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Funding Information: This project is funded by the South‐Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority, project number 2016033, and is in partnership with the Centre for Digital Life Norway, supported by the Research Council of Norway's grant 248810. Publisher Copyright: © 2021 The Authors. Journal of Neuroscience Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. Understanding and diagnosing cognitive impairment in epilepsy remains a prominent challenge. New etiological models suggest that cognitive difficulties might not be directly linked to seizure activity, but are rather a manifestation of a broader brain pathology. Consequently, treating seizures is not sufficient to alleviate cognitive symptoms, highlighting the need for novel diagnostic tools. Here, we investigated whether the organization of three intrinsic, resting-state functional connectivity networks was correlated with domain-specific cognitive test performance. Using individualized EEG source reconstruction and graph theory, we examined the association between network small worldness and cognitive test performance in 23 patients with focal epilepsy and 17 healthy controls, who underwent a series of standardized pencil-and-paper and digital cognitive tests. We observed that the specific networks robustly correlated with test performance in distinct cognitive domains. Specifically, correlations were evident between the default mode network and memory in patients, the central-executive network and executive functioning in controls, and the salience network and social cognition in both groups. Interestingly, the correlations were evident in both groups, but in different domains, suggesting an alteration in these functional neurocognitive networks in focal epilepsy. The present findings highlight the potential clinical relevance of functional brain network dysfunction in cognitive impairment.

The quality of the coach-athlete relationship is important to athlete development and overall performance in sport. To better enable coaches to foster this relationship, this study was designed to use an integrative personality framework (McAdams, 2013) to gain a deeper, more contextualized understanding of the athlete. Using a case study approach, two Division III collegiate soccer players completed a three-part survey that profiled these individuals as a social actor (layer one), motivated agent (layer two), and autobiographical author (layer three). Results are presented for each athlete, yielding rich, yet different, personality profiles. These profiles identify particular traits, motives, and personal stories that uniquely shape the personalities of these individuals. We discuss the efficacy of using McAdams’ framework as a guiding structure for helping elite coaches better understand their athletes and, subsequently, further develop the coach-athlete relationship. We also discuss the use of McAdams’ framework in the sport context and how it might provide useful insights for advancing the psychological profiling of athletes.

Introduction: The Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology Adolescent Version QIDS-A17-SR has never been used before as an instrument measuring major depressive disorder symptomatology among Tu...

As institutions continue to place value on developing leaders, it becomes increasingly important to effectively assess students’ leadership skills. The development and subsequent use of a formative competency based leader assessment was used with (N=124) sophomore students at a small military college in the Northeast United States with a mission toward leadership. Results highlight the effectiveness of a formative assessment to develop leader skills with an undergraduate population. Relevant application for institutions of higher learning will be discussed.

Objective To examine the sensitivity and specificity of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), a brief cognitive screening measure previously validated for use in Parkinson's disease (PD), and Alzheimer's Disease-8 (AD8), an eight-item informant report used to screen for dementia, but not yet validated for use in PD, to identify cognitive impairment in a sample of 111 patients with PD. Methods Cognitive impairment was determined based on a battery of neuropsychological measures, excluding the MoCA and AD8. Classification rates of both the MoCA and AD8 in identifying cognitive impairment were examined using logistic regression and receiver operator characteristic (ROC) analysis. Optimal cutoff scores were determined to maximize sensitivity and specificity. Results The MoCA correctly classified 78.4% of participants (p

BACKGROUND: Childhood depression is often chronic and recurrent, with only modest improvements after optimal treatments. Novel approaches are needed for accurate diagnosis, timely selection of the best treatment for childhood depression, and improvement of remission rates. An important part of diagnosis is to determine how many consistent dimensions underlie childhood depression and what impact treatment may have on these dimensions. OBJECTIVE: The goal of the current study is evaluate the consistency of the number of depressive symptom dimensions and examine the effect of depression treatment on the change in dimensions by seeing if this dimensional structure is the same for groups that were given a placebo and groups that were given an active drug, fluoxetine. METHODS: We examined a combined sample of three clinical trials data sets with a total of 269 placebo patients and 261 fluoxetine patients at baseline, and 253 placebo patients and 249 fluoxetine patients at exit. Principal components analysis with associated parallel analysis followed by a ProMax oblique rotation was conducted on each week's scores. The similarity of the rotated structures between treatments and between weeks was then assessed using Wrigley and Neuhaus' (1955) degree of factorial similarity measure, which is a correlation-like statistic that takes two solutions based upon the same measures and assesses how similar they are. RESULTS: Preliminary analysis indicated that mean scores of both treatment groups declined from baseline to exit, but the decline was greater for the fluoxetine group. There were four dimensions at baseline and two dimensions at exit in each treatment group. Hence the numbers of dimensions were the same in the two groups, whereas the content of the components was the same at baseline for the two groups, but was different at exit. Basically, the factorial similarities of the rotated factors were very high at baseline between the two groups for both factors (Ψ = 0.97 for factor I and 0.94 for factor II) before they were treated differently. However, at exit, the respective similarities dropped to 0.58 and −0.04 for factors I and II. Therefore, time had a large effect in changing both groups' factor structure, but it was especially large when there was an active treatment. CONCLUSIONS: In comparing the baseline and exit dimensions in a forced two factor solution of two treatment groups, it was revealed that treatment did have an impact on the change in dimensions. These results further the generality of the simplification of the factor structure of the Childhood Depression Rating Scale- Revised (CDRS-R) over time. In addition, these results show the effect of time and therapy on the factor structures. The fluoxetine group followed the trend of the content of the dimensions revealed in a previous study, whereas the placebo group had a less distinct change over time.

The current investigation serves to assess the usefulness, lessons learned, and leader development of eight male students in a senior level university leadership class based on reading and reflection. Thematic analysis of participants’ responses revealed three major themes to explain students’ lessons learned in leader development through journaling: (a) Relationship Development, (b) Technical Skill Development, and (c) Awareness Development. Support exists for the effectiveness of reading and reflection as a pedagogical tool for leader lesson development with a college-age sample.

