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To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.04.025 Byline: Irma Arteaga (a), Chin-Chih Chen (b), Arthur J. Reynolds (b) Keywords: Substance abuse; Drug use; Longitudinal design; Prediction; Child development Abstract: Identification of the early determinants of substance abuse is a major focus of life course research. In this study, we investigated the child, family, and school-related antecedents of the onset and prevalence of substance abuse by age 26 for a cohort of 1208 low-income minority children in the Chicago Longitudinal Study. Data on well-being have been collected prospectively since birth from administrative records, parents, teachers, and children. Results indicated that the prevalence of substance abuse by age 26 was 26% (self-reports or criminal justice system records) with a median age of first use of 17. Probit regression analysis indicated that substance abuse prevalence was primarily determined by gender (males had a higher rate), trouble-making behavior by age 12, school mobility, and previous substance use. Family and peer predictors included involvement in the child welfare system by age 9, parent expectations for school success at age 9, parent substance abuse by child's age 15, and deviant peer affiliation by age 16. Age of first substance use was predicted by gender and race/ethnicity (males and Blacks had earlier incidence), involvement in the child welfare system, and family risk status at age 8. As with prevalence, the pattern of predictors for males was similar to the overall sample but the magnitude of effects was stronger. The predictors of the timing of substance use dependency were gender, family conflict by age 5, involvement in the child welfare system, social maturity at age 9, adolescent school mobility, and school dropout by age 16. Findings indicate that the promotion of family involvement and positive school and social behaviors can reduce the risk of substance abuse. Author Affiliation: (a) Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota- Twin Cities (b) Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota- Twin Cities

This article examines the relationship between substance use and gender, sexuality, ethnicity, and nativity among 250 Asian American youths involved in the dance club/rave scene. We find distinct patterns of drug use differing by country of origin and ethnicity. However, contrary to some literature we do not find significant differences corresponding to immigration status, or number of years in the U.S. The most significant differences between subgroups are related to gender and sexuality: male respondents consume more drugs, more frequently than female respondents, and non-heterosexual respondents consume more than heterosexual respondents, with differing patterns for men's' and women's sexual subgroups. There were also significant gender and sexuality differences with respect to the contexts in which respondents consume drugs, with the most significant differences being between heterosexual and non-heterosexual men. As we discuss, these findings illustrate the need for further investigation of drug-use patterns of gender and sexuality within Asian American communities.

There is considerable variation in the prevalence, etiology and consequences of alcohol and other drug use across racial/ethnic groups, but studies examining these issues among adult populations remain scarce. This is an important oversight as exposure to many of the risk factors associated with substance use and abuse has been shown to vary by race/ethnicity as well as age. This study examines the causes and correlates of adult alcohol abuse across the three largest racial/ ethnic groups in the United States--Whites, Blacks and Hispanics--and provides a theoretically grounded examination of substance abuse by applying two general theories of deviance, Agnew's general strain theory and Akers' social learning theory. Results indicate unconditional support for both theories when applied to White alcohol abuse but more conditional support when applied to patterns of adult alcohol abuse among Hispanics and Blacks. These results suggest that these three racial/ethnic groups experience somewhat different pathways to alcohol disorder.

Although the risks and protective processes influencing substance use behaviors of adult Latinos have been increasingly examined in the literature, substance abuse among adult Latinas remains a relatively understudied area. This study examined associations between mother-daughter attachment and substance abuse among 158 Latina mothers and their adult daughters (N = 316). Dyads of mothers and daughters were categorized into four groups: (a) mother/daughter both drug or alcohol abusers (Dyad 1), (b) mother abuser and daughter nonabuser (Dyad 2), (c) mother non-abuser and daughter abuser (Dyad 3), and (d) mother/daughter both non-abusers (Dyad 4). Dyad 1 participants reported lower levels of attachment to each other than all other types of dyads. Participants born in the U.S. reported more substance abuse than their non-U.S. born counterparts. Future longitudinal research is recommended to determine the presence of a mother-daughter attachment threshold that, if established early and maintained, may act as a protective mechanism against the intergenerational co-occurrence of substance abuse among adult Latinas.

