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Exclusion zones, like protected areas or setback distances, are the most common policy instrument to mitigate environmental impacts of human land-use, including the deployment of renewable energy sources. While exclusion zones may provide environmental benefits, they may also bring about opportunity costs. This paper aims to understand and quantify the drivers determining the opportunity costs related to environmental exclusion zones. Using a simple analytical model, we propose that opportunity costs of exclusion zones can be decomposed into a substitution effect (because production is shifted to sites with higher or lower marginal production costs) and an output effect (because more sites may be needed to satisfy demand for produced goods). We provide a numerical illustration for the opportunity costs for two examples of environmental exclusion zones - setback distances to settlements and forest bans - which are implemented for wind power deployment in Germany. The numerical illustration builds on a spatially explicit optimization model using GIS data for more than 100,000 potential wind turbine sites in Germany. Our analysis reveals that opportunity costs may primarily arise in terms of higher local environmental impacts of wind power generation. Opportunity costs are mainly due to the output effect for setback distances, and the substitution effect for forest bans. We also show that the actual sign and size of opportunity costs depends a lot on the cost criteria under consideration as well as the type and stringency of the environmental exclusion zone. Our analysis emphasizes the importance to properly understand possible opportunity costs, and compare them carefully with possible benefits when implementing exclusion zones. Interestingly, our analysis also shows that very restrictive setback distances may not be recommendable at all: In our analysis they turn out to increase the total disamenity costs produced by wind power deployment - contrary to the policy objective pursued by this instrument. We believe that our analytical insights are also helpful when thinking about the impacts of environmental exclusion zones applied to other fields of environmental policy, such as urban development or agriculture.

espanolEste articulo se centra en el analisis de los mecanismos de creacion y reclamacion de areas de uso colectivo en la Edad Media, a traves del caso de los devasos de Ciudad Rodrigo. Se trata de un conjunto de espacios destinados preferentemente al pasto del ganado y a la recoleccion de lena, a los que tenian acceso los habitantes de la villa de Ciudad Rodrigo y los vecinos de las aldeas adyacentes (comarcanos). El uso combinado del registro arqueologico y de las fuentes escritas, aplicado a los siglos xi al xv, ha permitido observar los medios de reclamacion de los derechos comunales sobre esos espacios. Se plantea la hipotesis de que se utilizaran inicialmente estrategias de sacralizacion mediante enterramientos que vinculaban el territorio a los antepasados que mas tarde se construyeran para ese fin edificaciones con funciones religiosas, pequenas iglesias que no fueron parroquias. Esta utilizacion de lo sagrado coexistio con la progresiva identificacion de los devasos como propiedades concejiles como consecuencia de la afirmacion del poder del concejo de Ciudad Rodrigo. EnglishThis paper focuses on the analysis of the ways which areas of collective use were created and claimed in the Middle Ages, through the case of the devasos of Ciudad Rodrigo. They were lands used preferentially to the grazing of cattle and to the collection of firewood; the inhabitants of the town of Ciudad Rodrigo as well as the neighbours of the villages that surrounded those areas had rights of entitlement to access. The means of claiming communal rights over those spaces between eleventh and fifteenth centuries have been studied thanks to a combination of archaeological record and written sources. The main hypothesis is the use of a claiming strategy based on sacralisation. First, burials linked the territory to the ancestors during early Middle Ages, and after the construction of buildings with religious functions, small churches that were not parishes, would have been a key to preserve the commons. Those politics of the sacred coexisted with the progressive identification of the devasos as properties of the council as a result of the affirmation of the power of the town of Ciudad Rodrigo.

espanolEn este articulo se pretende analizar la gestion de los espacios de pastura en la region fronteriza entre Cataluna, Aragon y Valencia durante los siglos xii-xiv. Desde la conquista cristiana de los siglos xii y xiii, la sociedad rural que se articula en los limites de estas tres entidades politicas se integra en un modelo economico determinado por la ganaderia. Primero, la monarquia y los senores favorecen la creacion de un gran espacio ganadero y, a medida que se aleja la frontera con los musulmanes, la ganaderia se convierte en la actividad economica principal de los habitantes de los concejos. Surgen, entonces, intereses contrapuestos entre los diferentes grupos sociales y emerge una conflictividad generalizada en la region que deriva del establecimiento de distintos usos y derechos sobre los pastos. De hecho, se arbitran diferentes sistemas de gestion comunal y privada de las pasturas y, progresivamente, las villas y las comunidades rurales adquieren una gran autonomia en su administracion por delegacion de los senores respectivos. Asi pues, nuestra intencion es analizar la evolucion de las diversas formas de gestion de los espacios de pastura y conocer la problematica derivada de su combinacion en el seno de una sociedad rural. EnglishIn this article, we analyse the management of pasturelands in the border areas of Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia during the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. As Muslim territories receded with the Christian conquest of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the monarchy and the feudal lords favoured the creation of a large livestock-producing area. Livestock thus became the main economic activity for people living in towns and rural communities along the borders of these three political areas. The establishment of diverse rights and uses related to pasturelands gave rise to confrontations among social groups and conflict throughout the region. As systems for communal and private management of pastures were negotiated, feudal lords increasingly delegated management to towns and rural communities, which gradually obtained greater autonomy. Our aim is to analyse the evolution, amalgamation and issues associated with pasture management systems in a rural society.

