attention and working memory. Building on these findings, a new concept called memory reselection is proposed to describe a secondary round of selection among the attended information. These discoveries challenge the conventional view of how attention and working memory are related and shed new light onto modeling attention and memory as dissociable processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Working memory training has shown both physical and cognitive benefits in aging population. However, these gains are not clear after brain injury and mild cognitive disorder. Thus, the aim of this study is to identify the current state of the scientific literature on technology-mediated working memory training in adults with mild neurocognitive impairment. Methods: A systematic review was performed, following the PRISMA guidelines in English language in the Scopus, Web of Science and Pubmed databases. We included articles that were experimental studies, from the last 7 years, with older adults, in English language and studies related to working memory training in patients with minor neurocognitive disorder, and excluded those that had a different methodological design, were studies with incomplete information, were subjective and not interpretable and studies in patients with severe neurological diseases and psychiatric diseases. Results: A total of 745 articles were identified, 675 were eliminated after reading the title, abstract and keywords because they did not fit the specificity of the research topic or the population, and after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 1334 articles were eliminated, and 70 were evaluated for eligibility, and of these only 30 met the quality criteria. Conclusion: Neurological changes in mild neurocognitive impairment reduce the ability to simultaneously maintain and process information to perform complex tasks. The findings of the systematic review support the sensitivity and ecological validity of neuropsychological rehabilitation mediated by virtual reality, computerized training, video games and robotics in working memory training in adults with mild neurocognitive disorder because it represents a protective factor for mental health, allowing brain stimulation and the development of skills that favor social interaction, problem solving and maintenance of cognitive reserve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sufficient activation of the left fusiform gyrus is important in reading ability acquisition due to its role in reading and naming, working memory (WM), and balance tasks. Recently, a newly‐designed training program, Verbal Working Memory‐Balance (VWM‐B), has been evaluated on children with dyslexia, and its positive effects were shown on reading ability, WM capacity, and postural control. In the present study, we aimed to estimate the functional connectivity alterations of the left fusiform gyrus following training by the VWM‐B. Before and after 15 sessions of training, the fMRI and other tools data were collected on a sample of children with dyslexia, who were allocated into two control and experiment groups. Data analyses showed the increased functional connectivity of the left fusiform gyrus between the left anterior temporal fusiform cortex, left and right Crus II regions of the cerebellum, and the left middle frontal gyrus. Moreover, VWM‐B training significantly improved the reading and naming ability, WM capacity, and postural control of participants in the experiment group in comparison to the control. The current study findings emphasize the critical role of the left fusiform gyrus in reading ability. Moreover, it provides evidence to support the existence of cerebellar deficits in dyslexia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children with ADHD show impairments in set shifting task performance. However, the limited available evidence suggests that directly training shifting may not improve shifting performance in this population. We hypothesized that this incongruence may be because impairments exhibited by children with ADHD during shifting tasks are due to deficits in other executive functions, as shifting tasks also engage children's working memory and/or inhibitory control abilities. This randomized controlled trial examined the extent to which neurocognitive training of working memory vs. inhibitory control can produce downstream (far-transfer) improvements in set shifting task performance. Children with ADHD ages 8–12 (M = 10.41, SD = 1.46; 12 girls; 74% White/Non-Hispanic) were randomized to either central executive training (CET; n = 25) or inhibitory control training (ICT; n = 29), two next-generation digital therapeutics previously shown to improve their intended neurocognitive targets. Two criterion set shifting tests were administered at pre- and post-treatment. Results indicated that ICT was superior to CET for improving shifting accuracy (treatmentxtime: p =.03, BF10 = 3.01, η2 =.09, d = 0.63). ICT was also superior to CET for improving shifting speed, albeit on only one of the two outcome tasks (p =.02, BF10 = 4.53, η2 =.08, d = 0.59). CET did not produce improvements in shifting speed or accuracy on either task (p >.52, BF01 > 2.62), but showed evidence for more general (non-shifting-specific) improvement in response times on one of the outcome tasks (shift trials, d = 0.70; non-shift trials, d = 0.68). Taken together, these findings confirm that inhibitory control is important for successful performance on shifting tests, and suggest that training inhibitory control may reflect a method for improving set shifting difficulties in children with ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dual-task interference causes many accidents. Working memory (WM) training has the potential to reduce dual-task interference. However, an effective method of WM training for reducing dual-task interference has not been established. This study aimed to examine whether WM training using auditory stimuli (auditory WM training) or visual stimuli (visual WM training) would more effectively reduce dual-task interference. Twenty-two young adults performed an N-back task with auditory or visual stimuli for auditory or visual WM training, for 2 weeks. The authors assessed dual-task interference before and after each training. The authors used a hierarchic multilevel model for these assessment parameters. As a result, visual WM training might be more effective for reducing dual-task interference than auditory WM training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assess whether working memory training will relieve anxiety in participants. The PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and ProQuest databases were searched up to January 25, 2022. We included random controlled trials with low to moderate risk of bias in comparing working memory training with control condition as the only intervention in treating anxiety (PROSPERO ID: CRD42022300404). The language was restricted to English. Data