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Risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is perceived to be less when the potential partner is sexually appealing. Is it possible that cleanliness of the room in which intercourse takes place also affects perceived risk for STIs? In scenario studies, participants were asked to imagine having had unsafe sex with a person they just met in that person's apartment (Study 1) or in a hotel room (Study 2) and that the next day they wake up in a room that is either quite dirty or very clean. Participants in the dirty room condition rated their susceptibility to STI higher, and had lower intentions to act the same way again. Results are discussed in terms of deductive processes, emotions, and magical contagion.

Various authors (e.g. Kahnemann, D., & Tversky, A. (1982). The simulation heuristic. In D. Kahnemann, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 201-208). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press) have suggested that imagining an event and its consequences influences the perceived likelihood that it might happen in reality (simulation heuristic). A scenario - a description of how a certain activity can lead to a certain outcome - may stimulate one to imagine the outcomes and may influence one's likelihood judgement. The present research studied the effect of risk scenarios on perceptions of susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections and the role of imaginability therein. In a randomised experimental study, we examined the effects of a prefabricated risk scenario and a self-constructed risk scenario against a non-message condition on perceived susceptibility to get infected with Chlamydia. Participants considered themselves more susceptible to Chlamydia after writing their own risk scenario but not after reading the prefabricated risk scenario. The imaginability of the event seemed to mediate the effect of self-constructed scenario information on perceived susceptibility. Recommendations for health education practices are discussed.

Ideally, people seek and select information about unfamiliar risks with which they are confronted, before they make a risk choice. This study investigated what happens when people do not have this opportunity. The main question was how risk-taking tendency influences intuitive risk decisions and how this impacts subsequent information search and subsequent choices. In the present study, participants had to make a choice about an unfamiliar risk, either before or after they had had the opportunity to search for (risk-promoting or risk-averse) information. In the condition where they could only seek for information after they had made a choice, they had to reconsider their first choice and make a second risk choice. We expected that (1) risk-taking tendency would impact people's risk choices, but only in the situation where they have little information. On the basis of cognitive dissonance theory, it was furthermore predicted that (2) risk-taking tendency and (3) initial risk choice would affect risk information selection. Furthermore, we predicted that (4) the first risk choice and (5) the risk information selected would influence the subsequent risk choice. The results suggest that if people make a first, intuitive decision about an unknown risk, risk-taking tendency has an effect on the choice, but that this does not happen when people can first select information. Risk-taking tendency did not influence information selection, but initial choice did (although in another way than we expected). Furthermore, both the first risk choice and the risk information selected affected subsequent risk choices. These findings suggest that people often make initial intuitive decisions that are influenced by personality characteristics, and that are subsequently difficult to change.

This study examined the effect of prepayment gas meters (households pay for their gas as they use it) as a feedback instrument on gas consumption by households. Furthermore, behavioral determinants of the reduction in gas consumption were studied. Half of the households in the experimental group were issued a notebook allowing them to compare their gas consumption with a self-set goal. The results revealed that households with a prepayment meter reduced their annual gas consumption by 4.1% compared with the control group; the notebook did not result in additional savings. Furthermore, changes in objective gas consumption were related to self-reported changes in intention toward reducing consumption.

When people underestimate a risk, often probability information is communicated because of the implicit assumption that it will raise people's risk estimates as a result of these objective facts. Also, scientific literature suggested that stressing the cumulative aspects of a risk might lead to higher susceptibility perceptions than only emphasizing the single incident probability. Empirical evidence that supports the effectiveness of these strategies, however, is lacking. In two studies, we examined whether cumulative and single incident probability information on sexually transmitted infections leads to higher perceived susceptibility for Chlamydia and HIV. Contrary to assumptions and recommendations, results showed that both types of probability information may result in people feeling less susceptible toward Chlamydia and having less intention to reduce the risk. For HIV, no effects were found. These results contradict implicit assumptions and explicit recommendations concerning the effects of probability information on risk perceptions.

The simulation heuristic of Kahnemann and Tversky (1982) suggests that the subjective ease by which a risky situation can be mentally construed, positively influences the person's perceived susceptibility to the presented threat. Assuming that a detailed outline of how a risky event can end up negatively increases the ease of imagination, we tested the hypothesis that scenario-based risk information enhances perceived susceptibility towards contracting a sexually transmitted infection (STI). In an experimental design, undergraduate students were exposed to one or two risk scenario messages or no scenario message (control). The results confirmed the hypothesis, but only when more than one risk scenario message was provided. This adds to the evidence that presenting scenario-based messages could be a feasible method to influence risk perceptions.

