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Depression in early childhood increases risk of psychopathology and impairment across the lifespan. Parent–Child Interaction Therapy-Emotion Development (PCIT-ED) effectively treats depression and improves functioning in preschoolers. Parental depression has been associated with inconsistent parenting, depression onset and maintenance in offspring, and decreased treatment efficacy for youth. Given the intensity of parent involvement in PCIT-ED, this secondary data analysis aimed to evaluate parental depression severity (i.e., Beck Depression Inventory-II Total Score; BDI-II) as a moderator and predictor of child, parenting, and engagement outcomes, within the context of a randomized trial. Children (N = 229; ages 3–6.11) with early childhood depression and a consenting caregiver were randomly assigned to receive PCIT-ED or Waitlist (WL). Moderation results supported the superiority of PCIT-ED over WL on child and parenting outcomes, independent of parent-reported BDI-II at baseline (p ≥ 0.684 and p ≥ 0.476, respectively). BDI-II did not significantly predict child (p ≥ 0.836), parenting (p ≥ 0.114) or engagement (p ≥ 0.114) outcomes. Finally, BDI-II did not surpass chance in predicting whether children would maintain a depression diagnosis after PCIT-ED (AUC = 0.530) or prematurely terminate treatment (AUC = 0.545). Our results suggest that PCIT-ED is not contraindicated by minimal-to-moderate symptoms of depression in parents. Taken together with previous reports, PCIT-ED may indeed be a particularly beneficial treatment choice for this population. Further research in samples with more severe parental depression is needed. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02076425. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children classified as behaviorally inhibited (BI) are at risk for social anxiety. Risk for anxiety is moderated by both parental behavior and social–emotional competence. Grounded in developmental–transactional theory, the Turtle Program involves both parent and child treatment components delivered within the peer context. Our pilot work demonstrated beneficial effects of the Turtle Program ('Turtle') over a waitlist control group. Herein, we report results of a rigorous randomized controlled trial (RCT) comparing Turtle to the best available treatment for young children high in BI, Cool Little Kids (CLK). Methods: One hundred and fifty‐one parents and their 3.5‐ to 5‐year‐old children selected on the basis of BI were randomly assigned to Turtle or CLK, delivered in group format over 8 weeks. Effects on child anxiety, life interference, BI, and observed parenting were examined at post‐treatment and 1‐year follow‐up. ClinicalTrials.gov registration: NCT02308826. Results: No significant main effect differences were found between Turtle and CLK on child anxiety; children in both programs evidenced significant improvements in BI, anxiety severity, family accommodation, and child impairment. However, Turtle yielded increased observed warm/engaged parenting and decreased observed negative control, compared with CLK. Parental social anxiety moderated effects; parents with higher anxiety demonstrated diminished improvements in child impairment, and parent accommodation in CLK, but not in Turtle. Children of parents with higher anxiety demonstrated more improvements in child BI in Turtle, but not in CLK. Conclusions: Turtle and CLK are both effective early interventions for young children with BI. Turtle is more effective in improving parenting behaviors associated with the development and maintenance of child anxiety. Turtle also proved to be more effective than CLK for parents with social anxiety. Results suggest that Turtle should be recommended when parents have social anxiety; however, in the absence of parent anxiety, CLK may offer a more efficient treatment model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue consists of 23 articles focusing on parent socialization of emotion in children and adolescents as a transdiagnostic factor for the development of psychopathology. The papers in this special issue span various emotion socialization domains, methodologies, ages, and clinical and non-clinical populations, highlighting the promise, as well as complexities of, such transactional work. Our goals for this commentary include synthesizing the articles, highlighting common themes, and suggesting future research initiatives involving measurement, developmental, and cultural considerations. It is our hope that the research presented in this special issue will inspire future, high-quality research on this topic and ultimately improve outcomes for children and adolescents at risk for poor emotion regulation and psychopathology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One fourth to one half of parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have ADHD themselves, complicating delivery of evidence-based child behavioral and pharmacological treatments. In this article, we review the literature examining the relation between parent ADHD and outcomes following behavioral and pharmacological treatments for children with ADHD. We also review research that has incorporated treatment of parent ADHD (either alone or in combination with child treatment) with the goal of improving parenting and child outcomes. Finally, we offer recommendations for future research on the relation between parent ADHD and evidence-based treatment outcomes for their children, with the purpose of advancing the science and informing clinical care of these families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Approximately 15%-20% of young children can be classified as having a behaviorally inhibited (BI) temperament. Stable BI