extraction was independently carried out by two authors, following the PRISMA guideline for systematic reviews. Of the 477 records identified, 19 studies (n = 1051) were included in the meta-analysis. The results showed that the post-training anxiety was reduced with a small but significant value (Hedge's g = −0.392, p =.009) by working memory training. Subgroup analyses confirmed that the moderating effect of anxiety type, anxiety measurement and training environment were significant. These results should be considered with caution for the heterogeneity of training paradigms, participant population and types of anxiety assessed between studies. Further research is required to support these results. Working memory training is a promising intervention to relieve anxiety symptoms. • First meta-analysis to assess the anxiety-reducing effect of working memory training in participants of all ages. • Anxiety can be significantly reduced by working memory training. • Anxiety type, anxiety measurement and training environment are significant moderators of the training effect. • Working memory training is a promising intervention to relieve anxiety symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study aimed to explore the eects of working memory updating training on primary school students’ writing ability and performance. Methods: A total of 46 fourth-grade Chinese primary school students were recruited; their performance in the Chinese character N-back training task, the Writing Ability Questionnaire, and a time-limited writing task was assessed. Results: The paired-sample t-test revealed that working memory updating training significantly improved the experimental group’s working memory level. After training, a repeated measures ANOVA revealed that the experimental group’s performance on the Writing Ability Questionnaire improved and was higher than that of the control group. In the time-limited writing task, independent-sample t-tests revealed that the experimental group’s writing fluency increased and was higher than that of the control group, while the latter’s grammatical accuracy and complexity decreased and were lower than those of the former. Conclusion: Working memory updating training can be used as auxiliary cognitive training to improve primary school students’ working memory level, thereby promoting their writing developmen [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working memory (WM) impairments are reported to occur in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the mechanisms are unclear. Here, we investigate several putative factors that might drive poor performance, by examining the precision of recall, the order in which items are recalled and whether memories are corrupted by random guessing (attentional lapses). We used two separate tasks that examined the quality of WM recall under different loads and retention periods, as well as a traditional digit span test. Firstly, on a simple measure of WM recall, where patients were asked to reproduce the orientation of a centrally presented arrow, overall recall was not significantly impaired. However, there was some evidence for increased guessing (attentional lapses). On a new analogue version of the Corsi‐span task, where participants had to reproduce on a touchscreen the exact spatial pattern of presented stimuli in the order and locations in which they appeared, there was a reduction in the precision of spatial WM at higher loads. This deficit was due to misremembering item order. At the highest load, there was reduced recall precision, whereas increased guessing was only observed at intermediate set sizes. Finally, PD patients had impaired backward, but not forward, digit spans. Overall, these results reveal the task‐ and load‐dependent nature of WM deficits in PD. On simple low‐load tasks, attentional lapses predominate, whereas at higher loads, in the spatial domain, the corruption of mnemonic information—both order item and precision—emerge as the main driver of impairment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The efficacy of working memory training (WMT) for cognitive enhancement in healthy older adults has been extensively investigated. Typically, WMT results in improved performance on the training task, but limited or no transfer of improvement to other cognitive tasks. Accordingly, there is a need to identify optimal intervention parameters to maximize training and transfer task effects of WMT. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of training schedule on training and transfer task performance of WMT in healthy older adults. A secondary aim was to examine the feasibility of participants performing the intervention online at home, unsupervised, and using their personal devices. Methods: Participants (N = 71; mean age: 66 years) completed sixteen WMT or active-control sessions over eight (distributed) or four (intensive) weeks. Adaptive verbal and spatial n-back tasks were used as the WMT tasks. We tested near transfer effects to a digit-span task and far transfer effects to an abstract relational reasoning task. Results: Participants successfully performed the cognitively demanding intervention using their own devices, online at home, and with minimal contact with the researcher. We observed a significant improvement in WMT task performance in the WMT group relative to active-controls, but no evidence of near or far transfer. Similar training effects were observed irrespective of the intensity of the training schedule. Discussion: Our results suggest that comparable benefits could be observed when using less intensive schedules that may be more easily accommodated into everyday life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential benefits and mechanistic effects of working memory training (WMT) in children are the subject of much research and debate. We show that after five weeks of school‐based, adaptive WMT 6–9 year‐old primary school children had greater activity in prefrontal and striatal brain regions, higher task accuracy, and reduced intra‐individual variability in response times compared to controls. Using a sequential sampling decision model, we demonstrate that this reduction in intra‐individual variability can be explained by changes to the evidence accumulation rates and thresholds. Critically, intra‐individual variability is useful in quantifying the immediate impact of cognitive training interventions, being a better predictor of academic skills and well‐being 6–12 months after the end of training than task accuracy. Taken together, our results suggest that attention control is the initial mechanism that leads to the long‐run benefits from adaptive WMT. Selective and sustained attention abilities may serve as a scaffold for subsequent changes in higher cognitive processes, academic skills, and general well‐being. Furthermore, these results highlight that the selection of outcome measures and the timing of the assessments play a crucial role in detecting training