El objetivo principal de este texto es detectar y explicar los cambios en el uso del suelo habidos entre mediados del siglo XVIII y la víspera de la Guerra Civil española en Jerez de la Frontera (España). Un municipio caracterizado por su enorme extensión, el predominio de la trilogía mediterránea de secano (cereal, vid y olivo) y de la gran propiedad, así como de su reverso, la desigualdad y una fuerte tensión social. Para ello se realiza un análisis previo de las fuentes disponibles, del que se deduce una propuesta metodológica innovadora, consistente en agrupar dichas fuentes según su naturaleza, y utilizar preferentemente las de naturaleza catastral para el estudio del uso del suelo. The main objective of this paper is to detect and explain the changes in land use that occurred between the mid-18th century and the eve of the Spanish Civil War in Jerez de la Frontera (Spain). A municipality characterized by its enormous extension, the predominance of the Mediterranean trilogy of dry land (cereal, vine and olive) and large property, as well as of its reverse: inequality and strong social tension. For this, a prior analysis of the available sources is carried out, from which an innovative methodological proposal is deduced, consisting of grouping these sources according to their nature, and preferably using those of a cadastral nature for the study of land use.

Land registration and titling in Africa has been seen as a means of legal empowerment of the poor that can protect smallholders' and pastoralists' rights of access to land and other land-based resources. Land registration is also on the ethnojustice agenda in parts of Africa and beyond. Yet legal empowerment via registration and titling is also advocated by those who push for the market-enhancing and aggregate growth-promoting commodification of property rights, whereby market forces will transfer land out of the hands of smallholders and into the hands of 'those who can make most efficient or productive use of it'. This paper contrasts these different visions of legal empowerment, showing that each one, rather than offering a straight and clear path to pro-poor outcomes, entails powerful tensions and trade-offs. Registration and titling often have powerful redistributive implications. This helps to explain why debates over land law reform in general, and over registration and titling in particular, have been divisive in some African countries. The analysis highlights some of the broader political, institutional, and economic forces that shape the design and outcomes of land law reforms that may be undertaken (in part) to promote legal empowerment of the poor.

Denne artikkelen beskriver eiendomsstrukturen og bruksstrukturen for landbrukseiendommer i Rissa kommune og hvordan disse har endret seg de siste tiår fram til 2013. Den bruker data fra Statens Kartverk og Statens Landbruksforvaltning til dette. Nøkkelinformanter i kommunen er benyttet til å karakterisere endringer i landbruket i kommunen og å forklare noen av disse endringene. Jeg drøfter også en del mulige virkninger av endringer i landbrukspolitikken og hvordan disse har påvirket bruksstrukturen og insentivene til å holde jorda i god hevd. Det har foregått er rask omstilling i jordbruket i kommunen fra mange små melkeproduksjonsbruk til konsentrasjon av det meste av denne produksjonen på noen større bruk med melke-roboter. Denne prosessen har gått raskere gjennom etablering av mange samdrifter, omsettbare melkekvoter og økende omfang av jordleie. Det er ting som tyder på at en del leiejord forfaller på grunn av manglende insitamenter til å drenere jorda mens store maskiner og tidspress kombinert med dårlig vær kan gi kjøreskader og synkende avlinger. En del informanter mener at overgangen fra vekstskifte til mer ensidig korn og grasproduksjon også kan ha bidratt til synkende avlinger, men det mangler gode data til å fastslå dette. Høye arealtilskudd og mindre vektlegging på avling kan også ha bidratt til at noen spekulerer i å leie inn mer jord enn de klarer å forvalte på en god måte da arealtilskuddet er høyere enn leia de må betale.

Omfanget av jordleie og bruksstruktur for tre norske kommuner (Norddal, Rissa og Ås) fra tre ulike landsdeler sammenlignes for årene 2004 og 2013 basert på data fra Statens Landbruksforvaltning (produksjonstilskudd) og Statens Kartverk (eid areal). Ås antas å være typisk for kornproduksjon på Østlandet, Rissa er typisk for Midt-Norge hvor melkeproduksjon dominerer, og Norddal er en typisk Vestlandskommune med topografiske utfordringer. Vi finner at omfanget av jordleie har økt særlig i Norddal og Rissa i denne perioden. Jordleie, omsettbare melkekvoter, ny teknologi og organisasjonsformer (samdrifter) har bidratt til å skape større og mer rasjonelle driftsenheter mer uavhengig fra eierstrukturen enn tidligere. Nøkkelord

