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Selective Cutting and Line Planting (TPTJ) silvicultural systems and Indonesian Selective Cutting and Planting (TPTI) are two of the five silvicultural systems that have been determined by the Ministry of Forestry Regulation No. P.11 / Menhut-II / 2009 juncto P.65 / Menhut-II / 2014 concerning silvicultural systems in the area of timber forest product utilization permits (IUPHHK) in production forests. Three other silvicultural systems based on the regulation are the Gap Logging silviculture system, the Fully Made Rejuvenation System, and the Multi Silviculture System. This study aims to examine the implementation of the TPTJ and TPTI systems in the PT Intracawood Manufacturing (PT Intraca) area, Bulungan Regency, North Kalimantan. The methodology of this research is through the approach of growth analysis, comparison of stand increment, observation of environmental conditions, interviews and literature study. Based on the field research, it was found that the diameter increments of Shorea leprosula, Shorea dasyphila, and Shorea parvifolia were greater in the TPTJ system compared to TPTI. However, the TPTI silviculture system at PT Intraca is easier to apply in the field than the TPTJ silviculture system. The TPTJ system has become less effective because planting in the TPTJ system has been carried out by making a 3-meter wide track with a length of approximately 1 km in a plot and if there is potential for the wood to become ineffective. In the area of PT Intraca, to improve the effectiveness of the TPTJ system a mosaic system is used where the planting path is made only in areas with less potential and representative for planting. The types of plants planted in the TPTJ system are far superior, perspective, and are faster than the types of plants in the TPTI system. Planting/enrichment in the TPTI system is easier because it does not need to make a planting path. Planting with seedlings from the extraction is only a transfer from the growth of tillers from areas with an excessive potential for tillers.

Humans have interacted with trees for millennia and the strength of such interactions determines the long-term social values of trees and forests. Such ecocultural linkages could be important to promote during reforestation efforts, potentially helping to turn the tide on the current rapid extinction of cultural and biological diversity. In addition, predicting the fate of ecoculturally important species to changing climates may help guide tree species selection best-suited to future climates. We assessed the vulnerability of four ecoculturally important tree species native to Southeast Asia to an extreme drought: Koompassia excelsa, Nephelium lappaceum, Shorea fallax and Shorea leprosula. These species provide distinct and unique products, and Koompassia excelsa is well-represented in local mythological stories and considered a Cultural Keystone Species (CKS). We used two complementary approaches: 1) an experimental common garden and 2) naturally occurring wild trees growing in a secondary forest and compared the performance of trees before, after, and during the 2016 El Nino event with record breaking low precipitation and high temperatures. We found that mortality of the CKS K. excelsa in the common garden, along with mortality and growth of wild trees were unaffected by the El Nino drought. In contrast, young trees of N. lappaceum and S. fallax planted in the common garden had mortality 4 and 3 times higher, respectively, during the El Nino drought compared to normal years. Growth rate of S. fallax in the wild was also significantly lower during the El Nino drought and this effect was particularly pronounced in highly disturbed forests. Our results demonstrate that the impact of extreme climatic events, that are predicted to become more common with climate change, on culturally important tree species is species specific. Management of such species may thus need species specific measures to maintain viable populations and hence provide the basic physical settings for human-nature interactions and associated cultural identities to persist. In this context, our findings that cultural keystone species such as K. excelsa could be drought tolerant is noteworthy, as investing on such species could prove to be beneficial for both local cultures and conservation of native ecosystems and biodiversity.

Failure in degraded forest rehabilitation was caused by using chosen species without pay attantion on site characterictics. Species selection by looking at site limiting factor, will increase success in degraded forest rehabilitation. This research aims to study the influence of physical and chemical soil properties on growth of Shorea leprosula Miq , Shorea palembanica Miq , dan Shorea mecisopteryx. Data was analyzed using multiple linear regression analysis with mean annual increment (MAI) of height and diameter as dependent variable and soil properties as independent variable . The results showed that growth increment of S.palembanica was the most species that influnced by soil perperties with R 2 a djusted value for MAI- diam e ter and MAI- h e i gh t repectively, 0.946 and 0.674 whereas others two Shorea have R 2 a djusted value < 0.5. The research also showed that available P content was the limiting factor of the three species . T here wa s a difference of each species in respond to the available P content. MAI- height on S . mecisopteryx and MAI- diam e ter and MAI- h e i gh t on S . pelambanica will increase in line with decreasing available P content w hile S . leprosula require d P available increasing in order to increas e of MAI-diameter . This indicates that each species have specific response on certain soil properties content .

One of the rehabilitation efforts undertaken by the Forest Research and Development Center in Bogor was to establish a mixed meranti(Dipterocarp) forest in the Gunung Dahu Research Forest, Bogor - West Java. The rehabilitation activities adopted several planting techniques, including total and line planting, used several types of red meranti (Shorea spp.). The purpose of this study was to assess the success of rehabilitation effort by analyzing the growth performance of Shorea leprosula and Shorea selanicastands in which applying total and line planting techniques. Diameter and height, as well as environmental factors such as soil texture, average litter thickness, slope, the average thickness of topsoil, and canopy density, were plant growth parameters that were observed. Growth data analysis was performed using ANOVA and followed by Duncan's test. The results showed that planting techniques affected the diameter growth. The highest growth rate was found in S. selanicaspecies with line planting techniques with the average diameter and height increment was 1.13 cm/year and 0.78 cm/year. Line planting techniques also scored the highest value of basal area and stand volumes, 0.06 m2 and 0.64 m3per year for S. leprosulaand 0.06 m2and 0.66 m3per year for S. selanica.