efficacy. Thus, evaluating intra‐individual variability, during or directly after training could allow for the early tailoring of training interventions in terms of duration or content to maximise their impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working memory considered as a core of human cognition and it plays a vital role in academic performance, so working memory impairment is one of the main causes of learning disabilities. Studies indicated that working memory can be enhanced through training, and the training effects can be transferred to other cognitive functions. In the current study, a total of (45) 7th-grade students were divided into three groups: the mathematics learning disabilities (MLD) group (n=14), the reading learning disabilities (RLD) group (n=13), and the normal group (n=18). All the groups completed an adaptive computerized updating training in (5) weeks with a total of (20) sessions, and each session lasted for (20) minutes. Before and after training all of the groups were required to complete an automated version of complex span tasks (operation span task + symmetry span task). Results indicated that normal children performed significantly in the majority of complex span tasks than learned disabled children (LDs), results also indicated that updating training improved working memory efficiency for the MLD group markedly higher than the RLD group, and the normal group was the lowest group that benefited from the training. This study provides experimental evidence that working memory updating training could attenuate impairments of working memory for LDs to some extent, and causes near-transfer effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Working memory (WM) training (WMT) is a popular intervention approach against cognitive decline in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). However, heterogeneity in WM responsiveness suggests that WMT may not be equally efficient for all patients. Objective: The present study aims to evaluate a multivariate model to predict post-intervention verbal WM in patients with PD using a supervised machine learning approach. We test the predictive potential of novel learning parameters derived from the WMT and compare their predictiveness to other more commonly used domains including demographic, clinical, and cognitive data. Methods: 37 patients with PD (age: 64.09±8.56, 48.6% female, 94.7% Hoehn & Yahr stage 2) participated in a 5-week WMT. Four random forest regression models including 1) cognitive variables only, 2) learning parameters only, 3) both cognitive and learning variables, and 4) the entire set of variables (with additional demographic and clinical data, 'all' model), were built to predict immediate and 3-month-follow-up WM. Result: The 'all' model predicted verbal WM with the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) compared to the other models, at both immediate (RMSE = 0.184; 95% -CI=[0.184;0.185]) and 3-month follow-up (RMSE = 0.216; 95% -CI=[0.215;0.217]). Cognitive baseline parameters were among the most important predictors in the 'all' model. The model combining cognitive and learning parameters significantly outperformed the model solely based on cognitive variables. Conclusion: Commonly assessed demographic, clinical, and cognitive variables provide robust prediction of response to WMT. Nonetheless, inclusion of training-inherent learning parameters further boosts precision of prediction models which in turn may augment training benefits following cognitive interventions in patients with PD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple representations in visual working memory (VWM) can vary in mnemonic precision. This inhomogeneity of VWM precision has received some support from recent studies with the whole-report procedure, in which all memory items are recalled in free or forced orders. Recently, Hao et al. (2021, Cognition, 214, 104739) added a novel item-selection stage before each memory recall and found smaller between-trial variance in mouse trajectory during the selection stage in free-recall condition as compared with forced recall, which was taken as evidence for less between-item interference and the resulting precision benefit under free recall. Here, we reanalyzed the original dataset with a different analytic approach and attempted independent hypothesis testing focusing on within-trial trajectory deviations. We found that the direction of trial-by-trial trajectory bias for the first to-be-recalled item was predictive of the relative mnemonic precision of the remaining items. Critically, this relationship was only present for forced recall but not for free recall. Hierarchical Bayesian modeling of recall errors further identified that this relationship was selectively driven by VWM precision. Together, our reanalysis provides evidence for the source of between-item interference and its direct association with variable precision of VWM representations, and further highlights the novel methodological benefits of probing memory decisional processes using mouse trajectory data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computerized Cognitive Training (CCT) programs have been widely used in the past decades, offering an alternative solution in enhancing cognitive functionalities, especially Working Memory (WM). CCT supports users to overcome the monotonous context of training by utilizing specific game elements (GE). Several previous studies focused on the efficacy of CCT, but only a few examined their potential in increasing motivation and adherence. This study aimed to (a) conduct a state-of-the-art systematic literature review to identify the most commonly used GEs in WM training and assessment; and to (b) investigate how they are utilized in regard to the audiences that are being applied. In total, seven online databases were searched using keywords related to WM and CCT, targeting studies from 2015 until early 2022. The systematic review identified 44 studies which were eligible for inclusion. The results report that the most widely used GEs are conflict (88.63%), feedback (84.9%), difficulty adjustment (73%), action points and levels (70.45%). On the other hand, GEs associated with competition and cooperation are not preferred except in very few cases. In conclusion, there is common ground in the use of GEs for WM training, but there is a need for further research to compare the GEs between them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study evaluated a modified working memory training program, Cogmed, for ADHD youth. Method: Forty youth were randomized to modified Cogmed training (MCT) or treatment as usual (CON). MCT was delivered in an outpatient mental health clinic in 3 weekly 35-minute sessions with a dedicated coach for 10 weeks. Participants completed assessments at baseline, after the intervention, and again 3 months later. Results: After controlling for baseline, groups were comparable on working memory, academics, and ADHD