Este trabajo analiza las estrategias empleadas por el Cabildo de Tenerife en la gestión de la dehesa de La Laguna y sus repercusiones a largo plazo en la composición social del campesinado de la ciudad. Durante el siglo XVI el interés del Cabildo por aumentar sus ingresos favoreció un modelo de explotación de la dehesa basado en el cultivo del cereal en régimen de rotación bienal, con aprovechamiento comunal de barbechos y rastrojos y subastas anuales de las tierras orientadas al pequeño campesinado. A mediados del XVII la producción se derrumbó y el colapso de sus rentas llevó al Cabildo a cambiar de estrategia, modificando el sistema de cesión a fin de permitir la introducción de mejoras en el cultivo. Esta mudanza aceleró el desarrollo de un grupo de labradores acomodados que acabó capitalizando la explotación de la dehesa. Los labradores acomodados introdujeron nuevos cultivos, sistemas de rotación más complejos y un uso más eficiente del suelo cultivable, pero la mejora supuso también la práctica erradicación de los aprovechamientos comunales. This work analyses the strategies applied by the Council [Ancien Regime local authority] of Tenerife in the management of the Dehesa [enclosed common lands] and their long-term repercussions on the social profile of the peasantry. The Council sought to increase its revenues in the sixteenth century by promoting grain cultivation on a biennial rotation schedule, with communal use of fallow land and stubble, along with annual land auctions oriented toward the small peasantry. When grain production collapsed in the mid‐seventeenth century, diminishing revenues led the Council of Tenerife to change its strategy. The land transfer system was modified in order to facilitate the introduction of agricultural improvements, which favoured the development of a group of prospe‐rous farmers who eventually capitalised the cultivation of the common lands. They introduced new crops, more complex crop rotation systems and more efficient land use for cultivation; but these improvements virtually eradicated the communal use of the Dehesa.

Protected areas are a cornerstone of forest conservation in developing countries. Yet we know little about their effects on forest cover change or the socioeconomic status of local communities, and even less about the relationship between these effects. This paper assesses whether 'win-win' scenarios are possible-that is, whether protected areas can both stem forest cover change and alleviate poverty. We examine protected areas in the Peruvian Amazon using high-resolution satellite images and household-level survey data for the early 2000s. To control for protected areas nonrandom siting, we rely on quasi-experimental (matching) methods. We find that the average protected area reduces forest cover change. We do not find a robust effect on local communities. Protected areas that allow sustainable extractive activities are more effective in reducing forest cover change but less effective in delivering win-win outcomes.

Land is an essential but limited natural resource. We employ the concept of stocks to analyse driving forces for land-use conversion and to assess, whether the German political "30- hectares-goal" is feasible given the current institutional setting. In this paper major driving forces for land-use conversion are identified and underlying stocks and persistent institutional structures as well as their dynamics are investigated. It will be shown that meeting the 30- hectares-goal is unlikely. We further argue that due to persistent stocks and institutional structures land-use conversion from agricultural into urbanised land takes place on smaller time scales than its reconversion. We conclude that demographic change and regional migration processes may result in further land-use conversion even with declining population. Economic structural change as well as an increasing traffic volume will likewise contribute to further land-use conversion.

The goal of this work is to investigate land-use change at the global scale over the long run - particularly in the context of analyzing the fundamental drivers behind land-use related GHG emissions. For this purpose, we identify the most important drivers of supply and demand for land. On the demand side, we begin with a dynamic general equilibrium (GE) model that predicts economic growth in each region of the world, based on exogenous projections of population, skilled and unskilled labor and technical change. Economy-wide growth is, in turn, translated into consumer demand for specific products using an econometrically estimated, international cross-section, demand system that permits us to predict the pattern of future consumer demands across the development spectrum. This is particularly important in the fast-growing, developing countries, where the composition of consumer demand is changing rapidly. These countries also account for an increasing share of global economic growth and greenhouse gas emissions. Consumer demand is translated into derived demands for land through a set of sectoral production functions that differentiate the demand for land by Agro-Ecological Zone (AEZ). The paper devotes considerable attention to modeling the supply of land to different land-using activities in the economy. In order to represent the competition for land among different sectors in the model, we disaggregated the land endowment in each region into Agro-Ecological Zones, drawing on the data base of Lee et al. (2005), to reflect the fact that land is heterogeneous endowment. To further restrict land mobility across uses, land supply within an AEZ is constrained via a nested Constant Elasticity of Transformation (CET) frontier. In the nested structure, land owner of particular type of land (AEZ) first decides on the allocation of land between agriculture and forestry to maximize the total returns from land. Then, based on the relative returns to land in crop and livestock production, the land owner decides on the allocation of land between these two broad types of agricultural activities. A soft link between our GE model and an intertemporal forestry model is included for better representation of forestry sector in GE model. To reflect the real world fact that deforestation represents an important source of land supply in the face of high demand, we also introduce the possibility of conversion of unmanaged forest land to land used in production. This is treated as an investment decision whereby new land is accessed only when present value of returns on land in a given region is high enough to cover the costs of accessing the new land. In equilibrium, the supply of land to each land-using activity adjusts to meet the derived demand for land. A set of projections for the long run supply and demand for land obtained with this model is a useful input to improving our understanding of land-related GHG emissions in the future.