Health risk judgments are not merely based on risk statistics but also on the ease with which hypothetical events are imagined. We explored the effects of scenario information as opposed to frequency information on susceptibility perceptions regarding Chlamydia and HIV. Results showed that participants felt more susceptible to Chlamydia after reading frequency information. Scenario information only seemed to affect feelings of susceptibility in participants with no intimate relationship. No effects on perceived susceptibility for HIV were found. Results are discussed in terms of severity of the disease and defensive reactions.

A new, short, and easily administered Risk Propensity Scale (RPS) is introduced that measures general risk-taking tendencies. This paper investigates the reliability and discriminant validity of the RPS. The RPS provided scores that yielded a good internal reliability coefficient and adequate test-retest reliability, and the scores correlated moderately to well with those of the Everyday Risk Inventory and the short Sensation-Seeking Scale. The correlation with the scores from other scales (Need for Cognition scale, Need for Structure scale, and 2 self-esteem scales) was low to moderate, indicating good discriminant validity. The findings are discussed in relation to risk-perception research using gambling experiments and in relation to their usefulness for risky decision-making research.

Audiovisual material is increasingly applied in risk communication (e.g., information films on the Internet) to affect the public's risk perception. This study investigated how the sound/footage and text of videos can influence two processes of risk perception: a primary (associative) and a secondary (deliberate) evaluative process. Our main hypothesis was that the sound/footage of a video would particularly influence the primary evaluative process and its text would affect the secondary evaluative process. This was investigated using a two (text: yes/no) by two (sound/footage: yes/no) design. We applied an indirect test to measure the videos' effects on the primary evaluative process (the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task) and a direct test (questionnaire) to assess the effects on the secondary evaluative process. These two tests were applied immediately after the respondents had seen one of the videos and two weeks later. Text appeared to affect the self-reported risk perception (questionnaire) only at the first measurement. Sound/footage influenced risk perception as measured by the EAST merely at the second measurement. The results are discussed in light of the two risk perception processes.

There is a considerable body of knowledge about the way people perceive risks using heuristics and qualitative characteristics, and about how risk information should be communicated to the public. However, little is known about the way people use the perception of known risks (associated risks) to judge an unknown risk. In a first, qualitative study, six different risks were discussed in in-depth interviews and focus group interviews. The interviews showed that risk associations played a prominent role in forming risk perceptions. Associated risks were often mentioned spontaneously. Second, a survey study was conducted to confirm the importance of risk associations quantitatively. This study investigated whether people related unknown risks to known risks. This was indeed confirmed. Furthermore, some insight was gained into how and why people form risk associations. Results showed that the semantic category of the unknown risks was more important in forming associations than the perceived level of risk or specific risk characteristics. These findings were in line with the semantic network theory. Based on these two studies, we recommend using the mental models approach in developing new risk communications.

Risk perception is often measured by a direct method, e.g., a questionnaire. This mainly reveals the deliberate evaluation of a risk (a so‐called secondary evaluative process), whereas risk perception can also be based on a first, spontaneous reaction (a primary evaluative process). An indirect test such as the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST, De Houwer, 2003) may be needed to reveal this first, spontaneous reaction. In this study, a questionnaire and an EAST measured the effects of varying risk communications (high risk, low risk or control article), about high‐voltage power lines. The results of the EAST showed that the respondents associated power lines stronger with unhealthy than with healthy. However, the questionnaire results did not seem to indicate that the respondents considered power lines as risky. The EAST did not reveal an effect of article variation on the associations of power lines with (un)healthy. Conversely, the questionnaire results showed that article variation influenced the se...

It has been suggested that risk avoiders and risk takers differ in the extent to which they focus on the worst and best outcomes of a risky activity. By implication risk avoiders and risk takers should also differ in their risk information preferences. Specifically, as risk avoiders focus more on the worst outcomes, it was hypothesized that they would prefer negative information about the risk. In contrast, as risk takers focus more on the best outcomes, it was hypothesized that they would prefer positive information about the risk. In an information selection task, subjects could select newspaper headlines that indicated negative and positive information about a variety of risks. Contrary to the hypothesis, risk avoiders selected more positive information than risk takers. The results are discussed in relation to the influence of personality on risk taking. One tentative explanation is that differences in anxiety between risk avoiders and risk takers account for these results in that risk avoiders try to find reassurance by seeking positive information. Another is that the participants were seeking reassurance in a relatively involuntary confrontation with risks.