symptoms. The MCT group was rated by parents and teachers as having fewer executive function challenges and youth endorsed better self-concept compared with the CON group. Conclusions: MCT was associated with some improvement, which could not be attributed to increased working memory capacity and may reflect other facets of the program. Results question the usefulness of Cogmed but highlight considerations for optimizing adherence, engagement, and the therapeutic alliance in interventions for ADHD youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescent development is characterized by an improvement in multiple cognitive processes. While performance on cognitive operations improves during this period, the ability to learn new skills quickly, for example, a new language, decreases. During this time, there is substantial pruning of excitatory synapses in cortex and specifically in prefrontal cortex. We have trained a series of recurrent neural networks to solve a working memory task and a reinforcement learning (RL) task. Performance on both of these tasks is known to improve during adolescence. After training, we pruned the networks by removing weak synapses. Pruning was done incrementally, and the networks were retrained during pruning. We found that pruned networks trained on the working memory task were more resistant to distraction. The pruned RL networks were able to produce more accurate value estimates and also make optimal choices more consistently. Both results are consistent with developmental improvements on these tasks. Pruned networks, however, learned some, but not all, new problems more slowly. Thus, improvements in task performance can come at the cost of flexibility. Our results show that overproduction and subsequent pruning of synapses is a computationally advantageous approach to building a competent brain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies have reported that cognitive training can lead to improvements of complex mental skills such as intelligence. However, attempts to replicate these findings have not been very successful with many studies reporting lack of transferable effects on cognitive processes unrelated to the training task. On the contrary, transfer effects on cognitive processes closely related to the training task have been more commonly reported. In this study, we investigated the effects of a frequently used working-memory training programme on fluid intelligence and specific executive functions (updating, inhibition, switching, the focus of attention, and sustained attention). We remedied common issues with previous training studies by using an active control group, using more than one instrument to assess each function, and including a larger sample size. The experimental group showed significant improvement in the training task, indicating strong practice effects. However, no evidence of training-specific transfer was found in any of the variables investigated, and we could not find any of the previous improvements reported. Participants in both the training and control groups showed post-training improvements in most of the outcome variables, suggesting that practice effects can be found even when a task is only performed twice. We conclude by discussing possible explanations for the differences between our results and those reported in prior studies and recommend that any claims of improvement should be supported by studies capable of replicating them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working memory training (WMT) for children has received great attention in recent scientific investigations. However, evidence on program efficacy is still sparse. This study aimed to investigate the effect of a WMT software program (Programa de Ativação da Memória de Trabalho [PRAMEMT]) in promoting gains on cognitive and school related abilities. To investigate its effect, 78 school children attending 1st to 5th grades (52.6% girls; mean age = 7.87 years; SD = 1.44) were randomly allocated to a control (n = 37) or an experimental (n = 41) group. The children participated in five intervention sessions. The control group answered questions related to the same animals and themes featured in the PRAMEMT, but unrelated to working memory. The results suggested that there were gains in the performance intelligence quotient (p <.05; d = −0.54) and phonological awareness (p <.05; d = −0.52) in the experimental group; however, there was no change in overall cognitive performance. Possible mechanisms for these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cancer survivors commonly report symptoms of impaired cognition. This project examined effectiveness of a behavioral skills training intervention to improve cognition and reduce cognitive dysfunction symptoms in cancer survivors. Methods: Participants were randomly assigned to group-based workshops focused on learning new cognitive skills (skills treatment—TX) or an active control of education workshops (education control—EC) or a passive control of wait list (WL). Participants were evaluated pre- and post intervention with subjective mood and symptom questionnaires and objective neurocognitive tests. Results: One hundred twenty-eight participants (mean age 59 years), average 4.6 years (+ / − 5.5 years) post cancer treatment with various cancer types (breast, bladder, prostate, colon, uterine), were enrolled. Analysis of all participants who attended workshop(s) revealed improvement in the TX workshop completers on all objective cognitive measures (attention, concentration, declarative, and working memory) save one test of selective attention, and improvement on a single measure (verbal memory) and decline (selective attention) in the EC group. TX workshop completers also improved on all symptom and mood measures, in contrast to EC group which improved on a single subscale of a symptom measure, but increased on an anxiety measure. TX group alone improved on a quantified measure of each participants' unique, "top three," self-described cognitive symptoms. Conclusion: Improvement from behavioral skills training was evident from objective cognitive tests, subjective symptom measures, and quantified, individual patient-specific symptoms. Behavioral skill training is an effective treatment for cognitive dysfunction in cancer survivors, and should be considered as a treatment option by health care providers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Half a century ago persistent spiking activity in the neocortex was discovered to be a neural substrate of working memory. Since then scientists have sought to understand this core cognitive function across biological and computational levels. Studies are reviewed here that cumulatively lend support to a synaptic theory of recurrent circuits for mnemonic persistent activity that depends on various cellular and network substrates and is mathematically described by a multiple-attractor network model. Crucially, a mnemonic attractor state of the brain is