Background This study examined smooth pursuit eye movement (SPEM), prepulse inhibition (PPI), and auditory event-related potentials (ERP) to paired stimuli as putative endophenotypes of psychosis across the schizophrenia-bipolar disorder dimension. Methods Sixty-four schizophrenia probands (SZP), 40 psychotic bipolar I disorder probands (BDP), 31 relatives of SZP (SZR), 26 relatives of BDP (BDR), and 53 healthy controls (HC) were tested. Standard clinical characterization, SPEM, PPI, and ERP measures were administered. Results There were no differences between either SZP and BDP or SZR and BDR on any of the SPEM, PPI, or ERP measure. Compared with HC, SZP and BDP had lower SPEM maintenance and predictive pursuit gain and ERP theta/alpha and beta magnitudes to the initial stimulus. PPI did not differ between the psychosis probands and HC. Compared with HC, SZR and BDR had lower predictive pursuit gain and ERP theta/alpha and beta magnitudes to the first stimulus with differences ranging from a significant to a trend level. Neither active symptoms severity nor concomitant medications were associated with neurophysiological outcomes. SPEM, PPI, and ERP scores had low intercorrelations. Conclusion These findings support SPEM predictive pursuit and lower frequency auditory ERP activity in a paired stimuli paradigm as putative endophenotypes of psychosis common to SZ and BD probands and relatives. PPI did not differ between the psychosis probands and HC. Future studies in larger scale psychosis family samples targeting putative psychosis endophenotypes and underlying molecular and genetic mediators may aid in the development of biology-based diagnostic definitions.

McCrae, Kurtz, Yamagata, and Terracciano (Personality and Social Psychology Review 15:28-50, 2011) presented data supporting the position that test-retest reliability is more important for methods of personality assessment than is internal-consistency reliability. We raise two points not adequately considered in their findings. First, not all personality assessment is concerned with assessing traits, for which temporal stability is clearly important. Much research (e.g., therapy outcome studies) is concerned with assessing states, in which an emphasis on temporal stability can lead to the underestimation of change. Second, we suggest that using the literature as a basis for their position causes the role of internal consistency to be underestimated. This is because manuscripts are frequently rejected because their measures possess low internal consistency, but are rarely rejected because of low temporal stability. Thus, the effects of internal consistency are range-restricted to an unknown amount, because investigators do not have access to studies that have been rejected due to low internal consistency.

There is debate regarding the dimensional versus categorical nature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study utilized confirmatory factor analysis to examine this issue. ADHD symptoms rated on interviews and rating scales from a large sample of individuals (ages 3-17, 74 % male, 75 % Caucasian) with ADHD were examined (n = 242). Four potential factor structures were tested to replicate prior findings in a sample with a wide age range and included only participants who met DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Correlations with executive function measures were performed to further assess the separability and validity of the derived factors. The data support a bifactor model with a general ADHD factor and two specific factors, inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Importantly, the individual factors were also differentially correlated with executive functioning measures. This study adds to a growing literature suggesting both a general component to ADHD, as well as dimensional traits of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity, associated with distinct executive functioning profiles. The presence of a general underlying factor contraindicates separating the inattentive and combined subtypes of ADHD into distinct disorders.

This study examines the psychometric properties of alcohol expectancies among Hispanic subgroups. Face-to-face interviews were conducted as part of the 2006 Hispanic Americans Baseline Alcohol Survey (HABLAS), which employed a multistage cluster sample design. A total of 5,224 individuals (18+ years of age) representing four Hispanic national groups (Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, Mexican Americans, and South/Central Americans) were selected at random from the household population in five metropolitan areas (Miami, New York, Philadelphia, Houston, and Los Angeles). Alcohol expectancies included 18 items covering positive (e.g., laugh more, become more talkative) and negative dimensions (e.g., become aggressive, lose control) when alcohol is consumed. Confirmatory factor models replicated a previously proposed three-factor dimensional structure with a substantial majority of items exhibiting measurement invariance across Hispanic national group and gender. Items covering social extroversion were an exception, showing a lack of invariance for female Cuban and South/Central Americans. Latent mean differences across groups were detected for expectancies concerning emotional fluidity, and the pattern of differences largely mirrored known differences in alcohol consumption patterns. Results suggest that caution should be exercised in interpreting differences in expectancies concerning social extroversion across Hispanic groups, and additional work is needed to identify indices of this construct with invariant measurement properties. However, measures of emotional/behavioral impairment and emotional fluidity expectancies can be validly compared across gender and Hispanic national groups.

A major difficulty associated with the diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) is that it cannot be unequivocally tied to observable bodily functions in the sense that a condition like hypertension can be described in terms of elevated blood pressure. Thus, MDD exemplifies what is called a ‘latent variable’, ‘inferred variable’ or ‘construct’. Creation of scales to measure MDD symptomatology in adult populations is a popular line of research. The traditional approaches to constructing and evaluating scales are known as classical test theory, but modern test theory – more specifically, item response theory – offers some advantages. One useful feature is the ability to equate a score of X on scale A with a score of Y on scale B. Both classical test theory and item response theory are examined in this review. Perhaps the main point is that scales for depression, whether based upon self reporting or clinician rating, use fairly similar item content so that they are more similar than different. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to review the general considerations involved in constructing depression scales, which applies to the many other latent variables studied in psychiatry, and to compare important factors regarding the utility of scales for research and clinical practice.

