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Thailand has attempted to produce sustainable palm oil by encouraging grower-developed Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) criteria with many campaigns, but the target has still not been achieved. Here, we determined the tangible financial benefits of certified and noncertified farmers of 3 groups, namely, those with a large planting area, cooperative members, and small growers supported by palm oil mills, to illustrate the advantage of RSPO certification. The results showed that all certified groups received greater net returns than the noncertified groups, with net return differences of 0.34 baht per kilogram for large planting areas, 0.70 baht per kilogram within the cooperative group and 0.13-1.10 baht per kilogram under the group supported by palm oil mills. However, the increasingly important RSPO certification should provide knowledge to improve agricultural practices because they are affected by increasing net returns and reducing variable costs. The government should provide financial loans for growers who want RSPO certification because of the high costs of certification and develop criteria, and grower integration can increase negotiation power to decrease the cost of production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palm oil derived from the fruits of Elaeis guineensis Jacq. has global economic importance and is largely produced in tropical regions. The palm oil production process leads to a highly polluting waste called palm oil mill effluent (POME). A strategy commonly used by producers to overcome environmental issues and to improve soil fertility is the reuse of POME as a fertilizer due to the chemical and biological characteristics of the effluent. In this research, three groups were analyzed: soil without POME application (control group) and soil samples after 4 and 9 days of POME application. An environmental DNA metabarcoding approach was used. eDNA was extracted, and the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was amplified and sequenced in the Illumina MiSeq platform. The abundance of Proteobacteria (48.1%) and Firmicutes (9.0%) was higher in fertilized soil, while Bacteroidetes (20.3%) and Verrucomicrobia (7.8%) were more abundant in control soil. Additionally, the effluent seemed to modify soil characteristics favoring taxa responsible for the mineralization of organic compounds and nitrogen fixation such as species of Gammaproteobacteria class. Our study highlights the influence of POME on soil biological components and contributes to the sustainable production of palm oil in the Amazon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) is a biodegradable polymer that microorganisms can synthesize amidst non-optimal growth conditions with excess carbon sources. Palm oil, rich in fatty acids, serves as a carbon source for PHA synthesis. The bacterial PHA production can be influenced by carbon concentration in the growth medium. Therefore, determining the optimal concentration of palm oil as a carbon source is crucial for PHA production. Additionally, it is possible to determine the type of PHA generated by bacteria, which can then be utilized as information when processing utilizing the PHA. The experiment employed palm oil concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, and 2% and was carried out for periods of 48, 72, 96 hours. It was discovered that Bacillus sp. strain CL33 and Bacillus flexus strain S5a produced the most effective PHA at a concentration of 25 with an incubation period of 96 hours. The PHA generated by these bacteria was quantitatively analyzed through measurements of total bacterial growth, cell dry weight, and the levels of crotonic acid. PHA types were also analyzed using GC-MS, with monomers including 2-hydroxybutyrate(-2HB), 2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropionate (2H3PhP), 3-Hydroxyhexanoate (3HHx), 3-hydroxyoctanoate (3H2O), and 3-hydroxydecanoate (3HD). The Bacillus sp. strain CL33 yielded a PHA level of 92.23%. Meanwhile, Bacillus flexus strain S5a synthesized a polyhydroxyalkanoate comprising mostly 3-hydroxyhexanoate (3HHx) and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The monomers used were decamethyltetrasiloxane, dodecamethylpentasiloxane, hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane, octamethylpentasiloxane, and dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane. The type of PHA produced accounted for 85.93% of the total. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a device that harnesses microbial metabolism to convert chemical energy into bio-electrical energy. Extensive research has demonstrated its efficacy in both wastewater treatment and power generation applications. This study focused on the integration of a microbial fuel cell (MFC) with a biocathode constructed using the oxidoreductase-producing bacterium Bacillus sp. MCO22 and rice straw as a cost-effective substrate. The MFC utilized palm oil mill effluent (POME) as a chemical energy source for electricity generation in the anodic chamber. The ability of the MFC was evaluated by monitoring biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) activity and electrochemical properties. Post-operation, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and color removal were measured. The results revealed that the MFC with the BOD-based cathode achieved a maximum current density and power density of 0.58±0.01 A/m² and 0.17±0.00 W/m², respectively. Furthermore, it exhibited high COD and color removal rates of 95.10±0.10% and 98.53±0.33%, respectively, without requiring an external power supply. This study presents novel insights into utilizing a BOD-producing bacterium as a whole-cell biocatalyst on the MFC cathodic surface for both electricity generation and agricultural wastewater treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inconsistent digestion of palm oil mill effluent (POME) causes difficulties for regulatory compliance plus inadequate biogas generation. In this study, Moringa Oleifera filtrate was co-digested with POME in a pilot-scale integrated anaerobic–aerobic bioreactor (IAAB) having three processes/compartments: anaerobic, aerobic and sedimentation. A 35-day monitoring was carried out for the mono- and co-digestion processes at an organic loading rate (OLR) of 30.0 g COD/L.day. Addition