This study demonstrated that the cambial activities of three selected Shorea species with different stem diameters growing in a tropical rainforest in Malaysia responded differently to climatic factors. We investigated the cambial activities in Shorea leprosula, Shorea acuminata, and Shorea parvifolia trees with different stem diameters at breast height growing in a natural lowland dipterocarp rainforest in Malaysia. We collected and analyzed samples from the main trunks of selected trees in monthly intervals from March 2013 to April 2014. The cambium of the three Shorea species showed periods of active and less active growth in the humid forest. Selected trees with different stem diameters of the same and different species showed variation in rhythms of cambial activity (changes in the numbers of cambial and enlarging cell layers) at site with similar growing conditions. Monthly mean relative humidity and monthly mean vapour pressure deficit were important factors influencing the number of cambial cells of S. acuminata with larger stem diameter, and those of S. parvifolia with different stem diameters. Active cambium were detected in months with high relative humidity and low vapour pressure deficit in those trees. Total monthly precipitation had significant positive correlation with the cambial cells activities of S. parvifolia with different stem diameters, but no correlation with those of the other two species. The cambium of S. leprosula with smaller and larger stem diameters were found active throughout the year. We concluded that the three Shorea species examined with different stem diameters have different growth strategies and thus react differently to climatic factors.

Plantations of tropical species are becoming an increasingly important source of wood. However, it is important that research trials focus not only on tree growth performance, but also on wood quality. The aims of this study were to assess the growth performance of six commercially and ecologically important tree species from separate plantation trials in Indonesia and to determine the relationships between tree growth and wood quality in terms of the dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOE) and wood density. Forty-eight 7-year Maesopsis eminii Engl. and thirty-five 9-year specimens (7 each of 5 Shorea spp.) were selected from two trials. The MOE, based on acoustic velocity, was indirectly measured to evaluate wood stiffness. Tree-growth performance was evaluated, and correlations between growth traits and acoustic velocity as well as density and wood stiffness properties were estimated. The growth performance of M. eminii in terms of tree volume was significantly different in three different categories of growth (i.e. fast, medium, slow). Of the five Shorea spp. studied, Shorea leprosula Miq. had the highest growth rate, as expected since it is known to be a fast-growing Shorea species. Indirect measurement of wood quality by means of non-destructive ultrasonic methods showed a weak negative correlation between tree volume and acoustic velocity and dynamic MOE. Although each fast-growing tree could reach a merchantable size faster than other varieties or species, wood traits of various species tested were not significantly different based on tree growth rate performance. The findings from this study could be used to improve selection criteria in future breeding trials; indirect measurements of the dynamic modulus of elasticity can be used in mass pre-selection of genetic materials, to choose the most-promising material for in-depth evaluation.

Elucidating the physiological mechanisms of the irregular yet concerted flowering rhythm of mass flowering tree species in the tropics requires long-term monitoring of flowering phenology, exogenous and endogenous environmental factors, as well as identifying interactions and dependencies among these factors. To investigate the proximate factors for floral initiation of mast seeding trees in the tropics, we monitored the expression dynamics of two key flowering genes, meteorological conditions and endogenous resources over two flowering events of Shorea curtisii and Shorea leprosula in the Malay Peninsula. Comparisons of expression dynamics of genes studied indicated functional conservation of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and LEAFY (LFY) in Shorea. The genes were highly expressed at least 1 month before anthesis for both species. A mathematical model considering the synergistic effect of cool temperature and drought on activation of the flowering gene was successful in predicting the observed gene expression patterns. Requirement of both cool temperature and drought for floral transition suggested by the model implies that flowering phenologies of these species are sensitive to climate change. Our molecular phenology approach in the tropics sheds light on the conserved role of flowering genes in plants inhabiting different climate zones and can be widely applied to dissect the flowering processes in other plant species.

In a unique phenomenon restricted to the ever wet forests of Southeast Asia, hundreds of species from dozens of plant families reproduce synchronously at irregular, multi-year intervals. The proximate environmental cues that synchronize these general flowering events have not been evaluated systematically because there have been no long-term, high temporal resolution, species-level records from the region. We present 13 years of weekly flowering records for five Shorea species as well as daily temperature and rainfall records from the Pasoh Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. We constructed models to evaluate hypothesized relationships between flowering and cool temperature, drought, and additive and synergistic effects of cool temperature and drought for each species. Model parameters include periods of time for floral cue accumulation and flower development and temperature and/or rainfall thresholds required for floral initiation. Parameters estimated using flowering observations from 2001 to 2011 were used to forecast flowering for 2011–2014. We show that drought and cool temperatures acting synergistically best explain the timing of flowering events for all Shorea species in the section Mutica and forecast the largest general flowering event accurately. Periods estimated for signal accumulation ranged from 54 to 90 days among species. Periods estimated for flowers to develop ranged between 43 and 96 days and closely followed the interspecific sequence of flowering in the Shorea species. Drought and temperature thresholds also varied among species, with Shorea maxwelliana requiring the most severe drought and Shorea leprosula the lowest temperatures. Synthesis. Our results indicate that cool temperatures and low rainfall occurring on seasonal time-scales of about 2–3 months rather than brief cold snaps or brief droughts best explain general flowering in Shorea species at the Pasoh Forest Reserve. Low rainfall is equally likely in winter (December–February) and summer (July–August) and cool temperatures are most likely in winter at Pasoh, which explains why general flowering events are restricted to spring and fall, with more frequent and stronger flowering in spring. In addition, species-specific sensitivity to environmental cues suggests that future climate change will have differential impacts on the frequency of reproduction, with potential consequences for regeneration of these dominant species of lowland tropical forests.