Objective: The clinician-rated (QIDS-C16) and self-report (QIDS-SR16) versions of the 16-item Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology have been extensively examined in adult populations. This study evaluated both versions of the QIDS and the 17-item Children's Depressive Rating Scale – Revised (CDRS-R) in an adolescent outpatient sample. Method: Both the QIDS-C16 and QIDS-SR16 were completed for the adolescents. Three different methods were used to complete the QIDS-C16: (a) adolescents' responses to clinician interviews; (b) parents' responses to clinician interview; and (c) a composite score using the most pathological response from the two interviews. Both classical and item response theory methods were used. Factor analyses evaluated the dimensionality of each scale. Results: The sample included 140 adolescent outpatients. All versions of the QIDS, save the parent interview, and the CDRS-R were very reliable (α ≥ 0.8). All four versions of the QIDS are reasonably effective and unidimensional. The CDRS-R was clearly at least two-dimensional. The CDRS-R was the most discriminating among low and extremely high levels of depression. The QIDS-SR16 was the most discriminating at moderate levels of depression. There was no relation between the QIDS scores and concurrent Axis III comorbidities. Conclusion: The QIDS-C16 and the QIDS-SR16 are suitable for use in adolescents. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Introduction: The clinical and self-report versions of the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS-C16 and QIDS-SR16) have been well studied in patients with major depressive disorder and in one recent study using patients with bipolar disorder. This article examines these measures in a second sample of 141 outpatients with bipolar disorder in different phases of the illness. Methods: At baseline, 61 patients were depressed and 30 were euthymic; at exit, 50 were depressed and 52 were euthymic. The remaining patients (at baseline or exit) were in either a manic or mixed phase and were pooled for statistical reasons. Results: Similar results were found for the QIDS-C16 and QIDS-SR16. Scores were reasonably reliable to the extent that variability within groups permitted. As expected, euthymic patients showed less depressive symptomatology than depressed patients. Sad mood and general interest were tne most discriminating symptoms between depressed and euthymic phases. Changes in illness phase (baseline to exit) were associated with substantial changes in scores. The relation of individual depressive symptoms to the overall level of depression was consistent across phases. Conclusion: Both the QIDS-SR16 and QIDS-C16 are suitable measures of depressive symptoms in patients with bipolar disorder.

Doraiswamy PM, Bernstein IH, Rush AJ, Kyutoku Y, Carmody TJ, Macleod L, Venkatraman S, Burks M, Stegman D, Witte B, Trivedi MH. Diagnostic utility of the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS-C16 and QIDS-SR16) in the elderly. Objective: To evaluate psychometric properties and comparability ability of the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) vs. the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology–Clinician-rated (QIDS-C16) and Self-report (QIDS-SR16) scales to detect a current major depressive episode in the elderly. Method: Community and clinic subjects (age ≥60 years) were administered the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) for DSM-IV and three depression scales randomly. Statistics included classical test and Samejima item response theories, factor analyzes, and receiver operating characteristic methods. Results: In 229 elderly patients (mean age = 73 years, 39% male, 54% current depression), all three scales were unidimensional and with nearly equal Cronbach α reliability (0.85–0.89). Each scale discriminated persons with major depression from the non-depressed, but the QIDS-C16 was slightly more accurate. Conclusion: All three tests are valid for detecting geriatric major depression with the QIDS-C16 being slightly better. Self-rated QIDS-SR16 is recommended as a screening tool as it is least expensive and least time consuming.

Treatment studies are lacking for patients with bipolar II disorder (BDII). The objective of this study was to compare lamotrigine (LTG) and lithium (Li) monotherapy for the treatment of BDII depression.Patients with BDII acute depression were randomized to open-label monotherapy with LTG or Li, and evaluated by trained raters blinded to treatment. Patients were titrated to 200 mg/day of LTG over 8 weeks or at least 900 mg/day of Li over 2 weeks (serum level 0.6-1.2 mEq/L), and seen biweekly for 16 weeks. The primary outcome variable was change in the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale 17-item (Ham-D(17)), evaluated using mixed effects random regression.Both groups showed significant improvement from baseline to endpoint on the Ham-D(17) (p0.0001), with no between group differences (p=0.95). Seventy-two percent of the population was rapid cycling by DSM-IV criteria. No differences in response were noted between rapid cyclers and non-rapid cyclers. Early termination for any cause was 42%. The Li group reported significantly more side effects, although drop-out due to side effects did not differ between groups.This study was limited by an open treatment design, a lack of placebo arm, and uneven treatment groups.Lamotrigine and lithium were effective monotherapy for BDII depression, with comparable response and remission rates. Naturalistic design and lack of placebo limit conclusions, though patient history indicated long standing depression unlikely to be alleviated by time. Patients who received Li reported more side effects, but this did not appear to impact drop-out rates.

Objective: This study compared the psychometric properties of the Children's Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R) and the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) in children with major depressive disorder. Method: Children ( N = 96; ages 8 to 11 years inclusive) with nonpsychotic major depressive disorder were enrolled. Participants were part of a multisite, outpatient, randomized, placebo-controlled, 9-week trial of fluoxetine (10 mg/day for the first week and 20 mg/day thereafter). The CDRS-R and MADRS were completed based on clinician interviews with both parents and children. Classic test theory and item response theory analyses were conducted. Results: The MADRS and CDRS-R total scores were correlated at baseline ( r = 0.51) and at study exit ( r = 0.85). Cronbach's α was .86 (CDRS-R) and .82 (MADRS) at exit. The effect sizes for change from baseline to exit between the fluoxetine and placebo groups were 0.78 (CDRS-R) and 0.61 (MADRS). There was agreement between the CDRS-R and MADRS in the declaration of treatment response (50% improvement from baseline to exit) in 84.2% of children. Test information function favored the CDRS-R. Conclusions: The CDRS-R showed greater effect size for differentiating drug and placebo and better test information than the MADRS in this study of depressed children.

The 17-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD(17)) and the Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) are two widely used clinician-rated symptom scales. A 6-item version of the HRSD (HRSD(6)) was created by Bech to address the psychometric limitations of the HRSD(17). The psychometric properties of these measures were compared using classical test theory (CTT) and item response theory (IRT) methods. IRT methods were used to equate total scores on any two scales. Data from two distinctly different outpatient studies of nonpsychotic major depression: a 12-month study of highly treatment-resistant patients (n=233) and an 8-week acute phase drug treatment trial (n=985) were used for robustness of results. MADRS and HRSD(6) items generally contributed more to the measurement of depression than HRSD(17) items as shown by higher item-total correlations and higher IRT slope parameters. The MADRS and HRSD(6) were unifactorial while the HRSD(17) contained 2 factors. The MADRS showed about twice the precision in estimating depression as either the HRSD(17) or HRSD(6) for average severity of depression. An HRSD(17) of 7 corresponded to an 8 or 9 on the MADRS and 4 on the HRSD(6). The MADRS would be superior to the HRSD(17) in the conduct of clinical trials.