The climate of domestic drug policy in the United States as it pertains to both women and men at the beginning of the 21st century is the criminalization mode of regulation--a mode that is based on the model of addiction as a crime and one that is used to prohibit the use of illegal drugs. In Canada, drug policy is based mainly on the harm reduction model, a policy or program directed towards decreasing the adverse health, social, and economic consequences of drug abuse without requiring abstinence from such use. Using a comparative perspective, several issues are examined in this article., the prevalence of substance abuse between the two countries, the significance of gender and substance abuse, drug costs relative to both countries, the prevalence of crime and substance abuse, and domestic drug control policies. KEYWORDS Canada, crime, gender, men, substance abuse, United States, women DOI: 10.1080/10509670903287667

Little is known about how substance use patterns affect social stability among persons living with HIV/AIDS (PLWH). This manuscript examines associations, using survey data collected between 2003-2004, between substance use and social stability measures in 1,133 at-risk PLWH enrolled in 10 outreach programs across the US funded by the Health Resources and Services Administration. Substance use patterns were found to impact the social stability indicators of housing status, need for food, and income level. Effect varied by types and numbers of drugs used. These findings have important implications for policy and for planning effective program interventions for HIV-infected substance users.

This research focuses on the qualitatively descriptive accounts of drug-related violent incidents drawn from a treatment sample of 571 substance abuse clients in Ontario. Nearly half (n = 269) had experienced at least one violent incident in the past year, and 91% had used one or more substances prior to the most recent episode. The classification of the explicitly drug-related violent events (n = 176), based on Goldstein's tripartite model, is its first application in an adult drug treatment sample. Although respondents were not criminal offenders, and interpersonal violence related to psychopharmacological effects predominated, economic or systemic linkages related to drug scarcity and the drug market were implicated in one fifth of all occurrences. Alcohol and cocaine were the substances most implicated in all three aspects of the model. Since a drug treatment sample is a high-risk group for violence, interventions that raise awareness of potential for violence linked to not only intoxication but also scarcity conflicts and illicit drug market involvement are warranted. Since most violence occurs in the community, such initiatives may benefit those in treatment and serve as an important public health strategy.

Using a social capital framework, this study explores how aspects of social relationships within the social networks of injection drug users (IDUs) and crack smokers (CSs) influence their drug use-related risk and protective health behaviors. Interviews were conducted with a quota sample of 80 socioeconomically marginalized drug users in Toronto, Canada, and qualitative data were extracted from 77 of these interviews. Analysis of the interview transcripts revealed themes indicating that social capital, in the form of collective norms, trust, and exchange of safer drug use information, within users' drug networks encouraged risk and/or protective behaviors within particular contexts. The analysis also highlighted the influence of social structural factors, such as harm reduction and health service delivery on the users' health behaviors. The implications of these findings for harm-reduction services are discussed.

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between methamphetamine use and homicide. To carry out this study, data from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse and Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities were combined to create a case-control design. The main exposure measure is methamphetamine use and the main outcome measure is homicide. Results suggest that the odds of committing a homicide are nearly 9 times greater for an individual who uses methamphetamine. More importantly, the association between methamphetamine use and homicide persists even after adjusting for alternative drug use (i.e., alcohol, heroin, crack, cocaine, PCP, LSD), sex, race, income, age, marital status, previous arrests, military experience, and education level. Methamphetamine was the only drug use variable that was strongly correlated with homicide. These results support recent clinical studies that suggest methamphetamine use is different than other drug use in its effects on violence. Keywords: methamphetamine and violence; homicide; drugs and violence

This study examines pathways to adult marijuana and cocaine use in a cohort of African Americans from Woodlawn, an inner city community in Chicago. Assessments were conducted in first grade (age 6), adolescence (age 16), early adulthood (age 32), and in mid-adulthood (age 42). The 'social adaptation life course' framework guided the focus on social adaptation, social bonds, and economic resources as predictors of adult drug use. Results indicate that more frequent substance use in adolescence and lower-income and less-frequent church attendance in early adulthood increase the risk of mid-life drug use. Shyness in first grade related inversely to later cocaine use and marijuana use (marginally significant). Indirect pathways to drug use also were identified. Gender differences were not significant. The findings show continuities in social maladaptation over time and the importance of social integration and economic resources in the early adult years.

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.10.020 Byline: Adrienne J. Heinz (a), Johnny Wu (b), Katie Witkiewitz (b), David H. Epstein (c), Kenzie L. Preston (c) Keywords: Heroin; Cocaine; Social support; Marital status; Treatment Abstract: Marriage has been cited as a protective factor against drug use, but the relationship between marriage and drug use has not been explored longitudinally during addiction treatment. The current study assessed individual trajectories of substance use during treatment as a function of marital status and perceived closeness of the marital relationship. A parallel-process growth model was used to (1) estimate the rate of change in percentage of cocaine-positive and heroin-positive urine samples, and (2) examine the relationship between marital status and drug use trajectories over 35 weeks, during and after treatment. Percent days of use for both drugs were lowest for married participants across all time points. Among married participants, reporting a close relationship with one's partner predicted less cocaine and heroin use. These findings suggest that being married and having a close relationship with one's spouse are associated with better outcomes over time. The causal nature of the association is suggested by previous research that has demonstrated the effectiveness of couples therapy as an adjunct to methadone maintenance. Author Affiliation: (a) University of Illinois at Chicago, Department of Psychology (MC 285), 3022A Behavioral Sciences Building, 1007 W. Harrison St., Chicago, IL 60302, USA (b) University of Washington, USA (c) National Institute on Drug Abuse, USA