predicts the development of later anxiety disorders (particularly social anxiety), but not all inhibited children develop anxiety. Parenting characterized by inappropriate warmth/sensitivity and/or intrusive control predicts the stability of BI and moderates risk for anxiety among high-Bl children. For these reasons, we developed and examined the preliminary efficacy of the Turtle Program', a multimodal early intervention for inhibited preschool-age children. Method: Forty inhibited children between the ages of 42-60 months and their parent(s) were randomized to either the Turtle Program (n = 18) or a waitlist control (WLC; n = 22) condition. Participants randomized to the Turtle Program condition received 8 weeks of concurrent parent and child group treatment. Participants were assessed at baseline and post-treatment with multisource assessments, including parent and teacher report measures of child anxiety, diagnostic interviews, and observations of parenting behavior. Results: The Turtle Program resulted in significant beneficial effects relative to the WLC condition on maternal-reported anxiety symptoms of medium to large magnitude; large effects on parent-reported BI; medium to large effects on teacher-rated school anxiety symptoms; and medium effects on observed maternal positive affect/sensitivity. Conclusions: This study provides encouraging preliminary support for the Turtle Program for young behaviorally inhibited children. Effects of the Turtle Program generalized to the school setting. Future studies should examine whether this early intervention program improves long-term developmental outcomes for this at-risk group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: More than 50% of mothers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have a lifetime history of major depressive disorder (MDD). Maternal depressive symptoms are associated with impaired parenting and predict adverse developmental and treatment outcomes for children with ADHD. For these reasons, we developed and examined the preliminary efficacy of an integrated treatment targeting parenting and depressive symptoms for mothers of children with ADHD. This integrated intervention incorporated elements of 2 evidence-based treatments: behavioral parent training (BPT) and cognitive behavioral depression treatment. Method: Ninety-eight mothers with at least mild depressive symptoms were randomized to receive either standard BPT (n = 51) or the integrated parenting intervention for ADHD (IPI-A; n = 47). Participants were assessed at baseline, posttreatment, and 3- to 6-month follow-up on measures of (a) self-reported maternal depressive symptoms, (b) observed positive and negative parenting, and (c) observed and mother-reported child disruptive behavior and mother-reported child and family impairment. Results: The IPI-A produced effects of small to moderate magnitude relative to BPT on maternal depressive symptoms, observed negative parenting, observed child deviance, and child impairment at posttreatment and on maternal depressive symptoms, child disruptive behavior, child impairment and family functioning at follow-up. Contrary to expectations, the BPT group demonstrated moderate to large effects relative to IPI-A on observed positive parenting at follow-up. Conclusions: This treatment development study provides encouraging preliminary support for the integrated intervention targeting parenting and depressive symptoms in mothers of children with ADHD. Future studies should examine whether this integrated intervention improves long-term developmental outcomes for children with ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the high heritability of the disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is common among parents of children with ADHD. Parental ADHD is associated with maladaptive parenting, negative parent-child interaction patterns and a diminished response to behavioural parent training. We describe our previous research demonstrating that stimulant medications for mothers with ADHD are associated with reductions in maternal ADHD symptoms. Although limited beneficial effects on self-reported parenting were also found in our study, the impact of ADHD medications on functional outcomes related to parenting and family interactions may not be sufficient for many families. Many questions remain with regard to how best to treat multiplex ADHD families in which a parent and child have ADHD. In particular, future studies are needed: (1) to evaluate how best to sequence pharmacotherapy, psychosocial treatment for adult ADHD and behavioural parenting interventions; (2) to determine the best approach to maintaining treatment effects over the long term for both parents and children; and (3) to identify individual predictors of treatment response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the extent to which maternal attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms predict improvement in child behavior following brief behavioral parent training. Change in parenting was examined as a potential mediator of the negative relationship between maternal ADHD symptoms and improvement in child behavior. Seventy mothers of 6-10 year old children with ADHD underwent a comprehensive assessment of adult ADHD prior to participating in an abbreviated parent training program. Before and after treatment, parenting was assessed via maternal reports and observations and child disruptive behavior was measured via maternal report. Controlling for pre-treatment levels, maternal ADHD symptomatology predicted post-treatment child disruptive behavior problems. The relation between maternal ADHD symptomatology and improvement in child behavior was mediated by change in observed maternal negative parenting. This study