Background Nine DSM-IV-TR criterion symptom domains are evaluated to diagnose major depressive disorder (MDD). The Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS) provides an efficient assessment of these domains and is available as a clinician rating (QIDS-C 16 ), a self-report (QIDS-SR 16 ), and in an automated, interactive voice response (IVR) (QIDS-IVR 16 ) telephone system. This report compares the performance of these three versions of the QIDS and the 17-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD 17 ). Methods Data were acquired at baseline and exit from the first treatment step (citalopram) in the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) trial. Outpatients with nonpsychotic MDD who completed all four ratings within ±2 days were identified from the first 1500 STAR*D subjects. Both item response theory and classical test theory analyses were conducted. Results The three methods for obtaining QIDS data produced consistent findings regarding relationships between the nine symptom domains and overall depression, demonstrating interchangeability among the three methods. The HRSD 17 , while generally satisfactory, rarely utilized the full range of item scores, and evidence suggested multidimensional measurement properties. Conclusions In nonpsychotic MDD outpatients without overt cognitive impairment, clinician assessment of depression severity using either the QIDS-C 16 or HRSD 17 may be successfully replaced by either the self-report or IVR version of the QIDS.

Amaç: Öğrenci ağırlıklı Türk örneklemine uygulanan Türkçe’ye çevrilmiş 16 maddelik Hızlı Depresif Belirti Envanteri-Özbildirim Formu’nun (HDBE16-ÖF): a) Amerikalı üniversite öğrencilerine uygulanan orijinal Amerikan versiyonu (QIDS-SR_{16}-US) ve b) aynı Türk öğrenci örnekleminde Beck Depresyon Envanteri-II (BDI-II) ile karşılaştırılarak geçerlik ve güvenirliğinin ortaya konması amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmamız Türkiye ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri arasında yapılan bir kültürlerarası geçerlilik çalışmasıdır. Metod: Uludağ Üniversitesi yerleşkesi Aile Sağlığı Merkezi’ne ayaktan başvuran öğrenci ağırlıklı 626 hastaya; www.ids-qids.org adresinden ulaşılabilen ve kısmen modifiye edilerek Türkçe’ye çevrilen HDBE_{16}-ÖF ve BDI-II testleri uygulandı. Ayrıca Güneybatı Teksas Üniversitesi’nde HDBE16-ÖF envanterinin İngilizce orijinal versiyonu olan QIDS-SR_{16}-US 584 öğrenciye uygulanmıştır. Betimleyici istatistik, klasik açıklayıcı faktör analizi ve madde tepki kuramı analizleri, SAS ve MPlus istatistik programları ile yapılmıştır. Bulgular: Türk deneklerin ortalama yaşı 21,12,16 (standart sapma) olup %67,8’i kadındı. Türk öğrencilerin aile içi depresyon öyküsü: annede %29, babada %8, kardeşte %14, kendisinde %16 ve akrabada %5 olarak bulundu. Amerikalı deneklerden 225 olguda hiç yaş belirtilmemiş haldeyken ortalama yaş 20.03,5 (standart sapma) ve tüm deneklerin %63,6’sı kadın olarak saptandı. HDBE_{16}-ÖF’nın madde ortalaması 6,944,85 (standart sapma) bulundu. HDBE_{16}-ÖF’ün iç tutarlılık katsayısı (Cronbach ?) 0,78 idi ve ortalama madde-toplam korrelasyon katayısı 0,47 (0,33- 0,61) bulundu. QIDS-SR_{16}-US’nin kaşılaştırılabilir madde ortalaması 6,093,76, Cronbach ? 0,74, madde-toplam korrelasyon katsayısı 0,43 (0,24-0,54) olarak bulundu. Hem HDBE_{16}-ÖF hem de QIDS-SR_{16}-US tek boyutlu iken BDIII tek boyutlu olarak bulunmadı. HDBE_{16}’ün ve QIDS-SR_{16}-US’un madde-total korelasyon ortalaması birbirine benzerdi. BDI-II ile HDBE_{16}-ÖF arasındaki korelasyon katsayısı 0.72 bulundu, bu değer disattenüe edildiğinde 0.90’a çıkmaktaydı. Çoklu grup doğrulayıcı faktör analizi HDBE_{16}-ÖF ve QIDS-SR_{16}-US’un aynı faktör yüküne sahip olduğu farklı değişik eşiklerinin olduğunu ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu durum depresyon düzeyinde grup farklılıklarını ortaya koymaktadır. Türk deneklerin, Amerikalı deneklerden farklı olarak daha fazla depresyon geçirdikleri söylenebilir. Ayrıca HDBE_{16}-ÖF ve BDI-II’nın skorları birbirlerine eşitlenmiştir. Tartışma: HDBE_{16}-ÖF’ün, hem Türkiye hem de Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde depresyon tanısı için çok sık kullanılan BDI-II testi gibi iyi psikometrik özellikleri ve yapısal geçerliliği olduğu saptanmıştır. Pek çok ortamda HDBE_{16}-ÖF’ün kullanılmasını önermekteyiz. Objective: To evaluate the validity and reliability of the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, selfreported version, in a Turkish student sample (QIDS-SR_{16}-T) by comparing it to (a) the American version (QIDS-SR_{16}-US) and (b) the Turkish version of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II-T). Materials and Methods: Slightly modified versions of the QIDS-SR_{16}-T, and the BDI-II-T were administered to 626 outpatients at the Uludağ University campus-based family health center. The QIDS-SR_{16}-US was administered to 584 respondents at an American university. SAS and MPlus were used to provide descriptive statistics, classical exploratory factor analysis, and item response theory analyses (in the form of a multiple group confirmatory factor analysis). Results: The internal consistency (Cronbach α) of the QIDS-SR_{16}-T was 0.77. Both QIDS-SR_{16} versions were unidimensional, but the BDI-II-T was not. The mean QIDS-SR_{16}-T and QIDS-SR_{16}-US item-total correlations were similar. The correlation between the QIDS-SR_{16}-T and BDIII- T was 0.72 (.90 when disattenuated). Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis suggested that the QIDS-SR_{16}-T and QIDS-SR16-US had the same factor loadings but different intercepts. This reflects group differences in level of depression, perhaps because the Turkish respondents, unlike their US counterparts, were seen in a medical context where illness-related depression is more prevalent. Scores on the QIDS-SR_{16}-T and the BDI-II-T were also equated. Discussion: The QIDS-SR_{16}-T has good psychometric properties and convergent validity with the BDI-II-T. Its use is recommended when a self-reported instrument is appropriate.