Background: Although natural hybridisation between dipterocarp trees is considered rare, putative dipterocarp hybrids (Shorea spp.) are found in a forest fragment in Singapore. Understanding the performance of hybrids is critical to inform conservation efforts and has implications for the demographic and genetic viability of these small populations.Aims: First, is there a difference in the frequency of hybrids between the mature and seedling stages, and second, do parent and hybrid seedlings have different ecological traits?Methods: We analysed seedling survival and growth rates in relation to environmental variables for Shorea curtisii, S. leprosula and hybrids of the two species. We monitored the height and diameter of seedlings for 4 years, as well as light conditions and soil moisture.Results: The proportion of hybrids at the seedling stage was 41% for S. leprosula and 17% for S. curtisii, respectively. Hybrids were more frequent at the seedling stage than at the mature stage. Hybrid individuals had g...

Phyllosphere fungi show high species diversity and fulfill important ecological functions not only in natural forests but also in plantations. We sought to estimate the species diversity and community structure of phyllosphere fungi from tropical tree plantation plots in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. We conducted a massively parallel amplicon sequencing analysis of fungi collected from the leaves of Shorea leprosula (Dipterocarpaceae), an ecologically and commercially important tree species. Phyllosphere fungal compositions and spatial variability were investigated for 31 S. leprosula trees across four plots within a plantation stand. In total, 488 fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were recognized in 153,194 ribosomal internal transcribed spacer reads at 95% OTU identity level. Rare OTUs accounted for the majority of fungal diversity detected in the study site; 200 OTUs (41%) comprised fewer than 10 reads and 465 OTUs (95%) were found in fewer than half of the samples. Fungal OTU compositions of S. leprosula trees were differentiated within a narrow area of the plantation and even between plots that were separated by 15 m. These findings indicate that highly diverse fungal OTUs form spatially structured communities even within a tropical plantation stand of single tree species.

This study investigated the roundwood production and profit sharing for Shorea leprosula and Shorea smithiana in case of PT Inhutani I Bukit Bangkirai, Balikpapan. Five research aims pursued in order to better understand the economic valuation of Shorea tree species, are: 1) analyse the increments of woody; 2) identify the age of trees reached the highest increments of woody; 3) measure the highest value of mean annual increments (MAI); 4) examine the nominal rate of return ( i ) for roundwood production; 5) examine the profit sharing between the management of PT Inhutani I Bukit Bangkirai and investors. Additionally, the policy of profit sharing has been determined by the proportion of 55% for investors and 45% for the management.The results demonstrated that: 1) the wood potential of Shorea leprosula reached the highest value at the age of 40 years by producing 7.78 m 3 ha -1 year -1 , and Shorea smithiana reached the highest value at the age of 50 years by producing 333.34 m 3 ha -1 year -1 ; 2) the highest value of MAI for Shorea leprosula and Shorea smithiana are 7.78 and 6.67 m 3 ha -1 year -1 respectively; 3) the nominal rate of return ( i ) of Shorea leprosula is 7.8% for investors and 8.3% for the management, and Shorea smithiana is 6.3% for investors and 6.7% the management. Overall, this research found that the economic value of Shorea leprosula and Shorea smithiana provide the nominal rate of return ( i ), which is higher than minimum acceptable rate of return (MAR).

Dipterocarpaceae is the main species of tropical rain forest in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Phillippines and it ranges in eastwards as far as eastern New Guinea. This species is primary product in tropical rain forest of forest concessions. Recently, the quality and quantity of tropical rain forest are decreasing because of the land convertion become forest plantation; illegal logging and shifting cultivation. One of the strategies to reduce the forest degradation is enrichment planting on logged over forest (LOA) using dipterocarps species. The plantation trial was established with two (2) spacing, two (2) fertilizer dosages and five (5) Shorea spp as treatment to support the enrichment planting program in LOA. The research design was split-split plot design with 4 replications. The main plot was 2 spacings i.e. 6x2 m; and 6x4 m. The sub plot was 2 dosages of NPK Fertilizer i.e. 0 and 100 gr species-1. The sub-sub plot was 5 species of Shorea spp., i.e. Shorea leprosula, S.platyclados, S.parvifolia, S.virescens and S.johorensis. Each treatment was established in sguare plot (4x10 trees/treatment). The reserach result showed that spacing, fertilizer dosage and interaction between treatmens were not significant, while species was significant at tα=0.05 fertilizer dosage and interaction between treatmens were not significant, while species was significant at dipterocarps early growth. The highest growth was S.leprosula of DBH and high variables where the value of DBH and high variables were 8.90cm (2.9cm.year-1 of mean annual increment/MAI) and 6.31 m (2.1 m. year-1 of MAI) respectively. The lowest growth was S.virescens both on high and DBH variables where the value of DBH and high were 2.27cm. year-1 and 1.40 m. year-1 respectively.