replicated findings linking maternal ADHD symptoms with attenuated child improvement following parent training, and is the first to demonstrate that negative parenting at least partially explains this relationship. Innovative approaches combining evidence-based treatment for adult ADHD with parent training may therefore be necessary for families in which both the mother and child have ADHD. Larger-scale studies using a full evidence-based parent training program are needed to replicate these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This pilot study of 23 mothers with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and their offspring with ADHD examined the effects of maternal stimulant medication on observed interactions. Parent-child interactions were observed using a structured protocol before and after mothers underwent a 5-week, double-blind stimulant titration. Despite dramatic effects of medication on adult ADHD symptoms, this small pilot and open label laboratory-based study did not identify maternal stimulant effects on observed parenting or child behavior. Given the documented impairments in parenting displayed by adults with ADHD, behavioral parenting interventions may be needed in conjunction with medication for mothers with ADHD to optimize family outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mothers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at increased risk for an ADHD diagnosis themselves, which is likely associated with impairments in parenting. The present study utilized a multi-method assessment of maternal ADHD and parenting to examine the extent to which maternal ADHD symptoms are associated with maladaptive parenting. Participants included 70 6-10 year old children with DSM-IV ADHD and their biological mothers. Results suggested that mothers with higher levels of ADHD symptoms reported lower levels of involvement and positive parenting and higher levels of inconsistent discipline. During observed parent-child interactions, maternal ADHD symptoms were negatively associated with positive parenting, and positively associated with negative parenting and repeated commands before giving the child an opportunity to comply. Given prior research suggesting that maladaptive parenting behaviors are risk factors for the later development of conduct problems among children with ADHD, these findings have important clinical implications for family-based assessment and treatment of ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temperament, parenting, and executive functioning (EF) are individual and contextual factors that have been identified to play a role in the development of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Specifically, exuberant temperament in toddlerhood has been associated with both adaptive and maladaptive outcomes, including ADHD symptoms. Therefore, it is important to understand factors that predict which exuberant children experience increased ADHD symptoms and the specific mechanisms through which early exuberant temperament impacts later ADHD symptoms. Using a multi-method, prospective longitudinal design, this study examined a moderated mediation model wherein the interactive effects of observed exuberance and parenting at age 3 predicted the development of parent-reported ADHD symptoms from childhood through adolescence (age 5, 7, 9, 12, and 15) via child EF (i.e., inhibitory control) at age 4. Parent–child dyads (n = 291) from a longitudinal study on child temperament were included. A piecewise model of ADHD symptom growth demonstrated stability in ADHD symptoms from age 5–9 and a decrease from age 9–15. Results support a moderated mediation model wherein an increase in ADHD symptoms throughout childhood was predicted from early childhood exuberant temperament by way of EF, but only for children whose parents displayed less directive parenting. Findings suggest identifiable early markers of risk, including temperament, parenting, and EF- pointing to possible targets for early intervention/prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Given the robust evidence base for the efficacy of evidence‐based treatments targeting youth anxiety, researchers have advanced beyond efficacy outcome analysis to identify mechanisms of change and treatment directionality. Grounded in developmental transactional models, interventions for young children at risk for anxiety by virtue of behaviorally inhibited temperament often target parenting and child factors implicated in the early emergence and maintenance of anxiety. In particular, overcontrolling parenting moderates risk for anxiety among highly inhibited children, just as child inhibition has been shown to elicit overcontrolling parenting. Although longitudinal research has elucidated the temporal unfolding of factors that interact to place inhibited children at risk for anxiety, reciprocal transactions between these child and parent factors in the context of early interventions remain unknown. Method: This study addresses these gaps by examining mechanisms of change and treatment directionality (i.e., parent‐to‐child vs. child‐to‐parent influences) within a randomized controlled trial comparing two interventions for inhibited preschoolers (N = 151): the multicomponent Turtle Program ('Turtle') and the parent‐only Cool Little Kids program ('CLK'). Reciprocal relations between parent‐reported child anxiety, observed parenting, and parent‐reported accommodation of child anxiety were examined across four timepoints: pre‐, mid‐, and post‐treatment, and one‐year follow‐up (NCT02308826). Results: Hypotheses were tested via latent curve models with structured residuals (LCM‐SR) and latent change score (LCS) models. LCM‐SR results were consistent with the child‐to‐parent influences