Anhedonia or inability to experience pleasure not only is a core symptom of major depressive disorder (MDD), but also is identified as an important component of the positive valence system in the NIMH Research Domain Criteria. The Snaith–Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS) has been developed for the assessment of hedonic experience or positive valence, but has not been well-studied in depressed outpatient populations. The current study examined the reliability and validity of the SHAPS using a sample of adult outpatients with treatment resistant MDD. Data for the current study were obtained from 122 adult outpatients with a diagnosis of MDD and non-response to adequate treatment with an SSRI and who participated in Project TReatment with Exercise Augmentation for Depression (TREAD). A Principal Components Analysis was used to define the dimensionality of the SHAPS. Convergent and discriminant validity were evaluated via correlations of the SHAPS total score with “gold standard” measures of depression severity and quality of life. The SHAPS was found to have high internal consistency (Cronbach’s coefficient α = .82). A Principal Components Analysis suggests that the SHAPS is mainly “unidimensional” and limited to hedonic experience among adult outpatients with MDD. Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed by examining the Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient between the SHAPS total score and the HRSD(17) (r(s) = 0.22, p

Homeless adults are more likely to smoke tobacco and are less likely to successfully quit smoking than smokers in the general population, despite comparable numbers of cessation attempts and desire to quit. To date, studies that have examined smoking cessation in homeless samples have used traditional lab/clinic-based assessment methodologies. Real-time assessment of key variables may provide new insights into the process of quitting among homeless smokers.The purpose of the current study was to identify predictors of a quit attempt using real-time assessment methodology during the 6 days prior to a scheduled quit attempt among homeless adults seeking care at a shelter-based smoking cessation clinic. Parameters for multiple variables (i.e., motivation for quitting, smoking expectancies, quit self-efficacy, smoking urges, negative affect, positive affect, restlessness, hostility, and stress) were calculated and were used as predictors of biochemically verified quit date abstinence (i.e., ≥13hr abstinent) using logistic regression analyses.Participants (n = 57) were predominantly male (59.6%), non-White (68.4%), and smoked an average of 18 cigarettes per day. A total of 1,132 ecological momentary assessments (83% completion rate) were collected at random times (i.e., up to 4 assessments/day) during the 6 days prior to a scheduled quit attempt. Results indicated that declining (negative slope) negative affect, restlessness, and stress predicted quit date abstinence. Additionally, increasing positive coping expectancies across the prequit week predicted quit date abstinence.Study findings highlight multiple variables that may be targeted during the precessation period to increase smoking cessation attempts in this difficult to treat population of smokers.

The dimensionalities of the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) and the Dissociation Questionnaire (DIS-Q) have been explored by factor analysis by a number of investigators. The general claim is that both scales are multidimensional. However, we argue that, in both cases, this ap parent multidimensionality is a form of range restriction that arises because some symptoms are more common than other symptoms. As a result, the resulting subscales derived from the multifactor solutions are so highly intercorrelated as to be incapable of meaningful discriminant validity. The current findings support a more parsimonious single factor solution for both scales.

The Chronic Self-Destructiveness Scale (CSDS) was administered to 80 putativcly non-delinquent male high school students and to 101 delinquent males, revealing high internal consistency reliability for both groups. CSDS responses were factor analyzed independently, and separate three-dimensional oblique structures were found for each group. A major factor underlying the self-destructiveness of both groups involves alcohol use and other related risky behavior. For the high school males, two factors which distinguish between Active Responsibility and Passive Avoidance of duties also underlie their CSDS responses. The structure underlying self-destructiveness in delinquent males does not distinguish between active and passive forms of irresponsible behavior. An independent, ‘acting-out’ factor, which did not emerge for the normative sample, was interpreted for the delinquents. Interestingly, just as male delinquents may not distinguish between active and passive forms of neglecting responsibilities,...

Both the 17-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD(17)) and 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology - Clinician-rated (IDS-C(30) ) contain a subscale that assesses anxious symptoms. We used classical test theory and item response theory methods to assess and compare the psychometric properties of the two anxiety subscales (HRSD(ANX) and IDS-C(ANX)) in a large sample (N = 3453) of outpatients with non-psychotic major depressive disorder in the Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) study. Approximately 48% of evaluable participants had at least one concurrent anxiety disorder by the self-report Psychiatric Diagnostic Screening Questionnaire (PDSQ). The HRSD(ANX) and IDS-C(ANX) were highly correlated (r = 0.75) and both had moderate internal consistency given their limited number of items (HRSD(ANX) Cronbach's alpha = 0.48; IDS-C(ANX) Cronbach's alpha = 0.58). The optimal threshold for ascribing the presence/absence of anxious features was found at a total score of eight or nine for the HRSD(ANX) and seven or eight for the IDS-C(ANX) . It would seem beneficial to delete item 17 (loss of insight) from the HRSD(ANX) as it negatively correlated with the scale's total score. Both the HRSD(ANX) and IDS-C(ANX) subscales have acceptable psychometric properties and can be used to identify anxious features for clinical or research purposes.

The affect-cognition relationship and Zajonc's (1968) "mere exposure" hypothesis were examined in two studies that involved ratings of: (1) preference and familiarity for geometric forms previously scaled for complexity and (2) preference or height and familiarity for male yearbook pictures previously scaled for attractiveness or height. Two exceptions to his hypothesis were noted: simple geometric forms and unattractive faces showed satiation, and faces seen once before were rated more attractive than both novel faces and faces seen twice before. Moreover, mere exposure effects were noted with a nonaffective dimension (height). The major finding was that presentation frequency generally manifested independent relations to affect and rated familiarity, as well as to height and rated familiarity, therefore evoking a concurrent response process (Eriksen, 1960).