The main purpose of the study presented here was to assess the capacity of the innovation attributes proposed in Rogers' diffusion theory (1995) to predict the intention to adopt energy conservation interventions. It also provided a first test of some refinements to Rogers' theory, proposed by Darley and Beniger (1981). Furthermore, as an elaboration of diffusion theory, this study examined whether the assessment of innovation attributes is a stepwise process. Questionnaires and face-to-face interviews were used to collect data. Results indicate that perceived compatibility is a general and important predictor of the intention to adopt energy conservation interventions. Support was found for some of the refinements to diffusion theory proposed by Darley and Beniger (1981). Moreover, the study partly confirmed the idea that the evaluation of an innovation on its attributes is a stepwise process. For two of the four energy conservation interventions it was found that the intervention was first of all judged on its advantage. If the perceived advantage was minor, a potential adopter often decided to reject an innovation solely on the basis of this assessment. If the perceived advantage was high, the evaluation process usually continued; perceived compatibility then became the second evaluation criterion. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Processes of self-justification were investigated in a field experiment among car drivers. High self-esteem was expected to reduce internal and external self-justification strategies. Dissonance was aroused by confronting respondents with the negative consequences of car driving either for others, that is, moral dissonance (e.g., environment, public health), or for themselves, that is, hedonistic dissonance (e.g., travel time). A third group served as a no-dissonance control group. Consistent with the predictions, no self-justification was found among high-self-esteem respondents. Low-self-esteem respondents displayed more external self-justification strategies in response to moral dissonance and internal self-justification strategies in response to hedonistic dissonance, although the latter effect was weaker. Results of Study 2 suggest that high-self-esteem respondents are less likely to engage in self-justification because they experience less discomfort after a self-threat. Together, the results illuminate the relation between self-esteem and self-justification and provide external validity for self-affirmation theory.

Research about risk perception has paid little attention to the fast that people can usually actively seek information about risks with which they art confronted. We hypothesized that (a) risk avoiders would search information more elaborately than would risk takers; (b) accountability should lead participants to search for information more elaborately; fc) risk avoiders would be more susceptible to the accountability manipulation than would risk takers; and (d) risk takers focus more on positive information, and risk avoiders focus more on negative information. Both a person's risk-taking tendency and being held accountable affected information-search depth, but no interactions were found. Nor did we find support for the idea that risk avoiders and risk takers focus on negative and positive information, respectively.

The current research advances a social dilemma analysis of commuting, examining the roles of preexisting personality differences in social value orientation (i.e., prosocial vs. proself orientation) and trust (i.e., a general belief in the honesty and cooperative intentions of others) in determining preferences for collectively desirable commuting options: preferences for commuting by public transportation (Study 1) and carpooling (Study 2). Consistent with predictions, both studies revealed that, relative to preferences of prosocials, preferences of proselfs were more strongly associated with beliefs about the relative efficiency of cars (i.e., an outcome affecting personal well-being). Also, greater preferences for collectively desirable actions were observed among prosocials with high trust-relative to prosocials with low trust and proselfs with high or low trust-providing support for the claim that 2 conditions (i.e., prosocial goals and trust in others) must be met to obtain collectively desirable commuting preferences.