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.07.010 Byline: Jody Brook, Tom McDonald Keywords: Substance abuse; Family reunification; Maltreatment recurrence; Foster care; Reunification; Reentry; Alcohol or other drug abuse Abstract: Alcohol and other drug (AOD) abuse by caretakers is frequently cited as a precipitating reason for the entry of children into foster care, however, little research has been done to examine the impact of alcohol and other drugs on the stability of family reunification. This study examined the likelihood of reentry into foster care following reunification for children whose primary caretakers were stratified into groups based on the type of substance abuse cited as a primary reason for the initial removal: those with alcohol only involvement, those with drug only involvement, those with both alcohol and other drug involvement, and those with no alcohol or drug involvement. Event history analysis showed that children whose reasons for initial placement in foster included caretakers with both alcohol and drug involvement were much more likely to reenter care following reunification than any of the other three groups. However, drug or alcohol involvement as the initial reason for removal was also associated with higher risk of reentry. Author Affiliation: The University of Kansas, School of Social Welfare, Twente Hall, 1545 Lilac Lane, Lawrence, KS 66044-3184, United States Article History: Received 23 April 2008; Revised 16 July 2008; Accepted 22 July 2008

The high cost of incarceration and a genera/confidence in the effectiveness of drug abuse treatment have led many states to adopt community-based drug abuse treatment as part of, or as an alternative to, incarceration. Community re-entry and aftercare have therefore received increasing attention from both practitioners and researchers. This article examines possibilities for encouraging change in both adult and juvenile justice treatment. Four issues are highlighted: (1) relapse and aftercare, (2) co-occurring disorder, (3) juvenile justice programming, and (4) womenis treatment. The success of U. S. drug treatment policy depends on a capacity to resolve these and related issues.

The purpose of this article was to examine the prevalence of, as well as risk factors for, revictimization by a new partner. Data was collected via face-to-face interviews at Time 1 (about 5 weeks after obtaining a protective order against a violent partner [DVO partner]) and at Time 2 (approximately 12 months later). Of those women who reported having a new partner at Time 2 (n = 412), 35.2% reported abuse. Findings indicate that there is a subset of women who are at greater risk of experiencing abuse by future partners: women with greater cumulative lifetime victimization and those who abuse or are dependent on illicit drugs. Intervening with women when they obtain a protective order is a critical point of intervention to reduce women's risk for revictimization. Keywords: multiple abusive partners; lifetime victimization; drug abuse; risk factors

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.01.001 Byline: Mats Fridell (a), Morten Hesse (b), Mads Meier JA[bar]ger (c), Eckart Kuhlhorn (d) Keywords: Crime; Antisocial personality; Substance abuse; Amphetamine; Heroin; Prospective Abstract: Mixed findings have been made with regard to the long-term predictive validity of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) on criminal behaviour in samples of substance abusers. A longitudinal record-linkage study of a cohort of 1052 drug abusers admitted 1977-1995 was undertaken. Subjects were recruited from a detoxification and short-term rehabilitation unit in Lund, Sweden, and followed through criminal justice registers from their first treatment episode to death or to the year 2004. In a ML multinomial random effects regression, subjects diagnosed with antisocial personality disorders were 2.16 times more likely to be charged with theft only (p Author Affiliation: (a) Department of Psychology, Lund University, Sweden (b) Centre for Alcohol and Drug Research, Aarhus University, Denmark (c) The Danish National Institute of Social Research, Denmark (d) SoRAD, Stockholm University, Sweden

Based on social control perspectives and results from prior studies, we test hypotheses about the extent to which characteristics of family and social networks are associated with substance use disorders (SUD), and whetherthese associations vary by sex. In this study an SUD is alcohol or illicit drug abuse or dependence as defined by criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association. With nationally representative data of adult Latinos from the National Latino and Asian American Survey (NLAAS), we found that respondents' language use with family, rather than language proficiency, appears to be a more efficient proxy for social assimilation to represent differential levels of risk of SUD. SUD was positively associated with problematic family relations for men but not women and was positively associated with more frequent interactions with friends for women but not men. The results suggest that the salient features of social assimilation associated with SUD include the context of language use and transformations in family and social network relationships that differ in important ways between Latino men and women.