The aim of this study was to present the reliability and validity of the Children's Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R) in the adolescent age group.Adolescents with symptoms of depression were assessed using the CDRS-R and global severity and functioning scales at screening, baseline, and after 12 weeks of fluoxetine treatment. Global improvement was also assessed at week 12 (or exit). Reliability and validity were analyzed using Classical Test Theory (item-total correlations and internal consistency) and correlations between the CDRS-R and other outcomes.Adolescents (n = 145) were evaluated at screening; 113 (77.9%) met criteria for major depressive disorder, 8 (5.5%) had subthreshold depressive symptoms, and 24 (16.6%) had minimal depressive symptoms. Ninety-four adolescents had a baseline visit after 1 week, and 88 were treated with fluoxetine. Internal consistency for the CDRS-R was good at all three visits (screening: 0.79; baseline: 0.74; exit: 0.92), and total score was highly correlated with global severity (r = 0.87, 0.80, and 0.93; p 0.01). Only exit CDRS-R score was significantly correlated with global functioning (Children's Global Assessment Scale; r = -0.77; p 0.01). Reductions on the CDRS-R total score were highly correlated with improvement scores at exit (Clinical Global Impressions-Improvement; r = -0.83; p 0.01).The results demonstrate good reliability and validity in adolescents with depression.

Our objective was to evaluate the utility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) in both non-clinical and clinical populations. The MoCA, a tool used widely in clinical geriatric practice to detect and quantify cognitive impairment, was administered to three diverse samples to assess the psychometric properties of the instrument. Participants were 482 healthy persons seen in the Cooper Center Longitudinal Study (CCLS), 1923 healthy volunteers evaluated by the Dallas Heart Study (DHS), a population-based sample of Dallas County residents and 69 persons with known or suspected brain pathology, seen for clinical evaluation. The standard deviations in the CCLS and DHS groups were small (2.81, 3.87) and moderate in the clinical group (5.22). The corresponding raw coefficients alpha were. 50,. 63, and. 75. Thus, variability and internal consistency were associated. MoCA scores generally did not correlate with gender and correlated with age only in the clinical group. However, there were moderately strong positive correlations between MoCA scores and education in all three samples. The reliability of the MoCA was extremely low in the two non-clinical groups, but was high in the clinical group. Although useful in large non-clinical studies, the MoCA is best suited to detect and quantify cognitive impairment in clinical patients.

The clinician‐rated, 16‐item Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS‐C(16)) has been extensively evaluated in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). This report assesses the psychometric properties of the QIDS‐C(16) in outpatients with bipolar disorder (BD, N = 405) and MDD (N = 547) and in bipolar patients in the depressed phase only (BD‐D) (N = 99) enrolled in the Texas Medication Algorithm Project (TMAP) using classical test theory (CTT) and the Samejima graded item response theory (IRT) model. Values of coefficient alpha were very similar in BD, MDD, and BD‐D groups at baseline (α = 0.80–0.81) and at exit (α = 0.82–0.85). The QIDS‐C(16) was unidimensional for all three groups. MDD and BD‐D patients (n = 99) had comparable symptom levels. The BD‐D patients (n = 99) had the most, and bipolar patients in the manic phase had the least depressive symptoms at baseline. IRT analyses indicated that the QIDS‐C(16) was most sensitive to the measurement of depression for both MDD patients and for BD‐D patients in the average range. The QIDS‐C(16) is suitable for use with patients with BD and can be used as an outcome measure in trials enrolling both BD and MDD patients. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Several studies have compared the 16-item self-report version of the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS-SR16) with other depression scales, but none has used a sample of patients from a single, large, private psychiatric practice. This study compared ratings from 175 outpatients on the QIDS-SR16, the 17-item Carroll Depression Rating Scale (CDRS-SR17, a self-report modification of the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression), and the thirteen depression items from the Symptom Check List-90 (SCL-D13). The Mini version of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (MiniSCID) served as a "gold standard" for assessing depression.Basic item and scale statistics were obtained using classical test theory. Dimensionalities were obtained using factor analysis. Test information functions obtained from the Samejima item response theory model provided additional reliability-like results. This model was also used to compare patients classified as depressed versus nondepressed on the basis of the MiniSCID. Additional validity information was assessed comparing: (a) ANOVA effect sizes, (b) receiver operating characteristic curves, (c) univariate logistic regression, (d) the MANOVA, and (e) multivariate logistic regression.The QIDS-SR16 was found to be related most strongly to the MiniSCID diagnoses. The SCL-D13, however, was the most reliable of the three scales (alpha=0.91). It was the most sensitive to differences in depression for all but the most depressed patients, for whom the CDRS-SR17 was the most sensitive. The QIDS-SR16 was the most valid based on four different analyses (effect size/ANOVA, univariate logistic regression/ROC analysis, MANOVA, and multivariate logistic regression), although only slightly more so. The QIDS-SR16 was found to be unidimensional; its items cover only the nine diagnostic symptom domains used to characterize a DSM-IV-TR major depressive episode.All three measures performed satisfactorily, but there are clearly defined advantages to using the QIDS-SR16, as, by its very design, it assesses the core symptoms of depression and does not require a clinician.

Replication is made of Jacoby and Whitehouse's (1989) findings that short duration context stimuli induced false recognition of test stimuli when the 2 events matched one another, but that the reserve was true of longer duration context stimuli (i.e., matching led to fewer false―as well as true―old responses). Although they claimed their results supported unconscious perception, short exposure in this article was clearly supraliminal, that is, subjects judged the relation between context and test stimuli far in excess of chance

Eisen, Zellman, and McAlister proposed a 22-item scale to measure four Health Belief Model (HBM) constructs as applied to adolescent contraceptive behavior. Their factor analysis led them to conclude that there were several discrepancies in their proposed scales. We suggest that they were unduly pessimistic. Although their proposed scales could stand improvement, they are adequate preliminary tools. The major reason they concluded that the scales were deficient was that they applied criteria that are generally appropriate for continuous data to their inherently discrete (categorical) item response data. A secondary consideration is that confirmatory methods of factor analysis can yield results that bear more directly on their proposed organization of items than the traditional exploratory methods that they used. A reanalysis of their data suggests that their proposed scales have fewer problems than they believed they had. Our results increase the likelihood of standardizing HBM measures.Eisen, Zellman, and McAlister proposed a 22-item scale to measure four Health Belief Model (HBM) constructs as applied to adolescent contraceptive behavior. Their factor analysis led them to conclude that there were several discrepancies in their proposed scales. Bernstein and Keith suggest that they were unduly pessimistic. Although their proposed scales could stand improvement, they are adequate preliminary tools. The major reason they concluded that the scales were deficient was that they applied criteria that are generally appropriate for continuous data to their inherently discrete (categorical) item response data. A secondary consideration is that confirmatory methods of factor analysis can yield results that bear more directly on their proposed organization of items than the traditional exploratory methods that they used. A reanalysis of their data suggests that their proposed scales have fewer problems than they believed they had. Bernstein and Keith's results increase the likelihood of standardizing HBM measures.