In a laboratory study using undergraduate students (N =200), perceived task importance was found to moderate therelationship between goal level and performance. More-over, participants performed better when both the goaland performance were public rather than anonymous.These findings suggest that by manipulating task impor-tance and publicness of performance, it is possible to influ-ence the impact that the difficulty of specific goals have onperformance. The results are consistent with our hypothe-ses that the motivation to preserve one's self-image andthe motivation to preserve one's public-image are twofactors that determine effort and persistence devoted toassigned goals.ResumeUne etude de laboratoire menee aupres d'etudiants de pre-mier cycle (N = 200) a revile que la perception de l'importancede la tache attenue la relation entre le niveau de l'objectif et laperformance. De plus, les participants fonctionnaient mieuxlorsque l'objectif et la performance etaient publics plutot qu'a-nonymes. Ces resultats suggerent qu'en modifiant l'impor-tance de la tache et le niveau de diffusion de la performance, ilest possible d'influencer l'incidence de la difficulte reliee a desobjectifs precis sur la performance. Les resultats confirmentnos hypotheses. La motivation pour preserver l'image de soiet la motivation pour preserver l'image publique sont deuxfacteurs qui determinent l'effort et la persistance consacresaux objectifs designes.Among the most robust findings in the behaviouralscience literature is that individuals who set a specificgoal perform significantly better than individuals who areurged to do their best (Latham & Locke, 1991). In addi-tion, assuming that individuals are committed to the goal,goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990) states that themore difficult a specific goal, the better the performance.However, when individuals reach the limits of theirability at high goal difficulty levels, the goal diffi-culty-performance function levels off (Locke, 1982).Though the overall validity and usefulness of goal settingtheory has been demonstrated in several reviews (Latham& Locke, 1991; Locke & Latham, 1990), meta-analyses(O'Leary-Kelly, Martocchio, & Frink, 1994; Wood, Mento,& Locke, 1987), and comparative assessments of goalsetting theory relative to other theories of motivation(Kanfer, 1990; Pinder, 1984), the specific reasons whyindividuals are motivated to devote effort and persistencetowards goal attainment are unclear. Thus, goal settingtheory offers explanations about how individuals attaina goal; however, the specific reasons for doing so areunknown. In the present study, two factors that mayexplain why individuals devote energy towards goalattainment were investigated, namely, task importanceand publicness of performance.A number of theories embrace the notion that individ-uals attempt to protect or enhance their self-image.Individuals prefer to feel positively rather than negativelyabout themselves. For example, a core assumption of theself-evaluation maintenance model (Tesser & Campbell,1983; Tesser, 1988) is that individuals attempt either tomaximize positive self-evaluation or to minimize negativeself-evaluation. Similarly, self-discrepancy theory (Hig-gins, 1987) states that individuals feel disappointed anddissatisfied when their performance is discrepant from anideal, personal aspiration. However, for any particularindividual it will be important to do well on only a smallsubset of all possible performance dimensions. These willtypically be the more central and important performancedimensions that form the core of the individual's identity.

The current paper analyses judgements regarding the decision to commute by car versus public transportation in terms of a conflict between immediate self-interest and long- term collective interest (i.e. social dilemma). Extending traditional formulations of rational choice theory, the present study revealed that preferences for public transportation (i.e. the presumed cooperative option) in a standard commuting situation were enhanced not only by the belief that public transportation provided a shorter average travel time than car (i.e. the presumed noncooperative option), but also by the belief that public transportation was at least as reliable (i.e. an equal or lower variability in travel time compared to car). Moreover, paralleling prior research on experimental social dilemmas, preferences were found to be affected by a pro-social concern - the belief regarding the impact of cars on the level of environmental pollution. Our findings indicated that any combination of two such considerations (i.e. travel time, variability, and impact of cars on pollution) was m ore effective in promoting public transportation preferences than the sum of their separate effects. Finally, we obtained evidence that computer preferences were also shaped by individual differences in social value orientations (i.e. preferences for patterns of outcomes for self and others) in that, relative to pro-self commuters, pro-social commuters exhibited greated preference for public transporation.

This research evaluates the role of social value orientations (i.e., preferences for distribution of outcomes for the self and others) in decisions as how to commute. It was proposed that the commuting situation could be viewed either as an environmental issue, reflecting the decision structure of an N-person Prisoner’s Dilemma, or as an accessibility problem, reflecting the decision structure of an N-person Chicken Dilemma. On the basis of interdependence theory (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978) it was predicted that people who are primarily concerned with the collective welfareprosocial individuals-would prefer commuting by public transportation when other commuters were expected to go by public transportation. On the other hand, it was hypothesized that people who are primarily concerned with their own well-beingproself individuals-would prefer commuting by public transportation when others were expected to go by car. The obtained findings were consistent with these expectations. Practical and theoretical implications regarding the link between social value orientations and environmentally relevant behavior will be discussed.