consistent with temporal variations and heterogeneity across neurons in a subspace of population activity. Persistent activity should be broadly understood as a contrast to decaying transients. Mechanisms in the absence of neural firing ('activity-silent state') are suitable for passive short-term memory but not for working memory – which is characterized by executive control for filtering out distractors, limited capacity, and internal manipulation of information. Working memory actively engages stimulus-selective persistent activity, which is mathematically described as an attractor state of a reverberatory neural circuit. The attractor network model is compatible with temporal variations of mnemonic neural firing in a subspace of population activity. Sustained activity during working memory coexists with intermittent bursts of frequency-dependent network synchronization. There is no increase in the total number of spikes in a neural population during a mnemonic delay period compared to a baseline state, suggesting that persistent activity is not more energetically costly than an alternative memory mechanism using hidden variables. Activity-silent state mechanisms such as synaptic short-term facilitation are suitable for the storage of passive short-term memory traces, but not for working memory, because the latter also involves manipulation of information online in the absence of external stimulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current pilot study aimed to test the gains of working memory (WM) training, both at the short- and long-term, at a behavioral level, and by examining the electrophysiological changes induced by training in resting-state EEG activity among older adults. The study group included 24 older adults (from 64 to 75 years old) who were randomly assigned to a training group (TG) or an active control group (ACG) in a double-blind, repeated-measures experimental design in which open eyes, resting-state EEG recording, followed by a WM task, i.e., the Categorization Working Memory Span (CWMS) task, were collected before and after training, as well as at a 6-month follow-up session. At the behavioral level, medium to large Cohen's d effect sizes was found for the TG in immediate and long-term gains in the WM criterion task, as compared with small gains for the ACG. Regarding intrusion errors committed in the CWMS, an index of inhibitory control representing a transfer effect, results showed that medium to large effect sizes for immediate and long-term gains emerged for the TG, as compared to small effect sizes for the ACG. Spontaneous high-beta/alpha ratio analyses in four regions of interest (ROIs) revealed no pre-training group differences. Significantly greater TG anterior rates, particularly in the left ROI, were found after training, with frontal oscillatory responses being correlated with better post-training CWMS performance in only the TG. The follow-up analysis showed similar results, with greater anterior left high-beta/alpha rates among TG participants. Follow-up frontal high-beta/alpha rates in the right ROI were correlated with lower CWMS follow-up intrusion errors in only the TG. The present findings are further evidence of the efficacy of WM training in enhancing the cognitive functioning of older adults and their frontal oscillatory activity. Overall, these results suggested that WM training also can be a promising approach toward fostering the so-called functional cortical plasticity in aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: A common assumption to maximise cognitive training outcomes is that training tasks should be adaptive, with difficulty adjusted to the individual's performance. This has only been tested once in adults (von Bastian & Eschen, 2016). We aimed to examine children's outcomes of working memory training using adaptive, self-select and stepwise approaches to setting the difficulty of training tasks compared to an active control condition. Participants and Methods: In a randomised controlled trial (ACTRN 12621000990820), children in Grades 2-5 (7 to 11 years) were allocated to one of four conditions: adaptive working memory training, self-select working memory training, stepwise working memory training, or active control. An experimental intervention embedded in Minecraft was developed for teachers to deliver in the classroom over two weeks (10 x 20-minute sessions). The working memory training comprised two training tasks with processing demands similar to daily activities: backward span with digits and following instructions with objects. The control condition comprised creative building tasks. As part of a larger protocol, children completed at baseline and immediately post-intervention working memory measures similar to the training activities (primary outcome): backward span digits and letters versions, following instructions objects and letters versions. Primary analyses were intention-to-treat. Secondary analyses included only children who completed 10 sessions. Results: Of 204 children recruited into the study, 203 were randomised, with 95% retention at post-intervention. 76% of children completed all 10 training sessions. Comparisons between each working memory training condition and the active control on working memory measures were non-significant (f 2 = 0.00), with one exception. Children in the self-select condition on average performed 1-point better than the controls on the following instructions objects measure (p =.02, f 2 = 0.03). A pattern emerged that the self-select condition performed better on most measures. Conclusions: We found little evidence that an adaptive approach to setting the difficulty of training tasks maximises training outcomes for children. Findings suggest that working memory outcomes following training are limited and are not modulated by the approach to setting the difficulty of training tasks. This is consistent with findings from von Bastian & Eschen (2016), who also observed that the self-select condition (and not the adaptive condition) showed a slightly larger change in working memory performance following training than the control. It is helpful for clinicians to be aware that adaptive working memory training programs might not be superior in improving children's working memory, and the benefits of programs are limited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The argument that Working Memory (WM) is especially important for reading comprehension has been supported in previous research. The aim of this study was to test a non-computerized WM training method to improve children's reading comprehension in a longitudinal design. 