In his response to our article, Baumeister argued that in real data, the confound between mtentem vanance and trait extremity is small (typically m the range of 0 and - 2), and that the danger of artifact associated with the application of median sphts to mtentem vanance is not as senous as our first simulation study would lead one to beheve When we examined a large body of actual personality data, employing personality scales of average reliability and relatively large samples, we found that the average magnitude of the confound was - 15 However, we also found that even a confound as small as - 03 could be associated witii significant differential range restnc- tion of the trait scores within subsamples produced by the median spht (MS) technique We note that several factors, not just the magnitude of the mter- ltem vanance/trait extremity confound, must be considered when assessmg the danger of artifact associated with the MS technique We again conclude that researchers should use die moderated multiple regression (MMR) tech- nique m preference to the MS technique when testing for moderating effects in personahty research

Personality moderating variables act to qualify the relationship between a personality trait measure and a relevant behavioral criterion. Two data analytic techniques that can be used to test for significant moderating effects are the “median split” (MS) approach and the “moderated multiple regression” (MMR) approach. The goals of the present research were (a) to apply the MS approach to computer-simulated data in which the moderator and trait extremity are confounded, to determine the extent of artifact, and (b) to compare the performance (Type I and Type II error rates) of the two approaches when applied to confounded and nonconfounded data. It was found that when the MS approach was applied to confounded data in which no real moderating effect existed, this approach produced an alarming rate of apparent, but spurious, moderating effects. When the MMR approach was applied to the same data, the rate of spurious effects was reduced to that expected by chance. When both approaches were applied to simulated data which contained genuine moderating effects, the MMR approach consistently resulted in more correct detections of these effects than the MS approach. We conclude that researchers should always employ the MMR rather than the MS approach when testing for personality moderator variable effects.

BACKGROUND Adolescent depression assessments are time-intensive, often requiring separate interviews with an adolescent and a parent/ informant. In adults, a self-rated, interactive voice response (IVR) version of the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS-IVR) has been shown to be reliable, valid, and sensitive to change. An adolescent version of the QIDS (QIDS-A-IVR) was created using speaker-independent voice recognition technology. An informant version, QIDS-P-IVR, collects ratings from parents or other knowledgeable adults. METHOD The study included 27 adolescents ranging from 12 to 17 years of age, 48% of whom were female. During a single office visit, adolescents completed the QIDS-A-IVR and parents completed the QIDS-P-IVR. A clinician completed the clinician-rated adult version of the QIDS separately for adolescents (QIDS-C-A) and parents (QIDS-C-P) and the Children's Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R). The study was conducted from October 2005 to April 2006. RESULTS Cronbach alpha of the QIDS-A-IVR was .85. The QIDS-A-IVR correlated significantly with the QIDS-C-A (r = 0.95) and the CDRS-R (r = 0.76), both p < .01. Conversely, the correlations of the QIDS-A-IVR with the QIDS-P-IVR and the QIDS-C-P were small and nonsignificant. The QIDS-A-IVR required adolescents a mean of 6 minutes and 31 seconds to complete (SD = 41 seconds). The voice recognition technology correctly identified the adolescents' spoken words in 92% of the 483 spoken responses. The system recognized a response from all adolescents on all items. CONCLUSIONS This study supports the reliability and validity of the QIDS-A-IVR as an adolescent depression measure. The QIDS-A-IVR may provide clinicians and researchers with a sound, technology-based method of assessing adolescent depression. Future research is needed on the informational value of parent ratings of adolescent depression.

Given the role of sleep in the development and treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD), it is becoming increasingly clear that elucidation of the biological mechanisms underlying sleep disturbances in MDD is crucial to improve treatment outcomes. Sleep disturbances are varied and can present as insomnia and/or hypersomnia. Though research has examined the biological underpinnings of insomnia in MDD, little is known about the role of biomarkers in hypersomnia associated with MDD. This paper examines biomarkers associated with changes in hypersomnia and insomnia and as predictors of improvements in sleep quality following exercise augmentation in persons with MDD. Subjects with non-remitted MDD were randomized to augmentation with one of two doses of aerobic exercise: 16 kilocalories per kilogram of body weight per week (KKW) or 4 KKW for 12 weeks. The four sleep-related items on the clinician-rated Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (sleep onset insomnia, mid-nocturnal insomnia, early morning insomnia and hypersomnia) assessed self-reported sleep quality. Inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were assessed in blood samples collected before and following the 12-week intervention. Reduction in hypersomnia was correlated with reductions in BDNF (ρ=0.26, P=0.029) and IL-1β (ρ=0.37, P=0.002). Changes in these biomarkers were not associated with changes in insomnia; however, lower baseline levels of IL-1β were predictive of greater improvements in insomnia (F=3.87, P=0.050). In conclusion, improvement in hypersomnia is related to reductions in inflammatory markers and BDNF in persons with non-remitted MDD. Distinct biological mechanisms may explain reductions in insomnia.

Objectives Recent work using classical test theory (CTT) and item response theory (IRT) has found that the self-report (QIDS-SR 16 ) and clinician-rated (QIDS-C 16 ) versions of the 16-item quick inventory of depressive symptomatology were generally comparable in outpatients with nonpsychotic major depressive disorder (MDD). This report extends this comparison to a less well-educated, more treatment-resistant sample that included more ethnic/racial minorities using IRT and selected classical test analyses. Methods The QIDS-SR 16 and QIDS-C 16 were obtained in a sample of 441 outpatients with nonpsychotic MDD seen in the public sector in the Texas Medication Algorithm Project (TMAP). The Samejima graded response IRT model was used to compare the QIDS-SR 16 and QIDS-C 16 . Results The nine symptom domains in the QIDS-SR 16 and QIDS-C 16 related well to overall depression. The slopes of the item response functions, a , which index the strength of relationship between overall depression and each symptom, were extremely similar with the two measures. Likewise, the CTT and IRT indices of symptom frequency (item means and locations of the item response functions, b i were also similar with these two measures. For example, sad mood and difficulty with concentration/decision making were highly related to the overall depression severity with both the QIDS-C 16 and QIDS-SR 16 . Likewise, sleeping difficulties were commonly reported, even though they were not as strongly related to overall magnitude of depression. Conclusion In this less educated, socially disadvantaged sample, differences between the QIDS-C 16 and QIDS-SR 16 were minor. The QIDS-SR 16 is a satisfactory substitute for the more time-consuming QIDS-C 16 in a broad range of adult, nonpsychotic, depressed outpatients.