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9566.2007.01018.x Byline: Kahryn Hughes (1) Keywords: heroin addiction; identities; social relations; discursive practices Abstract: Abstract This paper aims to develop a properly social conceptualisation of addiction through drawing on analyses of rich, in-depth data from ex/users of heroin. Practices of addiction are considered as in and of themselves constitutive of particular identities, ways of being, and ways of being with and for others. The discussion seeks to demonstrate how heroin use is predicated upon, and productive of, purposeful drug-using relationships in which users produce and reproduce the conditions for continued use (e.g. scoring, grafting, using). Accordingly, the concept of 'dependence' is here reconfigured to encompass both dependence on the provision (and ingestion) of drugs and, simultaneously, dependence upon diverse configurations of users, clinicians, support workers, and so on. The paper makes a critical departure from existing debates in which addiction, even if conceived as a social practice, is nonetheless understood at the level of 'the individual'. It is argued that this tendency towards ontological individualism leads towards conceiving the problem of addiction as residing predominantly in the individual negotiation and, ultimately, resolution of identity narratives. The analyses presented here explore how the migration from addict to non-addict involves more than identity work. Theorisations of the level of 'field' or 'configuration' are developed, and considered as both a level of analysis and a conceptual lens for understanding changes in the ongoing, relational, practices involved in such identity migration. Finally, the consequences of intersecting, relational, dimensions of time horizons, place and space in the talk of ex/users are considered for strategies for successful recovery, identified during the research. Author Affiliation: (1)School of Sociology and Social Policy, University of Leeds Article note: Address for correspondence: Kahryn Hughes, School of Sociology and Social Policy, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT. e-mail: k.a.hughes@leeds.ac.uk

In recent years, epidemiological monitoring data has indicated sharp increases in prescription drug misuse. Despite these increases, tittle is known about the context or patterns associated with prescription drug misuse, particularly among youth or young injection drug users (IDUs). A three-city study of 213 young IDUs found prescription drug misuse to be pervasive, specifically the use of opioids and benzodiazepines. Particular practices not commonly associated with prescription drugs were reported, such as sniffing, smoking, and injection. Associated health risks included initiation into injection drug use, polydrug use, drug overdose, and drug dependency. A greater awareness of the potential health risks associated with prescription drug misuse should be incorporated into services that target IDUs, including street outreach, syringe exchanges, and drug treatment.

This article presents data from four groups of rural Key Informants--Community leaders, educators, health care providers and justice/law enforcement officials--to understand the nonmedical use and misuse of prescription drugs. Seventy key informants were purposively selected from two counties in Appalachian Kentucky. Key informants indicated that the nonmedical use of prescription drugs is complex and has historical roots. Two pathways, or entry points, into the nonmedical use and misuse of prescription drugs were identified: physical pain and recreational use. Data show trends with regard to drug use patterns, drug use education, involvement with the criminal justice system and the role of economics in the prescription drug use problem. Key Informants underscored a common theme that the rural prescription drug problem was fueled by a cultural acceptance of drug misuse. Recommendations are presented for services and research.

This article considers the operations of methadone maintenance treatment through the use of concepts proposed by actor-network theory and historical ontology. The former provokes a concern with the co-constitution of treatment regimes by various actors, including non-human actants. The latter provokes a concern with the creation of new identities. Analysis of methadone often examines treatment as a nether world, and clients as neither addicted nor autonomous. The analysis undertaken here instead emphasizes what is produced in methadone maintenance treatment, rather than the inexactness of existing categories. It considers four identities produced through methadone treatment: the dissatisfied customer; the stable user; the individual in need of guidance; and the lay carer. This analysis enables a study of what and who is produced through treatment in terms that problematize simple distinctions between good and bad, addicted and independent, stable and chaotic. KEY WORDS actor-network theory / addiction / biological citizenship / Ian Hacking / methadone

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2006.00154.x Byline: Miriam Williams Boeri (1), Claire E. Sterk (2), Kirk W. Elifson (3) Abstract: Social control and self-control theories have influenced social research and public policy regarding drug use and abuse. While some researchers propose an integration of these theories, others argue that these theories are incompatible. Earlier models of drug use phases indicate that social environment affects self-control, which contradicts the assumption made in self-control theory that self-control is stable over time. In this article we used life course and grounded theory methods to analyze the in-depth life histories of 65 active heroin or methamphetamine users who are part of the cohort known as baby boomers. Interviews with drug users having a long history of drug use allow us to examine drug patterns over the life course. Based on social roles and control over drug use, we developed a four-phase typology comprised of controlled users, marginal users, hustlers, and junkies that accounts for the variation found in our sample of baby boomer drug users. The study participants' identity and self-concept are employed as descriptive illustrative themes. The typology presented here can assist in evaluat-ing drug users for treatment, as well as developing public health interventions and policymaking. Author Affiliation: (1)Emory University and Kennesaw State University (2)Emory University (3)Georgia State University