38 Danish children in 3rd and 4th grade (M = 112.9 months, SD = 7.90 months) were divided into a training group (N = 18) and a control group (N = 20). Assessments of sentence reading comprehension and WM were administered at pre- and post-test, half-year and one-year follow-up. Verbal WM and reading comprehension were not improved following training. Visuo-spatial WM improved at post-training, but the effect did not last into the one-year follow up. The role of WM in reading comprehension and the pedagogical implications for teaching are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Recent studies have examined the effect of computerized cognitive training on working memory (WM), but the behavioral and neural effects were uncertain. Also, few studies have explored WM training effects on children using event‐related potentials. The purpose of our study was to investigate the effects of WM training in children, including the effects on behavioral performance and neurophysiological outcomes. Methods: Forty‐four healthy children (mean age = 7.76 years, SD = 0.57 years, 18 females) were assigned to the training and control groups. Over 20 training sessions, the training group participated in the computation‐span and spatial N‐back tasks, whereas the control group joined in normal class activities. They all completed the pre‐ and post‐test evaluation of WM tasks (digit span backwards task and N‐back task). Results: The results showed that WM training led to improved performance in the digit span backwards task and 2‐back task of post‐test evaluation, shortened P3a and P3b latencies in nontarget trials during the spatial 1‐back task, shortened P3a latency in target and nontarget trials, as well as increased P3b amplitude and shortened P3b latency in target trials during the spatial 2‐back task. Conclusions: These results suggested that WM training might enhance children's behavioral performance on WM tasks and brought about neurophysiological changes. This study gives insights into the potential of WM training effects on children's behavioral performance and neurophysiological outcomes. This work found that working memory training enhanced children's working memory performance and related ERP measures, providing evidence for the efficacy of working memory training on children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The dopaminergic and serotonergic systems are two of the most important neuronal pathways in the human brain. Most psychotropic drugs affect at least one of these neurotransmitters, therefore studying their influence on memory could either make them useful for additional therapeutic purposes, or raise awareness for potentially undocumented side effects. The aim of this review is to gather data from articles in the form of animal studies, regarding the effects on memory of several compounds known to act on the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems. Materials and methods: The studies included in this review were gathered from the PubMed database. The selection process followed the PRISMA protocol for systematic reviews, and 28 articles investigating one of four different dopaminergic or serotonergic compounds were analyzed. Results: Stimulating dopamine receptors using bromocriptine improved working memory, whereas inhibiting them using haloperidol had a detrimental effect on the mnemonic function. Serotonin (5-HT) had a more complex influence on working memory test results: increasing its concentration in the synaptic cleft using the antidepressant fluoxetine did not have significant effects in most studies included, while decreasing it, using the 5-HT antagonist ketanserin, had an unexpected beneficial effect, in the cases where the animal had been subjected to cerebral damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background : Various working memory (WM) trainings have been tested, but differences in experimental designs, the lack of theoretical background, and the need of identifying task-related processes such as filtering efficiency limit conclusions about their comparative efficacy. Objectives : In this study, we compared the efficacy of a model-based WM training with (MB+) and without (MB) distractor inhibition on improving WM capacity to a dual n-back and active control condition. Methods : This randomized clinical trial included 123 healthy elderly adults (78 women, 45 men; aged 64.1 ± 8.3 years). All groups underwent 12 40-min training sessions over 3 weeks and four cognitive testing sessions. The first two sessions served as double baseline to account for practice effects. Primary outcome was WM capacity post-training measured by complex span tasks. Near and far transfer was assessed by simple span, n-back, visuospatial and verbal learning, processing speed, and reasoning tasks. Results : Due to preliminary termination (COVID-19), 93 subjects completed the post-training and 60 subjects the follow-up session. On a whole group level, practice effects occurred from prebaseline to baseline in WM capacity (b = 4.85, t (103) = 4.01, p < 0.001, r = 0.37). Linear mixed-effects models revealed a difference in WM capacity post-training between MB+ and MB (b = −9.62, t (82) = −2.52, p = 0.014, r = 0.27) and a trend difference between MB+ and dual n-back (b = −7.59, t (82) = −1.87, p = 0.065, r = 0.20) and control training (b = −7.08, t (82) = −1.86, p = 0.067, r = 0.20). Univariate analyses showed an increase between pre- and post-training for WM capacity within MB+ (t (22) = −3.34, p < 0.05) only. There was no difference between groups pre- and post-training regarding near and far transfer. Univariate analyses showed improved visuospatial learning within MB+ (t (21) = −3.8, p < 0.05), improved processing speed (t (23) = 2.19, p < 0.05) and n -back performance (t (23) = 2.12, p < 0.05) in MB, and improved n -back performance (t (25) = 3.83, p < 0.001) in the dual n -back training. Interpretation : A model-based WM training including filtering efficacy may be a promising approach to increase WM capacity and needs further investigation in randomized controlled studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to discriminate between stimuli relies on a chain of neural operations associated with perception, memory and decision-making. Accumulating studies show learning-dependent plasticity in perception or decision-making, yet whether perceptual learning modifies mnemonic processing remains unclear. Here, we trained human participants of both sexes in an orientation discrimination task, while using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to separately examine training-induced changes in working memory (WM) representation. fMRI decoding revealed orientation-specific neural patterns during the delay period in primary visual cortex (V1) before, but not after, training, whereas neurodisruption of V1 during the delay period led to behavioral deficits in both phases. In contrast, both fMRI decoding and disruptive effect of TMS showed that intraparietal sulcus (IPS) represented WM content after, but not before, training. These results suggest that training does not affect the necessity of sensory area in representing WM information, consistent with the sensory recruitment hypothesis in WM, but likely alters the coding format of the stored stimulus in this region. On the other hand, training can render WM