Subiakto A, Rachmat HH, Sakai C. 2016. Choosing native tree species for establishing man-made forest: A new perspective for sustainable forest management in changing world. Biodiversitas 17: 620-625. Establishment of tree plantation on degraded lands and forest clearly favored some exotic species such as Gmelina arborea, Acacia, and Eucalyptus. High productivity, less harvesting time, and deeper silvicultural knowledge are the beneficial factor for choosing those exotics species. However, the use of a wide variety of native tree species becomes more significantly important in reforestation projects due to the greater biodiversity benefits and widerenvironmental services. This research was carried out as a multiyear observation and continuous experiment to value how native tree species can be prospective alternatives in providing and supporting human need. The performances of two native Indonesian Shorea species, Shorea leprosula and Shorea selanica, were evaluated at a dipterocarp planting trial in two different sites in Indonesia. Growth data was obtained from 15 and 17 years old plots, twelve 100 m X 100 m square plots on mineral soils (Gunung Dahu Experimental Forest/GDEF, Bogor) and eight resembled plots on frequently flooded peat land (PT. Arara Abadi/PT. AA, Riau). Survival rates were varied, ranged from 36-77%, diameter at breast height from 13.7-24.9 cm, tree height from 10.8-16.9 m, mean volume from 0.119m3/tree-0.567 m3/tree, and total volume from 79.420 m3/ha-215.412 m3/ha. Growth rates of planted saplings were affected by species, site and spacing distance. The development of man-made dipterocarps forest in the tropic, especially in South East Asia can be as prospective as developing an exotic fast growing plantation. Eventhough in situ conservation would give the most benefit in conserving genetic resources of native tree species, establishing man-made dipterocarp forest still have higher environmental value than using exotic tree species such as acacia. Moreover, establishing man-made dipterocarp forest is considered more environmental friendly and possess lower to no risk of species invasion compare to those of developing exotic trees plantation.

Forest exploitation and conversion to other landuse may cause lost of biodiversity, including most important dipterocarp trees species, i.e. Shorea leprosula and Shorea laevis. The objective of this study was to determine the rarity status of the two important shorea species, i.e. S. laevis and S. leprosula, based on IUCN criteria, their habitat characteristics, and their association with other species, as one of the basis for determining their conservation strategy as a part of forest management. This study was conducted in three types of ecosystem (virgin forest, secondary forest, and fragmented forest) in Muara Teweh, Central Kalimantan. Methodology used in this research includes vegetation and tree diversity analysis. Study results showed that both S. laevis and S. leprosula were included within category of “low risk” in the 3 types of ecosystem in the forest area being studied. Habitat characteristics which determined the absence of S. laevis in the virgin forest habitat was the soil permeability which was too low, whereas other soil chemical and physical properties in the three types of ecosystems were relatively similar. Presence of S. laevis were positively associated with species of S. uliginosa, Dialium platysepalum, Dipterocarpus ibmalatus, Palaquium rostatum, Vatica rasak, Adinandra sp., and Memecyclon steenis. On the other hand, S. leprosula were positively correlated with S. kunstleri, Castanopsis sp., Shorea sp., Quercus bennettii, Castanopsis argentea, and D. hasseltii.Keywords: threatened species, Shorea spp., habitat characteristic, ecosystems type, associated species

A research was done at natural tropical forest in forest concession of PT : Suka Jaya Makmur (SJM).Ketapang. West Kalimantan . The objective of the study is germplasm area in natural Forest. The aims of this floristic study were to investigate the potensial and distribution of tengkawang tree species. Tengkawang kernel is one of the fomous Non –Wood Forest Product (NWFP), it is rescources of on importance vegetable fat. The inventory was conducted using line plot method in each area of 26 Hectares. 130 sample plots were made up systematically within 13 line plot. The sample plot had a square shape with nested sampling area measured 20 mx 20 m for tree stage, 10 m x 10 m for pole stage, 5 m x 5 m for sapling stage and 2 m x 2 m for seeding stage. The result reveal that the germplasm consisted of 75 species were dominated by industralwood species . The germpalsm are was dominated by Shorea leprosula with importance value (31.01%). Eugenia cymosa (26.32%).Litsea Firma (18.11%) and Shorea laevis (16.02%) respectively . Some tengkawang trees were found in the study area with important value were varied were Shorea pinnanga (9.43%) . Shorea macrophylla (4.11%). Shorea macistopterix (0.63%) respectively but the famous of tengkawang tree (Shorea stenoptera)was not found in the study area. Therefore, block 35 & 36 PT SJM germplasm area unrepresentative for tengkawang genetic concervation plat.

Shorea (Dipterocarpaceae) is a large genus in which many closely related species often grow together in Southeast Asian lowland tropical rain forests. Many Shorea species share common pollinators, and earlier studies suggested occurrence of interspecific hybridization and introgression. Here, we show morphological and molecular evidence of hybridization between Shorea species. In the census of all the trees of Shorea curtisii, Shorea leprosula, and Shorea parvifolia (>30 cm dbh) within the 164-ha area of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve in Singapore, we found 21 morphologically recognizable hybrid individuals. All of the putative hybrids could be distinguished obviously from the parental species on the basis of vegetative characters. Population genetic analysis of DNA sequences of two nuclear (GapC and PgiC) and chloroplast (trnL-trnF) regions demonstrated that each of the three species had several species-specific mutations. The nuclear sequences of the putative hybrids were heterozygote at all the species-specific sites between two parental species. Hybrid between S. curtisii and S. leprosula was found most, while S. curtisii × S. parvifolia and S. leprosula × S. parvifolia hybrids were also found. Almost no shared polymorphism between populations of the parental species suggests rarity of introgression. The study indicated that natural hybridization between sympatric Shorea species should not be uncommon, but all of the hybrid individuals were F1, and the post-F1 hybrids were considerably rare.