To delineate quantitatively differences in suck-swallow-respiration coordination during feeding in term infants exposed to drugs in utero, 16 control infants (10 females, six males; mean birthweight 3209g, standard error of the mean [SEM] 103g) and 15 drug-exposed infants (seven females, eight males; seven cocaine, eight opiates; neonatal abstinence [Finnegan] scores less than 10; mean birthweight 3001g, SEM 93g) were studied in the first three days of life and again at one month of age. Coefficients of variation (COVs) of suck-suck, swallow-swallow, and breath-breath intervals were used as measures of stability of individual rhythms. COVs of suck-swallow and swallow-breath intervals were used to determine stability of multiply integrated rhythms. In the first three days of life, a significantly higher percentage of 'apneic swallows' (runs of three or more swallows not associated with breathing movements, divided by total run-swallows) was noted during feeding in the drug-exposed infants (mean 5.3% SEM 1.7%) compared with controls (mean 0.9%, SEM 0.4%;p

Buss and Perry (1992, Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452-459) developed a 29-item test that presumably measures four aggression-related dimensions (physical aggression, verbal aggression, hostility, and anger). This study examined the factor structure of the items with particular concern towards seeing how much of the structure previously noted was an artifact of differences in item distributions. Although the scales are intercorrelated to the point that they may not span four dimensions, the scales are in fact multivariate in that the structure is not an artifact of differences in item distributions found with other presumed multifactor scales.

Despite the seemingly endless news coverage of sensationalized stories of children as victims of shooting, kidnapping, and hostage situations, it has been noted that the empirical literature on the psychological sequelae of these experiences is rather meager (Forehand, Long, Zogg, & Parrish, 1989), and few longitudinal studies exist (Nader, Pynoos, Fairbanks, & Frederick, 1990). National crime statistics in the United States point out that between 25,000 and 100,000 children a year are the victims of parental kidnapping (Shetky & Haller, 1983), and in 1988 alone, between 200 and 300 children were kidnapped or held hostage by assailants unknown to them (Finkelhor, Hotaling, & Sedlak, 1990). Estimates suggest that over 3 million children annually witness violence in the home (Silvern & Kaersyang, 1989).

In two experiments, subjects made pairs of lexical decisions verbally. In Experiment 1, masked stimuli appeared concurrently to the left and right of fixation; in Experiment 2, nonmasked stimuli appeared sequentially at fixation. The left-hand letter strings were judged more accurately in in Experiment 1, and the second letter strings were judged more accurately in Experiment 2. Each string in the pair could be either a word (e.g., fork) or a nonword anagram (e.g., frok). Consequently, the two strings in the pair could be related (e.g., fork-spoon, frok-spoon, etc.) or unrelated (e.g., fork-door, frok-door, etc.), independently of whether neither, either, or both strings were words. Semantically related stimuli induced consistent biases to respond "word," as noted in other studies. These biases were typically stronger for the event reported second. Minimal evidence was found for perceptual priming effects. The asymmetrical effects were consistent with spreading-activation-type mechanisms, but other considerations support a multiple-process view.

The notion that narcotic addicts constitute a homogeneous class has little utility for research on etiology, prevention, and intervention. Historically, various classification schemes have been suggested, tailored to particular applications. In this paper a new typology of addict careers is developed, based on the concepts of opportunity and motivation to use narcotics. The question addressed is: During the first decade of addiction, how much time is occupied by (1) narcotic addiction, (2) incarceration, (3) nonaddiction in the community? Preaddiction correlates of the typology are examined in a sample of addicts who became known to police during the past quarter century.

The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger et al., 1970) originally divided anxiety into two factors: state anxiety, reflecting how an individual currently feels, and trait anxiety, reflecting how an individual generally feels. Recently, however, Spielberger revised his position to separate the presence and absence of anxiety symptoms within state and trait factors, yielding a hypothetical correlated 4-factor structure (Spielberger et al., 1980). Endler and Magnusson (1965) and Endler et al. (1976) have challenged the state vs trait distinction based upon their own factor analytical results. Since both sets of investigations used exploratory approaches, which do not postulate a particular factor structure, these studies do not provide an explicit test of the state vs trait distinction. A confirmatory factor analytic approach was used in the present study to evaluate Spielberger's 4-factor hypothesis. The subjects were large samples of male air force trainees and high school students for whom STAI data were available. The results of these confirmatory analyses indicated that the factors identified in exploratory analysis by Spielberger and his colleagues accounted for the data quite well.

Briefly presented, masked priming stimuli that cannot be identified by themselves can affect the processing of subsequent targets. The effect, which is sometimes viewed as a demonstration of unconscious processing, has been linked to the subliminal perception literature. Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that the identification of primes in the context of semantically related targets is superior to the identification of primes presented alone, and that the identification of primes in the context of semantically unrelated targets is inferior to the identification of primes presented alone. Experiment 3 indicated parallel findings in a recognition task. Consequently, an explanation of semantic priming in terms of the interactive nature of stimuli that are near to one another in time seems preferable to one based upon concepts of unconscious processing and subliminal perception.

In an experiment similar to one by Bernstein, Fisicaro, and Fox (1976), subjects were asked to judge the brightness of test stimuli in a metacontrast display. The energies of the test and of the mask varied orthogonally. Various experimental conditions differed with respect to the range of mask energies. Individually, the mask energies were generally weaker than the test energies. The results replicated the main findings of Bernstein et al. (1976) in that judgments of the test were negatively correlated with mask energy at short stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) but positively correlated at long SOA. These effects were more pronounced when the masks were similar in energy range and level to the tests than when they were wider in energy range and weaker. In general, there was no evidence for the effects of trial-to-trial variation described by Hake, Faust, McIntyre, and Murray