found in previous research on cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for older anxious youth, but only emerged in Turtle. LCS analyses revealed bidirectional effects of changes in parent accommodation and child anxiety during and after intervention, but only in Turtle. Conclusion: Our findings coincide with developmental transactional models, suggesting that the development of child anxiety may result from child‐to‐parent influences rather than the reverse, and highlight the importance of targeting parent and child factors simultaneously in early interventions for young, inhibited children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Research suggests that certain parenting behaviors are best suited to promote optimal child development, depending on a child's distinctive temperamental presentation. This multimethod, longitudinal study examines the interactive effect of parenting and temperament in early childhood on the developmental trajectory of social anxiety in adolescence. Methods: Longitudinal growth modeling was used to examine the developmental trajectory of child social anxiety from age 9–15 and the interactive effect of parenting and child temperament at 36 months on the developmental trajectory of child social anxiety from age 9–15. Results: The slope of social anxiety from age 9–15 suggested a decrease in social anxiety throughout early adolescence. Furthermore, 36‐month behavioral inhibition (BI) predicted the trajectory of child social anxiety from age 9–15 when parents displayed low and high levels of dismissive and supportive parenting (at 36 months). Conclusions: Results support an interactive effect of infant temperament and parenting in early childhood (at 36 months) on the developmental trajectory of child social anxiety from age 9–15. Specifically, results suggest that engaging highly inhibited children with high supportive and low dismissive parenting may help reduce social anxiety over time in adolescence. Furthermore, parenting needs may differ for children high or low in BI to impact the developmental trajectory of social anxiety in adolescence, such that children who are high BI seem to benefit from low dismissive and high supportive parenting, and children who are low in BI seem to benefit more from high dismissive parenting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Social anxiety is amongst the most prevalent adolescent mental health problems; however, it is often unrecognized due to its comorbidity with other anxiety problems such as generalized anxiety. Thus, understanding the unique developmental pathways to social anxiety is critical for improving its prevention. We examined the pathway from maternal shyness, when children were 4 years old, to adolescents' social anxiety at age 15 through social wariness at age 7. We hypothesized that childhood social wariness would mediate the association between maternal shyness and social anxiety in adolescence. Methods: Participants (N = 291; 54% female) were followed from early childhood to adolescence. Mothers reported on their own shyness when children were 4 years old. Social wariness toward unfamiliar peers was observed in the laboratory at ages 4 and 7. Adolescent social anxiety and generalized anxiety were assessed via self‐report, parent‐report, and clinical diagnoses at age 15. Results: Maternal shyness was positively associated with adolescent social anxiety but not generalized anxiety at age 15. Higher levels of maternal shyness at age 4 predicted greater social wariness at age 7, which in turn predicted greater social anxiety but not generalized anxiety at age 15. Social wariness at age 7 partially mediated the association between maternal shyness and adolescent social anxiety. Conclusions: This study identifies a unique developmental pathway from maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety. Findings suggest that childhood social wariness connects maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maternal emotional functioning and emotion socialization practices can facilitate or hinder children's emotional development, and youth with symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at increased risk for emotion lability. However, little is known about the independent and interactive effects of maternal emotion dysregulation and adolescent ADHD symptoms on maternal emotion socialization and adolescent emotion lability over time. Using secondary data analyses of a longitudinal community sample of youth and their mothers (Nbaseline = 247; 43.7% female), the current study examined direct and indirect effects of maternal emotion dysregulation on adolescent emotion lability via supportive and non-supportive emotion socialization practices as mediators, and the extent to which adolescent ADHD symptoms moderated these longitudinal pathways. Mothers reported on all study constructs. Results showed that non-supportive parenting responses to adolescents' negative emotional expressions partially mediated the association between maternal emotion dysregulation and adolescent emotion lability, and the effect was stronger at higher levels of youth ADHD symptom severity. Results suggest that parent- and youth-level characteristics interact to confer risk for non-supportive emotion socialization practices and adolescent emotion lability. This research contributes uniquely to theory and research on ADHD and emotional functioning across adolescence. Future research should extend this work by utilizing multi-modal assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral inhibition (BI) and maternal over-control are early risk factors for later childhood internalizing problems, particularly social anxiety disorder (SAD). Consistently high BI across childhood appears to confer