Social control and self-control theories have influenced social research and public policy regarding drug use and abuse. While some researchers propose an integration of these theories, others argue that these theories are incompatible. Earlier models of drug use phases indicate that social environment affects self-control, which contradicts the assumption made in self-control theory that self-control is stable over time. In this article we used life course and grounded theory methods to analyze the in-depth life histories of 65 active heroin or methamphetamine users who are part of the cohort known as baby boomers. Interviews with drug users having a long history of drug use allow us to examine drug patterns over the life course. Based on social roles and control over drug use, we developed a four-phase typology comprised of controlled users, marginal users, hustlers, and junkies that accounts for the variation found in our sample of baby boomer drug users. The study participants' identity and self-concept are employed as descriptive illustrative themes. The typology presented here can assist in evaluat-ing drug users for treatment, as well as developing public health interventions and policymaking.

This study explores and compares the interrelationships between lifespan childhood and adult partner victimization and the drug lifestyles for 609 women, aged 18-65, from a drug-treatment sample, a women's domestic violence shelter sample, and community samples matched with the drug-treatment and shelter samples. Significant findings indicate that lifespan childhood and adult partner victimization were the strongest predictors of women's drug-related lifestyle activities. Three proposed hypotheses were supported to suggest that an association exists between the respondents' lifespan childhood and partner victimization scores and drug-related lifestyle activities scores, with these relationships modified by intervening variables, such as age, marital status, panner substance use, and parental substance use. Findings also indicate significant differences among the four sample groups in terms of victimization and drug-related lifestyle factors. Implications, limitations, and areas for future research are discussed. Keywords: drug use; drug lifestyle; family violence; victimization

We examined heroin use among 15 White middle-class women using data from in-depth qualitative interviews and ethnographic observation between May 1996 and April 1999. These women represent a subsample of a diverse group of 550 in an ethnographic study of heroin use and dealing in New York City. Our analysis is organized into four sections: (1) a demographic sketch, (2) the first time, (3) mode of administration and patterns of use, and (4) heroin in the medicine cabinet. Heroin use among these women was net related to poverty or lack of opportunity, social disenfranchisement, defective or addictive personalities, childhood trauma, or seeking membership into deviant subcultures. While some of these discourses of adversity and thrill seeking may have surfaced in individual stories, the dominant theme that emerged from the data was that of active struggles around identity, struggles over who and how one does and does not want to be.

Applying a public health perspective to drug abuse research has far-reaching implications. First, the health of the entire community is of concern, not just the individual patient. Because of the social impact of drug abuse, these problems become the responsibility of all citizens to address. Second, the perspective requires treating drug abuse as a health issue, not as a criminal justice, moral or social issue. Third, as in other branches of medicine, applying this perspective to drug abuse research will encourage development of the most effective ways to enhance drug abuse prevention and treatment interventions through cross-disciplinary approaches. The public health approach requires studies that (1) determine need for intervention; (2) provide clues about etiology; (3) determine effective approaches, systems, and financing strategies; and (4) measure the impact of interventions and services on the health of a population. Overall attending to the public health implications of research will help to assure the maximum impact of scientific findings.

This study employed the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to investigate the factors underlying intentions to use and use of LSD, amphetamine, cannabis, and ecstasy over 6 months in a sample of students (N = 461). The TPB provided good predictions of both intentions (mean [R.sup.2] = .49) and behavior (mean [R.sup.2] = .45). Descriptive norms explained additional variance in intentions for all the drugs, and moral norms explained additional variance in cannabis intentions. Attitude variability moderated the impact of attitudes on intentions for LSD (p

The present study used data from the 1991 and 1992 Drug Use Forecasting projects and the 1990 census data to test the hypothesis that certain 'structural disadvantage factors' identified by social conflict theory (Goode, 1997, 1999) contribute to explaining arrestees' use of cocaine and/or opiates. Using hierarchical nonlinear modeling techniques, this study explored whether social-control factors and demographic factors were effective predictors of arrestees' drug use. It also questioned whether the effects of such factors on drug use varied with the degree of structural disadvantage of the arrestees' residential districts. Overall, the study resulted in support for a link between a group of hard-drug users and contextual factors of structural disadvantage.