The impact of selective logging on genetic diversity of two tropical tree species with contrasting breeding systems was examined using direct comparison and simulation methods. Shorea leprosula is a diploid and predominantly outcrossed species, whereas Shorea ovalis ssp. sericea is an autotetraploid species with apomictic mode of reproduction. Direct comparison of adjacent natural and logged-over stands showed reduction of genetic diversity of S. leprosula, but not of S. ovalis ssp. sericea. These results clearly demonstrated that a single logging event would cause the genetic erosion of S. leprosula. However, the apomictic mechanisms and the effects of tetrasomic inheritance of S. ovalis ssp. sericea might be a way of maintaining the level of genetic diversity. These results clearly implied that outcrossing species might be more susceptible to the negative impact of logging on genetic diversity than apomictic species. Simulation studies were conducted using three approaches: (1) simulated-removal of individuals based on diameter size classes; (2) simulated-removal of individuals at random; and (3) simulated-removal of individuals in clump. The simulation study based on the first approach showed that the loss of genetic diversity was higher for the Malayan Uniform System (MUS) compared with the Selective Management System (SMS). This might suggest that SMS is more orientated towards the conservation of genetic diversity. In addition, the simulation study showed that to conserve 100% of the total number of alleles, the tolerable cutting limits of S. leprosula in the 50-ha plot of Pasoh FR should be >85 cm diameter at breast height (dbh). Comparison of simulation studies based on the second and third approaches showed that the loss of genetic diversity was more rigorous if logging activities were anticipated through extraction of trees in clump rather than to extract trees at random. Implications of the studies for conserving and managing the tropical forests are discussed.

Shorea acuminata Dyer, Shorea curtisii Dyer ex King, Shorea leprosula Miq., and Shorea parvifolia Dyer are dominant tree species in the tropical rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia, which experienced several climatic changes during Pleistocene. To investigate the current population structure and demographic history of these species, we analyzed levels and patterns of nucleotide polymorphism of the nuclear gene region PgiC. We also used sequence data of the GapC gene region obtained in our previous study. Negative Tajima’s D values observed in both investigated gene regions for S. curtisii, S. leprosula, and S. parvifolia implied that all three species have experienced population expansion events. Little to moderate levels of population differentiation in S. acuminata and S. curtisii suggested recent divergence of the investigated populations after postglacial colonization of the Peninsular Malaysia. In addition, some haplotypes were similar or identical to haplotypes of the other species. The existence of such haplotypes could be partially explained by interspecific hybridization. Indeed, we found some putative hybrid individuals. Interspecific hybridization among closely related species might have contributed to the polymorphism of the investigated species.

Phosphorus concentrations in many south-east Asian tropical rain forest soils are very low. To determine the growth responses of seedlings of a light-demanding (Shorea leprosula) and a more shade-tolerant (Hopea nervosa) dipterocarp species to increasing P, we carried out a nursery fertilisation experiment. Responses of symbiotic ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi to the treatments were also determined. Seedlings were grown under high light (13 mol m−2 d−1) or moderate light (4 mol m−2 d−1) in shade-chambers and were fertilised with a solution containing 0, 1, 10 or 100 mg L−1 P. The growth of Hopea and Shorea showed different responses to the light and P fertilisation treatments with Hopea having greater growth under moderate light conditions and Shorea having greater growth under high light conditions. Shorea responded to P fertilisation by increasing its foliar P concentrations and growth rates, whereas Hopea did not take up additional P and did not improve its growth rates. There was no effect of either light or P fertilisation on total EcM colonisation or EcM diversity, but around half of the EcM morphotypes observed were affected by one of these two abiotic perturbations, most notably for Riessiella sp. which increased with P fertilisation suggesting it may not be a mutualistic fungus. These results show how niche partitioning in both dipterocarp seedlings and EcM fungi can be divided along contrasting axes.

The genetic diversity within and among populations of Shorea leprosula and Shorea parvifolia from Indonesia was investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). The results indicated that S. leprosula is genetically more variable than S. parvifolia. At the population level, a higher level of genetic diversity was revealed for S. leprosula with a percentage of polymorphic loci (PPLp) of 53.32% and an expected heterozygosity (H ep) of 0.16 in comparison with S. parvifolia showing PPLp of 51.79% and H ep of 0.14. At the species level, S. leprosula showed PPLs of 92.86% and H es of 0.21, while S. parvifolia showed PPLs of 85.71% and H es of 0.21. Genetic differentiation (G st) indicated that 25 and 31% of total genetic diversity in S. leprosula and S. parvifolia, respectively, were attributed to the differences among populations. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) at two hierarchical levels exhibited that most genetic variation resided within populations with proportion of 70.2% for S. leprosula and 66.2% for S. parvifolia. The AMOVA at three hierarchical levels performed for S. leprosula and S. parvifolia together revealed that the genetic difference between the two species was remarkably higher with a proportion of 44.1% than the differences within and among populations (38.1 and 17.8%, respectively). The genetic differentiation between islands was significant for S. leprosula but not for S. parvifolia. The observed genetic diversity agreed with the life history traits of Shorea species. Highly differentiating individual AFLP markers were found for each species, which will serve as diagnostic markers for the identification of wood of different species, from different islands and regions.