content to be maintained in higher-order parietal areas, complementing sensory area to support more robust maintenance of information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning and memory are assumed to be supported by mechanisms that involve cholinergic transmission and hippocampal theta. Using G protein-coupled receptor-activation-based acetylcholine sensor (GRABACh3.0) with a fiber-photometric fluorescence readout in mice, we found that cholinergic signaling in the hippocampus increased in parallel with theta/gamma power during walking and REM sleep, while ACh3.0 signal reached a minimum during hippocampal sharp-wave ripples (SPW-R). Unexpectedly, memory performance was impaired in a hippocampus-dependent spontaneous alternation task by selective optogenetic stimulation of medial septal cholinergic neurons when the stimulation was applied in the delay area but not in the central (choice) arm of the maze. Parallel with the decreased performance, optogenetic stimulation decreased the incidence of SPW-Rs. These findings suggest that septo-hippocampal interactions play a task-phase-dependent dual role in the maintenance of memory performance, including not only theta mechanisms but also SPW-Rs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Working memory is essential for daily life skills like reading comprehension, reasoning, and problem-solving. Healthy aging of the brain goes along with working memory decline that can affect older people's independence in everyday life. Interventions in the form of cognitive training are a promising tool for delaying age-related working memory decline, yet the underlying structural plasticity of white matter is hardly studied. Methods: We conducted a longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging study to investigate the effects of an intensive four-week adaptive working memory training on white matter integrity quantified by global and tract-wise mean diffusivity. We compared diffusivity measures of fiber tracts that are associated with working memory of 32 young and 20 older participants that were randomly assigned to a working memory training group or an active control group. Results: The behavioral analysis showed an increase in working memory performance after the four-week adaptive working memory training. The neuroanatomical analysis revealed a decrease in mean diffusivity in the working memory training group after the training intervention in the right inferior longitudinal fasciculus for the older adults. There was also a decrease in mean diffusivity in the working memory training group in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus for the older and young participants after the intervention. Conclusion: This study shows that older people can benefit from working memory training by improving their working memory performance that is also reflected in terms of improved white matter integrity in the superior longitudinal fasciculus and the inferior longitudinal fasciculus, where the first is an essential component of the frontoparietal network known to be essential in working memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is debated whether training with a working memory (WM) task, particularly n-back, can improve general WM and reasoning skills. Most training studies found substantial improvement in the trained task, with little to no transfer to untrained tasks. We hypothesized that training does not increase WM capacity, but instead provides opportunities to develop an efficient task-specific strategy. We derived a strategy for the task that optimizes WM resources and taught it to participants. In two sessions, 14 participants who were taught this strategy performed as well as fourteen participants who trained for 40 sessions without strategy instructions. To understand the mechanisms underlying the no-instruction group's improvement, participants answered questionnaires during their training period. Their replies indicate that successful learners discovered the same strategy and their improvement was associated with this discovery. We conclude that n-back training allows the discovery of strategies that enable better performance with the same WM resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some comparative ontogenetic data imply that effective working-memory capacity develops in ways that are independent of brain size in humans. These are interpreted better from neuroscientific considerations about the continuing development of neuronal architecture in adolescents and young adults, than from one about gross brain mass which already is reached in childhood. By contrast, working-memory capacity in Pan never develops beyond that of three- or four-year-old children. The phylogenetic divergence begs the question of whether it is any longer plausible to infer from the fossil record, that over the past two million years, an ostensibly gradual increase in endocranial volumes, assigned to the genus Homo, can be correlated in a scientifically-meaningful manner with the gradual evolution of our effective executive working memory. It is argued that whereas Pan's effective working-memory capacity is relatively similar to that of its storage working-memory, our working memory is relatively larger with deeper executive control. • Human working-memory size increases from birth toward asymptote in late childhood whereafter mnemonic strategies can enhance it. • Increase of effective working-memory size throughout childhood seems correlated with maturation of intracerebral white-matter. • Prolonged development before adulthood of intracerebral white-matter tracts could be specific of Homo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We tested individual and additive benefits of numerical knowledge and WM training. • Kindergarten children played tablet-based training games for 10 sessions. • WM training led to improvements in math knowledge. • Combined WM and numerical training led to sustained improvements in math knowledge. • Results provide evidence for reciprocal relation between numerical knowledge and WM. The acquisition of domain-specific number knowledge and domain-general cognitive processes, including working memory, have shown to contribute to math learning and achievement. Correlational work has emphasized a reciprocal relationship between these processes; however, little is known about their relative and causal contributions to math learning. Here, we test the individual and additive benefits of playing tablet-based games targeting domain-specific and domain-general skills to improve mathematical knowledge and working memory in a diverse population of kindergarten children (N = 235, 50 % female, 45 % Hispanic/Latino, 35 % African American/Black, 21 % White, 6 % biracial/mixed race, 51 % annual household income less than $30,000). Our results provide causal evidence for the reciprocal relations between numerical knowledge and working memory. Specifically, we found that playing a working memory game led