Since 1987, the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program (ADAM--formerly known as the Drug Use Forecasting Program) has documented the prevalence and type of arrestee drug use across the nation. Unfortunately, this research is limited to urban or metropolitan areas, possibly because of presumed low levels of both crime and drugs in rural areas. The purpose of this paper is to present the importance of researching arrestee drug use in rural areas using data collected from the Rural ADAM Pilot Program. Specifically, this study examines the prevalence and type of arrestee drug use in four rural Nebraska counties and compares these results to those found in Omaha, Nebraska, which is a current ADAM site. Results indicated that arrestee drug use is similar to that in urban areas and the type of arrestee drug use varies across rural counties as well as between rural and urban areas. Most importantly, rural arrestee methamphetamine use appeared to exceed Omaha arrestee use in one rural area. These findings have substantial implications for planning at the local, state, and federal levels.

Five key dimensions of normalization are identified: availability/access; drug trying rates; usage rates; accommodating attitudes to 'sensible' recreational drug use especially by non users; and degree of cultural accommodation of illegal drug use. A review of recent UK research is provided for each measure. The NW England Longitudinal Study continues to monitor normalization based on the recapture of 465 young adults (in year 2000) of a cohort previously surveyed/interviewed across their adolescence (1991 to 1995).The availability of drugs remains high with over 90% having been in drug offer situations. Accessibility is highest for cannabis, followed by 'dance drugs', with cocaine showing the steepest climb. Drug trying rates have risen incrementally from 36 percent at 14 to 76 percent at 22. At 18 over half reported past year drug use and at 22 the rate is unchanged (52 percent). Past month use at 32 percent has declined slightly Males are now slightly more likely to be drug-involved on all measures. Socio- economic differences are not significant Cannabis dominates recent usage (average three episodes a month). Half the abstainers have friends who have used cannabis. Nearly two thirds of abstainers held tolerant or approving attitudes of drug takers. Half held different views about different drugs, with cannabis use being most tolerated. The paper concludes that 'sensible recreational drug use is becoming increasingly accommadated into the social lives of conventional young adults. KEY WORDS: adolescence / longitudinal research / normalization / recreational drug use

Alcohol- and substance-related diagnoses were examined as factors in child to adult sexual revictimization. Three hundred community women completed interviews and self-report instruments to obtain information regarding victimization and to diagnose substance use disorders (alcohol and substance abuse/dependence). Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) survivors were more likely than nonvictims to meet criteria for both substance use disorders and to report rape (e.g., unwanted intercourse due to threat or use of force, or due to the inability to consent due to the respondent's alcohol or drug use) and coerced intercourse (e.g., unwanted intercourse due to verbal coercion or misuse of authority by the perpetrator) by acquaintances, strangers, and husbands. In general, both CSA and substance use disorders were predictive of adult sexual victimization, but there were no significant interactions between these factors. Overall, substance use disorders were related to rape for all women; this relationship was not unique to CSA survivors. Alcohol- and substance-related diagnoses predicted rape by all three types of perpetrators, but CSA was predictive of rape only by acquaintances and strangers and not husbands. In contrast, CSA predicted coerced intercourse by all three perpetrators, while alcohol- and substance-related diagnoses predicted coerced intercourse by acquaintances and strangers, but not husbands. Results highlight the need to continue the study of revictimization of CSA survivors, including examination of both rape and sexually coercive experiences by different types of perpetrators. Findings support continued research of substance use disorders as risk factors for sexual victimization among all women.

Drug use and drug control are theoretically--in terms of both social psychology and sociology--viewed as complementary components of a complex social and historical interaction process. Subsequently historical and other evidence is presented to substantiate the theoretical hypotheses. This lays the ground for the presentation and interpretation of the actual drug control system in Germany and the European Union. Again some theoretical hypotheses and their empirical grounding are presented concerning the logic of development trends. In the final part, the evolution of drug laws and their implementation are viewed. Recent developments can be regarded as taking place in stages based on certain changeable paradigms: the abstinence paradigm, the medicalization paradigm and the acceptance paradigm. For the time being there seems to be a slow transition from the first to the latter, implying that elements of all three are presently active in a diversity of policies and strategies, differing between states and regions of the German federal state and the European Union as well as between different levels of drug policy and drug care.

A 'medical model' ideology dominates the study of drug abuse among health care professionals. This perspective defines and approaches drug abuse as a disease. While this disease is said to have bio-psycho-social origins, scholars have principally focused on possible biological and psychological factors that produce a 'predisposition' to drug abuse. Pertinent social factors have been largely overlooked. Drawing upon the membership list (N=50,000+) of the American Pharmaceutical Association, a random sample of 2,036 practicing pharmacists were queried to investigate the relationship between pharmacists' educational, occupational, and professional socialization and their involvement in illicit prescription drug use. A total of 1,016 (50.2%) questionnaires were returned. The data show that 40.1% of the respondents self-reported illegally using some form of potentially addictive, mind-altering prescription drug. Further, 21% reported 5 or more lifetime use episodes and 6.6% reported more than 10. Multivariate analysis reveals significant relationships between numerous social factors and pharmacists' levels of self reported drug use. The existence of these relationships raises the possibility that certain aspects of the professional socialization process may also play a role in the etiology of pharmacists' drug abuse. We conclude that there exists a need to revisit current theoretical and policy approaches to this social problem.