Summary 1 Interspecific and intraspecific competition in seedling banks may be important determinants of regeneration success in some groups of canopy trees, e.g. dipterocarps in south-east Asian tropical rain forests, and the outcomes of these competitive interactions may contribute to the maintenance of the high levels of plant diversity. 2 We present the results of an experiment examining the effects of seedling bank diversity within canopy gaps on seedling growth, architecture and levels of insect herbivore defoliation over 18 months. Within each of six experimental canopy gaps, we planted two conspecific blocks of Shorea leprosula (Dipterocarpaceae) seedlings and two heterospecific blocks of S. leprosula seedlings amongst four other dipterocarp species with differing growth rates and palatability to herbivores. 3 The growth allocation patterns of S. leprosula differed according to whether they were planted among conspecifics or heterospecifics. Although S. leprosula seedlings grew taller in conspecific stands, their above ground biomass did not differ between planting treatments, due to increased branching and leaf area in seedlings in the heterospecific stands. 4 Shorea leprosula displayed the lowest levels of antiherbivore defences and sustained the greatest levels of defoliation of all species studied. Despite an increase of almost 60% in leaf damage in conspecific vs. heterospecific stands, neither biomass nor survival of S. leprosula seedlings differed between stands over the 18-month growth period. 5 The important effects of neighbourhood composition on the growth and herbivory of S. leprosula seedlings, suggest that diversity of seedling banks can be an important determinant of regeneration success and, thus, forest dynamics. Neighbourhood composition may have similar impacts on competitive outcomes and biomass allocation patterns in other ecological communities.

Analyses of the spatial distribution pattern, spatial genetic structure and genetic diversity were carried out using a 33-ha plot in a hill dipterocarp forest for three dipterocarps with different habitat preferences, i.e. Shorea curtisii on the ridges, Shorea leprosula in the valleys and Shorea macroptera both on the ridges and in the valleys. The significant spatial aggregation in small-diameter trees of all the three species was explained by limited seed dispersal. At the large-diameter trees, only S. macroptera showed random distribution and this might further prove that S. macroptera is habitat generalist, whilst S. curtisii and S. leprosula are habitat specific. The levels of genetic diversity estimated based on five microsatellite loci were high and comparable in all the three studied species. As the three studied species reproduced mainly through outcrossing, the observed high levels of genetic diversity might support the fact that the plant mating system can be used as guideline to infer the levels of genetic diversity, regardless of whether the species is habitat specific or habitat generalist. The lack of spatial genetic structure but significant aggregation in the small-diameter trees of all the three species might indicate limited seed dispersal but extensive pollen flow. Hence, if seed dispersal is restricted but pollen flow is extensive, significant spatial aggregation but no spatial genetic structure will be observed at the small-diameter trees, regardless of whether the species is habitat specific or habitat generalist. The inferred extensive pollen flow might indicate that energetic pollinators are involved in the pollination of Shorea species in the hill dipterocarp forests.

Analyses of the spatial distribution pattern, spatial genetic structure and of genetic diversity were carried out in two tropical tree species with contrasting breeding systems and different ploidy levels using a 50-ha demographic plot in a lowland dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia. Shorea leprosula is a diploid and predominantly outcrossed species, whereas S. ovalis ssp. sericea is an autotetraploid species with apomictic mode of reproduction. Genetic diversity parameters estimated for S. leprosula using microsatellite were consistently higher than using allozyme. In comparisons with S. leprosula and other tropical tree species, S. ovalis ssp. sericea also displayed relatively high levels of genetic diversity. This might be explained by the lower pressure of genetic drift due to tetrasomic inheritance, and for autotetraploids each locus can accommodate up to four different alleles and this allows maintenance of more alleles at individual loci. The observed high levels of genetic diversity in S. ovalis ssp. sericea can also be due to a random retention of more heterogeneous individuals in the past, and the apomictic mode of reproduction might be an evolutionary strategy, which allows the species to maintain high levels of genetic diversity. The spatial distribution pattern analyses of both species showed significant levels of aggregation at small and medium but random distribution at the big diameter-class. The decrease in magnitude of spatial aggregation from small- to large-diameter classes might be due to compensatory mortality during recruitment and survival under competitive thinning process. Spatial genetic structure analyses for both species revealed significant spatial genetic structure for short distances in all the three diameter-classes. The magnitude of spatial genetic structure in both species was observed to be decreasing from smaller- to larger-diameter classes. The high spatial genetic structuring observed in S. ovalis ssp. sericea at the small-diameter class is due primarily to limited seed dispersal and apomictic mode of reproduction. The similar observation in S. leprosula, however, can be explained by limited seed and pollen dispersal, which supports further the fact that the species is pollinated by weak fliers, mainly of Thrips and Megalurothrips in the lowland dipterocarp forest.

To understand the breeding system and seed dispersal in Shorea leprosula (Dipterocarpaceae) in Peninsular Malaysia, a microsatellite analysis was conducted of embryos of immature and mature fruits fallen in litter traps under the crowns of five trees. Outcrossed and selfed progeny mothered by the trees and those dispersed from other trees were distinguished by genotypes of three polymorphic microsatellite loci. The mean outcrossing rate of mature fruit embryos in S. leprosula pollinated by thrips (0.91) was not lower than those previously reported from Shorea species pollinated by bees, even though thrips seem to be less efficient pollinators than bees. Although four of the five trees showed high and stable outcrossing rates during fruit maturation, the outcrossing rate increased in one tree with highly selfed embryos of immature fruits. These results suggest that inbreeding depression during fruit maturation as well as self‐incompatibility reduce the proportion of inbred embryos. The proportion of fruits...