to improvements in mathematical knowledge as compared to an active control and after taking into account baseline performance. Importantly, we also found that children who played both a working memory game and a numerical knowledge game showed the most pronounced and sustained benefits in mathematical knowledge, with benefits remaining present several weeks after intervention completion. Our findings illustrate the importance of targeting both domain-general and domain-specific skills in order to maximize the benefits of interventions to improve mathematical knowledge. Yet, given the inconsistent results across various studies, we argue that it is critical to further investigate underlying mechanisms and training features, as even subtle variations seem to dramatically affect training outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organizing the continuous flow of experiences into meaningful events is a crucial prerequisite for episodic memory. Prediction error and event segmentation both play important roles in supporting the genesis of meaningful mnemonic representations of events. We review theoretical contributions discussing the relationship between prediction error and event segmentation, as well as literature on episodic memory related to prediction error and event segmentation. We discuss the extent of overlap of mechanisms underlying memory emergence through prediction error and event segmentation, with a specific focus on attention and working memory. Finally, we identify areas in research that are currently developing and suggest future directions. We provide an overview of mechanisms underlying memory formation through predictions, violations of predictions, and event segmentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive and physical training have been shown to be effective in improving older adults' cognition. However, it is not yet clear whether combined cognitive and physical training offers an advantage compared to cognitive training alone. Twenty-two older adults performed cognitive or combined cognitive and physical training in order to compare their effects on working memory event-related potentials (ERPs) and on working memory and executive function performance. Before and after eight weeks of training, performance in Plus Minus, Flanker, Updated Span, and Complex Span tasks was measured, and ERPs were registered during performance of an n-back task (0-back, 2-back, and 3-back). Post-training behavioural improvement was observed in Updated Span, Complex Span, and n-back tasks. During the n-back task, the N2/P3 complex was modulated by training, with a decrease in N2 amplitude and an increase in P3 amplitude in the posttraining session compared to the pretraining session. These changes in ERP components suggest that both types of training potentially reduce the need for attentional control to perform the tasks correctly and increase working memory capacity. Thus, based on our data, no conclusion can be reached on the direct advantage of combined training, either at behavioural or at neural level. However, the present study might suggest an indirect advantage of such a combined training, because the cognitive benefit was found to be highly similar in both types of training. Using combined cognitive and physical training may produce a potential improvement in general fitness and an increased appeal of training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Parkinson's disease (PD), the fronto-striatal network is involved in motor and cognitive symptoms. Working memory (WM) updating training engages this network in healthy populations, as observed by improved cognitive performance and increased striatal BOLD signal. This two-part study aimed to assess the feasibility of WM updating training in PD and measure change in cognition, movement and functional brain response in one individual with PD after WM updating training. A feasibility and single-subject (FL) study were performed in which patients with PD completed computerized WM updating training. The outcome measures were the pre-post changes in criterion and transfer cognitive tests; cognitive complaints; psychological health; movement kinematics; and task-related BOLD signal. Participants in the feasibility study showed improvements on the criterion tests at post-test. FL displayed the largest improvements on the criterion tests and smaller improvements on transfer tests. Furthermore, FL reported improved cognitive performance in everyday life. A shorter onset latency and smoother upper-limb goal-directed movements were measured at post-test, as well as increased activation within the striatum and decreased activation throughout the fronto-parietal WM network. This two-part study demonstrated that WM updating training is feasible to complete for PD patients and that change occurred in FL at post-test in the domains of cognition, movement and functional brain response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Trait anxiety is a pervasive tendency to attend to and experience fears and worries to a disproportionate degree, across various situations. Decreased vulnerability to trait anxiety has been linked to having higher working memory capacity and better emotion regulation; however, the relationship between these factors has not been well-established. Objective: This study sought to determine if participants who undergo emotional working memory training will have significantly lower trait anxiety post-training. The study also sought to determine if emotion regulation mediated the relationship between working memory training and trait anxiety. Method: An experimental group comprising of 49 participants underwent 20 days of computerized emotional working memory training, which involved viewing a continuous stream of emotionally-charged content on a grid, and then remembering the location and color of items presented on the grid. The control group comprised of 51 participants. Results: Participants of the experimental group had significantly lower trait anxiety compared to controls, post-training. Subsequent mediation analysis determined that working memory training capacity gains were significantly related to anxiety reduction as measured by form Y2 of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Y2). Emotion regulation, as measured by the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), was found not to mediate between working memory capacity gains and trait anxiety reduction. Conclusion: Working memory capacity gains and reductions in levels of trait anxiety were observed following emotional working memory training. The study may therefore be useful in informing interventions targeted at improving working memory capacity, and reducing levels of trait anxiety. Moreover, it proposes for future research to further look into the mediating role of emotion regulation via the development or utilization of more comprehensive measures of emotion regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]