This article examines the adoption of behaviors of the teen drug and delinquent subcultures among Asian Pacific youth within the framework of the theory of segmented assimilation. Alejandro Portes and Min Zhou's theory offers a new perspective to the question: Under what conditions are youth susceptible to marijuana use and delinquent behavior? In contrast to Milton Gordon's classic one-path theory, segmented assimilation theory looks to the immigrant culture and social capital (e.g., social solidarity) as critical factors in the assimilation process. The theory suggests several different types of adaptation by immigrant youth and Asian youth born in the United States. The data from the Asian Student Drug Survey were used to analyze the patterns of marijuana use and delinquent behavior among Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, Korean, Southeast Asian, Asian Indian, and Pacific Islander youth, controlling for human capital and social capital, as well as other relevant factors. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine the factors that affect the odds of marijuana use and delinquent behavior for the seven ethnic groups in this study. The likelihood of marijuana use differed significantly among the ethnic groups. For example, Pacific Islander and Filipino youth were much more likely than Japanese youth to use marijuana. Korean, Southeast Asian, and Asian Indian youth did not differ significantly from the Japanese youth in marijuana use. Like the model that predicted marijuana use, the Chinese youth were least likely to engage in delinquent behavior, while Filipino and Pacific Islander youth were most likely. Segmented assimilation theory points to the importance of the human and social capital that serve to insulate youth from the influence of the teen drug and delinquent cultures.

This article examines social and demographic risk factors related to the progression of criminal behavior among delinquents in a program for serious juvenile offenders. Results indicate that significant predictors of future criminal activity include male gender, gang membership, minority status, drug use, child abuse, and age at first offense.

This article examines international criminological data to investigate the effects of social status on crime and delinquency throughout the world. Findings indicate that individuals with low educational, occupational, and income levels are more likely to participate in criminal activity when compared to members of the middle and upper classes.

The belief that drug addiction is the motor behind much property crime has been a key part of recent UK drug policy. Review of the literature shows that the empirical evidence does not support this view. It also demonstrates that the fundamental weakness of existing research is its failure to address the question of causality properly, relying mainly on uni-directional mechanistic 'cause-and-effect' models. It is suggested that the drug-crime link needs to be conceived in the context of the interaction and inter-relation of a range of factors operating at different levels and as part of a set of complex processes. The implications for policy are that a reliance on improving access to treatment is likely to be of limited effectiveness in reducing drug-related crime and that an emphasis on tackling social exclusion may be more fruitful. Future research needs to explore further the notion of causality outlined in this paper. It must also examine emerging patterns of polydrug use and look at minority ethnic groups and women.

Help-seeking was found to be more likely for African American drug users with more formal education, and those have higher scores on both drug-related problem recognition and ethnic identity. The results indicates that ethnic identity, although having no dominant effect on help-seeking, may contribute to help-seeking.

A comparison of the social issues in recreational and habitual drug use is given. The solidarity reported by recreational users was to maintain low practices, while the social scene of addicts was not organized around such solidarities. Addicts exhibited traits of sensual hedonism whichh resulted inevitably in ever greater drug use.

A study was conducted on the association between the timing of onset of drug use and progression to drug-related problems and the number of geographic moves before the age of 16 in a sample of 3,700 young adults. Positive relationships were found between moving and early initiation of illegal drugs such as hallucinogens, marijuana cocaine and other prescribed drugs. Males who moved around a lot were more likely to engage in early drug use than females.

Curbing adolescent substance abuse is a national priority in the United States. To effectively allocate resources it is imperative that antecedents and correlates of drug use across diverse populations be understood Racial and ethnic differences in drug use have yet to be explained Because family characteristics are known to vary across race/ethnic groups, and prior research suggests a connection between family characteristics and adolescent drug use, this study investigates the impact of family on race/ethnic differences in drug use. Using data from a national household survey, we found that although socioeconomic and demographic characteristics alone explained drug use differences between Latinos and non-Latino whites, the differences between Black and white adolescents could not be explained by either structural or functional differences in the family. Furthermore, it appears that the single-parent Black family provides a greater protection against drug use than does the two-biological-parent Black family. Our findings suggest that the development of policy based on a knowledge of correlates of substance use within the white community may be both inefficient and ineffective when applied to minority communities.