risk for the onset of SAD by adolescence. However, no prior studies have prospectively examined observed maternal over-control as a risk factor for adolescent social anxiety (SA) among children initially selected for BI. The present prospective longitudinal study examines the direct and indirect relations between these early risk factors and adolescent SA symptoms and SAD, using a multi-method approach. The sample consisted of 176 participants initially recruited as infants and assessed for temperamental reactivity to novel stimuli at age 4 months. BI was measured via observations and parent-report across multiple assessments between the ages of 14 months and 7 years. Maternal over-control was assessed observationally during parent-child interaction tasks at 7 years. Adolescents (ages 14-17 years) and parents provided independent reports of adolescent SA symptoms. Results indicated that higher maternal over-control at 7 years predicted higher SA symptoms and lifetime rates of SAD during adolescence. Additionally, there was a significant interaction between consistently high BI and maternal over-control, such that patterns of consistently high BI predicted higher adolescent SA symptoms in the presence of high maternal over-control. High BI across childhood was not significantly associated with adolescent SA symptoms when children experienced low maternal over-control. These findings have the potential to inform prevention and early intervention programs by indentifying particularly at-risk youth and specific targets of treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the longitudinal relation between behavioral inhibition (BI) and social anxiety symptoms and behavior and the mediating role of emotion regulation (ER). Moreover, we investigated the influence of parenting behavior on the development of ER strategies. Participants were 291 children (135 male) followed longitudinally from 2 to 13 years. Mothers were predominantly well educated and non-Hispanic Caucasian. Children were screened for BI using maternal report and observational measures (ages 2 and 3), parenting behavior was observed while children and their mothers participated in a fear-eliciting task (age 3), ER strategies were observed while children completed a disappointment task (age 5), and socially anxious behavior was measured via multimethod assessment at 10 and 13 years. Children who exhibited high BI in early childhood exhibited more socially anxious behavior across ages 10 and 13, and there was a significant indirect effect of BI on socially anxious behavior through ER strategies. Children who were high in BI demonstrated less engaged ER strategies during the disappointment task, which in turn predicted more socially anxious behavior. Furthermore, parenting behavior moderated the pathway linking early BI and ER strategies to social anxiety outcomes such that children who exhibited high BI and who received more affectionate/oversolicitous behavior from their mother displayed less engaged ER strategies and more socially anxious behavior than children low in BI or low in oversolicitous parenting behaviors. These findings expand on our understanding of the role that ER strategies and parenting play in the developmental pathway linking early BI to future social anxiety outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High and stable behavioral inhibition during early childhood is a risk factor for later anxiety disorders. The few available interventions targeted at behavioral inhibition have not yet been implemented in European countries. Evaluating intervention acceptability is essential when introducing interventions in new cultures. This study aimed to explore the perceptions of parents about the acceptability of the multicomponent Turtle Program in Portugal. Participants were 12 parents (from seven families) of children with a positive screening on the Behavioral Inhibition Questionnaire and no diagnoses of developmental disorders/selective mutism. Children's mean age was 55.86 months and most children were female and first‐born. Parents and children participated in the eight‐sessions Turtle Program. After each session, parents completed weekly satisfaction checklists. Following completion of the full intervention, parents were invited to participate in individual qualitative in‐depth interviews. The thematic analysis revealed that both parents perceived the intervention objectives and contents as relevant. Both parents suggested the introduction of follow‐up sessions, the discussion of practical experiences, the need to be sensitive to cultural differences in positive language, and the provision of more feedback about children's activities. These findings support prior research on the acceptability and cultural tailoring needed for parenting and child socioemotional learning interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral inhibition (BI) is a temperamental style that poses risk for later anxiety. Efficacious interventions have been developed for inhibited children, but their success depends on parent engagement. However, little is known regarding predictors of parent engagement in early interventions for BI. This study examined parent-, child- and treatment-level (i.e., parent-only or parent-child) factors as independent and interactive predictors of parent engagement (attendance, and parent-reported homework completion and treatment satisfaction) in a randomized-controlled trial comparing two interventions for inhibited preschoolers: Cool Little Kids (CLK) and the Turtle Program ("Turtle"). We also explored predictors of co-parent (CP) attendance. The sample comprised 151 primary parents (PPs) and their 45–64-month-old children. Attendance was greater in Turtle and homework completion was slightly greater