Dipterocarps dominate the canopy of lowland tropical rain forest in South-east Asia. Seedlings of these species form diverse assemblages on the forest floor where low irradiance severely limits their growth. Further growth depends largely upon the increased irradiance that can occur with the creation of canopy gaps. However, the response of dipterocarp seedlings to increased irradiance and their subsequent establishment in the canopy may be influenced by the availability of other resources, such as nutrient availability. We investigated the influence of nitrogen supply on aspects of the photosynthetic physiology and growth of seedlings of four dipterocarp species (Shorea leprosula, Shorea johorensis, Shorea oleosa and Dryobalanops lanceolata) growing under low irradiance, during transfer from low to high irradiance, and during subsequent growth at high irradiance. All four species increased growth and photosynthetic capacity in response to N-supply at high irradiances but not at low irradiance approximating that which can be expected to occur in the forest understorey. When seedlings grown at low irradiances and varying N-supply were exposed to a large increase in irradiance, all species showed some degree of initial photodamage (measured through chlorophyll fluorescence), the extent of which was similar between species but differed markedly depending on the pre-exposure growth irradiance and N-supply. Greater photodamage occurred in seedlings grown at lower compared with higher N-supply and irradiance. Despite these initial difference in the extent of this photodamage, all seedlings demonstrated a similar capacity to recover from damage. However, the alterations in the photosynthetic physiology of leaves during this recovery differed between species and depended on N-supply. Under high N-supply all species apart from S. oleosa increased photosynthetic capacity per unit chlorophyll following exposure to high irradiance by increasing photosynthetic capacity per unit leaf area while, under low N-supply, an increase in photosynthetic capacity per unit leaf only occurred in D. lanceolata. Our results suggest that variations in N-availability may have a much greater impact on the relative competitiveness of dipterocarp seedlings during the regenerative phase following canopy gap formation than physiological differences between seedlings. Our results demonstrate a potentially significant role for N-availability in the regeneration dynamics and distribution of canopy-dominating dipterocarp species.

Natural dipterocarp seedling stock is usually very scarce or totally absent from heavily logged dipterocarp forests which have been subjected to shifting cultivation. Instead, a dense cover of secondary forest of low commercial or ecological value prevails. These logged-over low-volume forests can either be converted into plantations or restocked by local, valuable timber. The aim of this study was to obtain information on appropriate silvicultural methods for restocking such secondary forests with dipterocarps, with particular emphasis on the most commonly applied line planting method. We studied the main factors affecting line planting success, i.e. planting direction, line width and method of maintenance during a 2 year critical period of seedling establishment. The species used, Shorea johorensis, Shorea leprosula and Shorea parvifolia, are of the light red meranti timber group. This type of timber is the main source of veneer and plywood. The experiments were established within an active logging concession area, in a secondary forest previously subjected to shifting cultivation. Planting stock was produced utilising locally collected wildings which were hardened at a nursery before planting. The trials were arranged in a randomised complete block design with four replications. Seedlings were planted in a line opened up in the secondary forest in order to allow overhead light to reach the forest floor. Four line directions (N-S, E-W, SW-NE and SE-NW), four line widths (0, 1, 2 and 3 m) and four line maintenance methods (vertical, horizontal, vertical + horizontal and control) were applied. Survival, height and diameter increment were measured for a period of 2 years after planting and compared using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the associated aposteriori comparison of means (LSD-test). Line direction seems to have little effect on survival or growth rate of the species studied. Regarding the growth rate, SE-NW was the best planting direction for S. johorensis. Line width did not affect the survival of the species. However, its effect on growth was very clear: growth depends heavily on the amount of overhead light, which in turn can be controlled by line width. The growth of S. johorensis and S. parvifolia benefitted from line maintenance. Horizontal maintenance is better than vertical. No effect on survival was found. We suggest Shorea species should not be planted under the canopy as this clearly retards growth. A 2-m-wide planting line is recommended. Sufficient overhead light should be maintained by means of horizontal tending. Vertical tending did not give a positive reaction. The three tested species reacted differently; differences between closely related species should be studied more in the future. Our results indicate good prospects for line planting of dipterocarps in secondary low-volume forests. With the observed annual volume increment of 8–17 m3 ha−1 year−1 and current high prices of red meranti timber, planting of dipterocarps is much more profitable than the commonly applied practice to convert low-volume forests into plantations of fast-growing exotic tree species.

The wood quality parameters of cell wall percentage, tissue proportions and basic specific gravity were determined for three naturally and nine plantation grown trees of Light Red Meranti (Shorea leprosula and S. parvifolia).

Antioxidant activity of crude methanol extracts of five Dipterocarpaceae species; Shorea ovalis (Meranti Kepong), Shorea resinosa (Meranti Belang), Shorea leprosula (Meranti Tembaga), Shorea acuminata (Meranti Rambai Daun) and Shorea macroptera (Meranti Melantai) from UiTM Jengka Forest Reserve were successfully being studied. The activities were determined by using four methods which are Total Phenolic Content (TPC) method, 1, 1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method, ferric thiocyanate (FTC) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) method. Among all the Shorea extracts analyzed, S. acuminata (Meranti Rambai Daun) showed the highest total phenolic content (2731.00 ± 0.09 mg GAE/ 100 g weight). A good correlation was found between the results of radical scavenging activity and total phenolic contents where S. acuminata (Meranti Rambai Daun) containing the highest total phenolic contents exhibited the strongest antioxidants potential. Meanwhile, S. macroptera (Meranti Melantai) has indicated the highest antioxidant for the FTC and TBA methods, respectively. This study also revealed that antioxidant activities of these Malaysian Dipterocarpaceae species can be used as a potential source of natural antioxidants and may give new alternative for medical cure.