Priorities in information desire about unknown risks.Lion R, Meertens RM, Bot I.Universiteit Maastricht, The Netherlands. r.meertens@gvo.unimaas.nlResearch on risk perception aims to explain how people perceive risks in order to better communicate about them. Most of this research has tended to view people as passive risk perceivers. However, if confronted with an unknown risk, people can also actively seek information. The main purpose of this study was to investigate what kind of risk information people desire when confronted with an unknown risk and how this desire for information relates to the main dimensions underlying risk perception. Nine focus-group interviews were conducted. The main results of the focus groups were backed up by a paper-and-pencil questionnaire that was distributed among a random sample of 500 households in the Netherlands. Overall, people desire information with which they can determine the personal relevance of the risk confronting them. This pattern is similar to appraisal steps described by health behavior models. The focus-group results provide a dynamic picture of the way risk aspects might interact to create a final risk judgment

In this paper, studies on the efficacy of back schools are judged on their methodological quality (internal validity) and mutual comparability (external validity). All available randomised trials (n = 8) were selected for this purpose. The studies were judged on the following criteria: duration and content of the back school programme, selection criteria and number of patients involved, interventions and measures of effect used. With regard to the internal validity of the studies, a number of gaps were found. The numbers of patients involved in the studies were relatively low, no placebo-attention group was used and the principal target of the back schools was not evaluated direcdy. Because of these gaps, it is as yet not possible to formulate a strong and valid judgement on the efficacy of the back schools studied in the trials. In addition to this, the comparability of the studies is rather poor. Taken together, the available studies do not suggest that back schools are particularly effective.

The effects of warnings and an educational brochure on computer working posture: a test of the C-HIP model in the context of RSI-relevant behaviour.Visschers VH, Ruiter RA, Kools M, Meertens RM.Universiteit Maastricht, Department of Health Education and Promotion, Maastricht, The Netherlands. v.visschers@gvo.unimaas.nlThis study tested whether warnings can result in a better working posture with respect to RSI prevention compared with an educational brochure. By using a warning, the information provision on how to prevent RSI can be shorter and only interrupts with the task at hand for a short time. Five conditions were created to compare the effects on position adjustments of a warning displayed on the computer screen, a warning hanging on the wall, an educational brochure, a neutral interruption on the computer screen, and no intervention. Systematic observations of respondents' working postures showed that the computer warning led to significantly more correct position adjustments than the educational brochure and the two control situations, whereas the wall warning condition did not differ significantly from all other conditions. Questionnaires were used to study whether the number of position adjustments in the conditions could be explained by Wogalter's communication-human information processing (C-HIP) model. The questionnaire data suggest that the effect of the computer warning is caused by heightened attention for this type of intervention. The other stages of the C-HIP model--knowledge, attitude change, and motivation--might not be necessary in this situation in the explanation of behavioural changes. The conclusion is that warnings may be able to successfully replace educational brochures to produce behavioural changes

In the current field experiment we evaluate a structural solution to a real-life social dilemma by examining the effects of a carpool priority lane on judgments and preferences concerning the decision to commute by carpool (i.e., the presumed cooperative option) or driving alone (i.e., the presumed noncooperative option). Our general hypothesis was that this intervention would evoke a process of self-justification in solo drivers, arising from feelings of relative deprivation and/or cognitive dissonance. Consistent with predictions, we found that in comparison with judgments made before the implementation of the carpool lane, solo drivers tended to decrease the importance of an attribute inherently linked to carpooling (i.e., low travel costs) and to increase the importance of an attribute inherently linked to driving alone (i.e., flexibility). Moreover, solo drivers exhibited a weaker preference for carpooling after the establishment of the carpool lane. This finding suggests that the negative side effects of this structural measure were more pronounced than the intended carpool-promoting effects.

This article discusses the beneficial effects of setting goals in health behavior change and maintenance interventions. Goal setting theory predicts that, under certain conditions, setting specific difficult goals leads to higher performance when compared with no goals or vague, nonquantitative goals, such as "do your best." In contrast to the graduated, easy goals often set in health behavior change programs, goal setting theory asserts a positive linear relationship between degree of goal difficulty and level of performance. Research on goal setting has typically been conducted in organizational and laboratory settings. Although goal setting procedures are used in many health behavior change programs, they rarely have been the focus of systematic research. Therefore, many research questions still need to be answered regarding goal setting in the context of health behavior change. Finally, initial recommendations for the successful integration of goal setting theory in health behavior change programs are offered.

In studies investigating the effects of reattribution training, reattributing to effort is confounded with forcing subjects to think about causes of their performance. An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects on performance of having people think about causes of outcomes by means of measuring attributions for success or failure. The results indicate that measurement has a beneficial effect on performance after failure. Measurement of attributions after success does not affect performance or may even slightly deteriorate it. Explanations for these results are discussed.