in CLK, with no group difference in satisfaction. In Turtle, child anxiety predicted greater PP attendance and PP depression predicted lower satisfaction. In CLK, the interaction between child and PP anxiety significantly predicted satisfaction. Across groups, child anxiety predicted greater homework completion and CP anxiety predicted greater CP attendance. Results suggest that child anxiety may motivate parent engagement, particularly when children receive concurrent treatment and/or in-vivo coaching. However, intensive treatment may be too burdensome for depressed parents, whereas less intensive treatments may be more acceptable to non-anxious parents of anxious children. These findings can inform approaches to improve parent engagement in early interventions targeting BI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a complex pathogenesis. Individual differences in temperamental reactivity – in particular, anger reactivity – are predictive of ADHD. The goal of this study was to examine the moderating (maternal caregiving behaviors; MCB) and mediating (inhibitory control) variables of reactivity using a 9‐year multimethod prospective longitudinal design. Methods: Participants included 291 children (135 male; 156 female) who participated in a larger study of temperament and social‐emotional development. Anger reactivity was assessed by observation of facial anger during an arm restraint task, and MCB were observed during a series of semi‐structured mother–infant tasks, both at 9 months of age. Inhibitory control was assessed by performance on a go/no‐go task at 5 years of age. ADHD symptoms were assessed by parent and teacher report questionnaires at 7 and 9 years, respectively. Results: Anger reactivity and poor inhibitory control were predictive of later ADHD symptoms. Results supported a moderated mediation model, in which the indirect effects of anger reactivity on ADHD symptoms through inhibitory control were conditional on quality of early MCB. Inhibitory control mediated the effect of anger reactivity on ADHD symptoms, but only among children exposed to lower‐quality MCB. Conclusions: Infant anger reactivity exerts a direct effect on later ADHD from infancy, suggesting anger reactivity as a very early indicator of ADHD risk. Higher‐quality caregiving did not buffer against the direct risk of anger reactivity on ADHD but did buffer against the indirect risk by reducing the negative effect of anger reactivity on inhibitory control. Thus, in the developmental pathway from anger reactivity to ADHD, more sensitive, less intrusive parenting supports the development of protective mechanisms (i.e. inhibitory control) to remediate ADHD risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with origins early in life. There is growing evidence that individual differences in temperament reactivity are predictive of ADHD symptoms, yet little is known about the relations between temperament reactivity in early infancy and later ADHD symptoms or the combined effect of reactivity with early environmental factors on ADHD symptom development. Using a 9‐year prospective longitudinal design, this study tested the independent and interactive contributions of infant reactivity and maternal caregiving behaviors (MCB) on parent‐ and teacher‐reported childhood ADHD symptoms. Methods: Participants included 291 children (135 male; 156 female) who participated in a larger study of temperament and social–emotional development. Reactivity was assessed by behavioral observation of negative affect, positive affect, and motor activity during novel stimuli presentations at 4 months of age. MCB were observed during a series of semistructured mother–infant tasks at 9 months of age. Finally, ADHD symptoms were assessed by parent‐ and teacher‐report questionnaires at 7 and 9 years, respectively. Results: Reactivity was predictive of ADHD symptoms, but results were sex specific. For boys, infant motor activity was positively predictive of later ADHD symptoms, but only at lower quality MCB. For girls, infant positive affect was positively predictive of later ADHD symptoms at lower quality MCB, and—unexpectedly—infant positive affect and motor activity were negatively predictive of later ADHD symptoms at higher quality MCB. Conclusions: These results point to early parenting as a moderating factor to mitigate temperament‐related risk for later ADHD, suggesting this as a potential intervention target to mitigate risk for ADHD among reactive infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parenting practices, especially those characterized by harsh and neglectful behaviors, have a significant impact on child development. Despite the importance of parenting, little attention has been paid to personality-linked constructs that may guide how parents make decisions regarding their interactions with their children. For instance, parents who focus on getting their child to do something immediately may engage in behaviors that yield rapid compliance (e.g., hitting, yelling) at the expense of longer-term parent-child relationship quality. Building on literatures examining the effects of time horizon on behavior, this series of studies examined the development of a measure of parental time horizon to evaluate whether parents who focus on short-term (immediate) consequences of their actions experience higher rates of parenting distress and engage in more negative parenting behaviors. Study 1 examined the psychometric properties of a parenting-adapted Consideration of Future Consequences Scale, finding that more immediate time orientation was associated with greater parenting stress. Study 2 replicated these results and relations to parenting distress, suggesting that time orientation was associated with positive and negative