The purposes of this research are to know the influence of woods specific gravity and nail diameter to reference design value in double shear timber connections with steel side plates nail on four species of Indonesian commercial wood according to various approximation analysis. Analysis is done to four values and it is compared with other research that has been done. This research result from testing which have done by Ziannita (2009) referred as approach of A; result of research of Sadiyo and Sriyanto (2009) and Mansur (2009) referred as approach of B; values referring at literature referred as approach of C and compressive-joint total load divided by nail amount and factor of safety referred as approach of D (Sadiyo and Sriyanto, 2009 and Mansur, 2009). Joint done by using four species of Indonesian commercial wood which is meranti merah (Shorea leprosula), mabang (Shorea pachyphylla), kempas (Koompassia malaccensis) and bangkirai (Shorea laevifolia). Nails that applied in this research are nail with diameter of 4.1 mm length of 10 cm, nail with diameter of 5.2 mm length of 12.5 cm and nail with diameter of 5.5 mm length of 15 cm. The calculation of this research is done according to National Design Specification for Wood Construction-2005. Analysis results indicate that wood specific gravity influence the strength of connection, excelsior wood specific gravity will produce high strength of connection also. This can be influenced by mechanical properties from wood such as maximum crushing strength. Bangkirai have higher specific gravity than three others wood but result approach of D shows that the connections assess reference design value which is lower compared with two other woods (kempas and mabang wood). Then, the bigger on nail diameter brings bigger strength of connection also, but this thing depends on the conditions from nail and quality of nail materials. Key words: compression loading, double shear connections, nail, reference design value, steel side plates.

1 This paper reports on changes in photosynthetic induction and stomatal conductance (g,) in response to (i) continuous saturating light and (ii) darkness, for seedlings of two climax tree species (Shorea leprosula and Dryobalanops lanceolata, Dipterocarpaceae) growing in three differing rain forest light environments (ranging from 2 4 to 21 8 mol photon m-2 day-') in Malaysian Borneo. 2 For some species in understorey environments, a high proportion of diurnal carbon gain is attained during sunflecks (transient periods of high light), and D. lanceolata is slower growing than S. leprosula but its seedlings can survive under deeper shade conditions. Our aim was to determine whether interspecific differences in dynamic photosynthetic responses to light could further explain observed differences in seedling ecology. 3 In contrast to the expected trend for shade-tolerant species, D. lanceolata showed faster induction in higher light environments and S. leprosula showed no relationship between light environment and induction rate. However, both species showed greater potential sunfleck utilization efficiency in low light environments through slower rates of both induction loss and stomatal closure. 4 Shorea leprosula attained greater rates of maximal photosynthesis and gs, had faster rates of induction and retained a higher level of induction in prolonged darkness (> 30 min) than D. lanceolata in all light environments. However, S. keprosula showed faster induction loss and stomatal closure in the short term (10 min) than D. lanceolata, which, together with a potentially negative carbon balance between sunflecks, may limit its distribution to microsites of higher sunfleck frequency. 5 The balance between photosynthesis (A) and gs during induction resulted in a constant intercellular CO2 concentration of c. 270 p.p.m. after c. 11 min, which may represent a physiological optimum for both species. 6 In some circumstances transient peaks in A and ga were observed during induction, rather than a rise to a stable maximum, which we attribute to overcompensation of the stomatal response to light. In some cases for S. leprosula this initiated synchronized damped oscillations in gs and A that continued for c. 1 h in both continuous and discontinuous (80-s light/80-s dark) light. 7 Shorea leprosula plants with the ability to 'peak' or oscillate had the potential to increase both the rate and magnitude of response to sunflecks in comparison with simple sigmoidal induction.

Foliar phosphorus content and mycorrhizal infection of dipterocarp seedlings growing in a 61-year-old forest plantation (site A) and a selectively logged forest (site B) were determined. Mycorrhizal infection levels were high−83.7% forShorea bracteolata and 95.0% forS. leprosula at site A, and 77.8% forS. leprosula and 86.3% forS. curtisii at site B. The seedlings all had similar foliar phosphorus contents although available soil phosphorus at site B was half that at site A. Significant correlations were obtained between foliar phosphorus content and percentage mycorrhizal infection at site B only.

Two-steps utilization of residual Shorea wood biomass (Meranti) from saw mill industry in Balikpapan, East Kalimantan, Indonesia was studied to point out its potential as the feedstock for the production of food and energy. For this purposes, oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus was cultivated on mixed sawdust of Shorea wood (major species; Shorea leprosula ), and then the residual wood obtained from mushroom production (spent waste) was subjected to methane fermentation by mixing with cow dung in two steps utilization process. The effects of the bio treatment on biogas production and correlation with compositional changes in the wood by mushroom cultivation were evaluated. P. ostreatus preferentially decomposed lignin in the tropical wood with high productivity of matured fruiting body. During 44 days, fruiting bodies were harvested and collected four times, and lignin and holocellulose in the Shorea wood decreased by 24.7% and 15.8%, respectively. Biological activity expressed as yields of the fruiting body was the maximum at the first flush, and decreased gradually. In methane fermentation, addition of pretreated wood waste increased production of biogas by 2-3 times higher than those without the bio-treated wood. The combination of mushroom and biogas production of residual Shorea wood biomass creates a new industrial application of unutilized wood biomass from tropical rainforests, with a great deal of advantages supplying value-added foodstuff and also renewable energy for the local community.