Social learning theory has been used to explain substance abuse among adolescents literally from its inception in the 1960s. This theory suggests that basically good children learn to become substance abusers due to such social forces as internalized definitions supportive of delinquent behavior, the influence of delinquent peers, the presence of powerful social reinforcers, and the absence of adequate social punishers. Self-control theory, a more recent theoretical entry, has rather different views about adolescent misbehavior: children become delinquent owing to inadequate parenting and poorly developed self-controls. Taken together these two perspectives should provide unique insights into the self-reported substance abuse of eighth grade students in two rather different cities: Phoenix; Arizona, and Las Cruces, New Mexico, despite the considerable differences between the two cities. We address the following question: to what extent do social learning theory and self-control theory provide insights into the city-specific patterns of self-reported substance abuse. We also review the theoretical and policy implications of our findings.

This study examines the impact of early adolescent drug use on subsequent dropping out of high school in a sample of 4,390 adolescents from California and Oregon. Participants were initially surveyed in 7th grade in 1985 and again in 1990 when they should have completed 12th grade. Logistic regression analyses show that frequency of cigarette use during 7th grade predicts dropping out of high school, controlling for demographics, family structure, academic orientation, early deviance, and school environment. Separate analyses by race/ethnicity replicate this finding for Asians, Blacks, and whites, but not for Latinos. For Latinos, early marijuana use predicts dropping out. The results suggest that preventing or reducing the incidence of early smoking and marijuana use may help reduce the probability of dropping out of high school.

The issue of recognition of a drug abuse problem among African American drug-using arrestees is studied in the context of demographic factors, personal attitudes and social conditions. Neighborhood Drug/Alcohol Problems and Conventional Moral Beliefs emerge as determinants affecting recognition in a multivariate regression analysis. these findings have implications for care and treatment of African American drug abusers.

A study of 96 pregnant women in a residential substance abuse treatment program establishes the correlation between trauma exposure, stress symptoms and program completion. These low-income women had a high rate of exposure to violent trauma with 72% having faced sexual assault, 67% having experienced physical assault and 68% having dealt with indirect violent trauma. 62% of women showed signs of posttraumatic stress disorder.

This paper uses qualitative methods to examine the social contextual use of alkyl nitrites among targeted groups: young recreational drug users (students), polysubstance users receiving treatment in a methadone program, homosexual men, and homeless people. Nitrites were a popular recreational and social drug, most commonly taken in nightclubs to enhance both music and the effects of other recreational drugs or taken to enhance sexual experience. Its legal status, low cost, and easy availability added to its popularity, particularly among younger people. Nitrites appeared to be commonplace in mainstream night clubs, having previously been confined to night clubs catering to a more homosexual clientele. Despite this fact, nitrites were still associated with gay culture. There was no evidence that nitrite use led directly to use of illicit drugs.

This paper gives an overview of some of the most recent research surrounding the use of prohibited or illicit drugs by young people in Britain. Current research on the prevalence of illicit drug use identifies an unprecedented rise in such use by increasingly diverse groups of young people of all socioeconomic backgrounds. Presenting here for the first time 4 years of data from the University of Manchester northwest longitudinal study of English adolescent drug use, the paper looks at patterns of use of different drugs, differential experiences with these drugs, and characteristics of use and non-use throughout the mid-teens. Along with this transformation in adolescent drug use has been a similar rise in the prevalence of drug use by young adults, which is located in the context of the dance party or 'rave' scene in Britain, linked to the 'dance revolution' and to a wider youth culture that reflects an acceptance of drug use both by users and non-users as a part of young people's leisure. This has led the authors to identify a process of 'normalization' of recreational drug use among young people with resulting legal, education, employment, and health implications.

Young people who have a positive attitude towards drug abuse are more likely to be involved in drug abuse behaviour than those who do not, according to research undertaken among 77 young people at risk in Hong Kong. An analysis of individual items of perceived costs and benefits of drug abuse indicates that some costs were not taken into account by current drug abusers and some benefits were exaggerated by many young people who had never previously taken drugs. It seems advisable for initiatives designed to reduce drug abuse to focus on boosting awareness of the real and hidden costs of drug abuse.

The scope of interventions into social problems is based on an accurate assessment of the nature of that problem. An accurate, biased or ambiguous analysis has serious consequences for the efficacy of social interventions. This may indeed be the case with studies on the prevalence of prenatal drug use. This paper examines 23 studies conducted since 1980 and finds that the data have a number of serious methodological issues that compromise their utility in determining the breadth and characteristics of the problem.