parenting behaviors in a socioeconomically distressed sample. Together, these studies demonstrate support for further evaluating parental time orientation and its effects on parent and child outcomes. • Parental time horizon was associated with parental distress and parenting behaviors. • Parents focused on the immediate term reported more stress and harsher parenting. • Parents with longer time horizons engaged in more positive parenting practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parental scaffolding robustly predicts child developmental outcomes, including improved self-regulation and peer relationships and fewer externalizing behaviors. However, few studies have examined parental characteristics associated with a parent's ability to scaffold. Executive functioning (EF) may be an important individual difference factor associated with maternal scaffolding that has yet to be examined empirically. Scaffolding may be particularly important for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and disruptive behavior disorder (DBD) symptoms due to their core difficulties with inattention, disorganization, EF, and self-regulation, their need for greater parental structure, and higher-than-average rates of parental EF deficits. Yet, little research has examined child ADHD in relation to parental scaffolding. This cross-sectional study examined: (1) the association between maternal EF (as measured by the Hotel Test, Barkley's Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale, and Digit Span) and observed scaffolding, (2) the association between parent-reported child ADHD/DBD symptoms and scaffolding, and (3) the interaction between child ADHD/DBD symptoms and maternal EF in predicting scaffolding. In a sample of 84 mothers and their 5-10 year-old biological children (62% male) with and without parent-reported ADHD, we found that maternal EF, as measured by Digit Span and the Hotel Test, predicted observed maternal scaffolding. However, child ADHD/DBD symptoms did not significantly predict maternal scaffolding controlling for child age, maternal education, and maternal EF, nor did the interaction of maternal EF and parent-reported child ADHD/DBD symptoms. Working memory and task shifting may be key components of parental EF that could be targeted in interventions to improve parental scaffolding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maternal depression and parenting are robust predictors of developmental outcomes for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, methods commonly used to examine parent-child interactions in these families do not account for temporal associations between child and parent behavior that have been theorized to maintain negative child behavior. Moreover, studies examining associations between maternal depression and parenting in families of children with ADHD have not compared mothers who were currently depressed, remitted, and never clinically depressed. This study utilized sequential analysis to examine how maternal reinforcement of compliant and noncompliant child behavior differs as a function of maternal depression history. Within the 82 participating mother-child dyads, 21 mothers were currently depressed, 29 mothers had a lifetime history of depression but were in remission for at least 1 month, and 32 mothers had never been clinically depressed. 24 girls (29.6 %) and 57 boys (70.4 %) between the ages of 6-12 years old ( M = 8.7, SD = 2.0) and were diagnosed with ADHD. Results indicated that all mothers were less likely to respond optimally than non-optimally to child compliant and noncompliant behaviors during observed parent-child interactions; however, currently depressed mothers were least likely to reinforce child compliance and responded most coercively to child noncompliance relative to the other groups. Remitted mothers in this sample were more coercive than never clinically depressed mothers, but were more likely to follow through with commands than never clinically depressed mothers. Implications for behavioral parent training programs aimed at skill development for depressed mothers of children with ADHD are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mothers with elevated Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms demonstrate parenting deficits, as well as difficulties in emotion regulation (ER), which may further impact their ability to effectively parent. However, no empirical research has examined potential mediators that explain the relations between maternal ADHD symptoms and parenting. This prospective longitudinal study examined difficulties with ER as a mediator of the relation between adult ADHD symptoms and parenting among 234 mothers of adolescents recruited from the community when they were between the ages of nine to twelve. Maternal ratings of adult ADHD symptoms, difficulties with ER, and parenting responses to their adolescents' expressions of negative emotions were collected over the course of three years. We found that maternal ADHD symptoms were negatively associated with positive parenting responses to adolescents' negative emotions, and positively associated with harsh parenting and maternal distress reactions. Moreover, maternal ER mediated the relation between adult ADHD symptoms and harsh parenting responses, while controlling for adolescent ADHD and disruptive behavior symptoms. However, maternal ER did not mediate the relation between ADHD symptoms and positive or distressed parental responses. Thus, it appears that ER is one mechanism by which maternal ADHD symptoms are associated with harsh responses to their adolescents' expressions of negative emotion. These findings may have downstream implications for adolescent adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]