of M. oleifera filtrate at 500 mg/L was capable of removing 95–96%, 99–100% and 93–96% chemical oxygen demand, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and total suspended solid, respectively with overall improvement up to 6% in final POME quality and 72% for methane yield. The final discharge remained stable consistently and complied with the set limit (BOD ≤ 20 mg/L) despite high OLR was employed. The ability of the IAAB to hold high concentration of mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (56,000–67,000 mg/L), coupled with high carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) sources as food to microorganisms (F/M), and the ability of the dimeric cationic protein in the shelled M. oleifera to coagulate POME solids had successfully provided appropriate F/M and C/N ratios for co-digestion. The formation of large and dense flocs aided by M. oleifera extract allowed sludge to settle down easily as reflected by the average sludge volume index (SVI) of 34 (i.e., less than the preferred SVI of 100). The IAAB system exhibited good stability and pH adjustment was unnecessary. Long-term IAAB performance data is required to demonstrate its doable implementation on a large scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia as the largest CPO producing country in the world has more than 850 palm oil mills that directly require a good maintenance system to ensure the smooth processing process. PT. TCM is one of the suppliers engaged in the palm oil industry. This paper discusses the marketing strategy used by PT. TCM, the potential and opportunities that arise to increase revenue and adding value to the company. The purpose of this paper is to provide input on changes in company strategy and can also be used by other players in the palm oil processing industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The MSPO certification scheme was adopted nationwide and made mandatory for all smallholders, plantations, and mills starting January 1, 2020. In Malaysia, an independent smallholder is defined as an individual who owns land less than 40.46 hectares in aggregate, and they account for 17% of the total oil palm planted area. However, the long duration required to obtain MSPO certification for independent smallholders affects their eligibility to supply their fresh fruit bunches (FFB) to certified palm oil mills for export. The study showed that during the certification phase for independent smallholders, the preparation of the Stage 2 audit plan and stakeholders’ consultation required the longest time to be completed in 52 days, followed by drafting of the final audit report with 29 days and preparation of the Stage 1 audit plan with 25 days. Meanwhile, the issuance of the MSPO certificate required the shortest time to be completed in one day. Therefore, it is only proper that Malaysia, as one of the leading palm oil producers, has a comprehensive certification scheme that is locally adaptable and meets the sustainability requirements internationally, following the principles of sustainability upon which the MSPO standard was built. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A pre-culture stage is required to obtain robustly-dividing cells with high hydrogen (H2) production capabilities. However, a step-by-step process for biohydrogen production is scarcely reported, mainly from palm oil wastewater. Therefore, this study developed a guideline to find the best inoculum heat treatment conditions and implement the selected conditions for biohydrogen production using palm oil wastewater. This study used raw palm oil mill effluent (POME) and POME sludge as substrate and inoculum, respectively. Our findings reveal that 80 °C and 30 min were the best conditions for inoculum heat treatment. When testing the conditions on POME sludge and inoculating with raw POME (28 g COD/L) at 37 °C (reaction temperature), 24 h (reaction time), and pH 5.5, 34 mL H2/d was recorded. A slight increase (1.1-fold) was observed compared to 5 g COD/L POME co-digested with 5 g/L glucose (31 mL H2/d). This discovery indicates that raw POME is a potential source for biohydrogen production under anaerobic fermentation and can be directly used as substrate up to 30 g COD/L. The proposed guideline could also be implemented for different organic wastes for biohydrogen production study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The palm oil mill effluent (POME) is a high-strength wastewater as characterised by its high biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand. Through anaerobic digestion, it can be valorised into biogas to serve as sustainable substitution for fossil fuel. In order to fully exploit the potential of POME as sustainable source for renewable energy, the optimisation of the supply-demand chain that covers biogas production, biogas purification to biomethane, biomethane transportation and biomethane off-site utilisation, is crucial for understanding its economical-technical performance. There are many works that had explored the pathway for compressed biomethane (CBM) production, this work further the investigation by including consideration on pressure changes and requirement across the pathway and subsequently identifies suitable incentive rate to improve the economic performance. In this study, a mathematical model to determine the optimal process pathway was developed based on a mixed integer programming model and solved using General Algebraic Modeling System. The model showed that the optimal pathway would result in a payback period of 6 y, with a total capital investment cost of USD 2,934,564. The biomethane off-site utilisations were illustrated through electricity generation and CBM. The sensitivity analysis on Feed-in-Tariff further showed that a rate at USD 0.116 kWh was economically desirable. For CBM, the sales price should be at least USD 8.2-12.9/MMbtu. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of hydro‐treated vegetable oil (HVO) from palm oil mill effluents (POME) can be particularly interesting for Malaysia and Indonesia, the two major palm oil producers. Potentially, about 0.4 and 0.9 billion liters of HVO may be produced from POME in Malaysia and Indonesia, respectively. Large amounts of POME oil were exported to China for biofuel production in recent years, but the supply–demand dynamics remain under‐studied. The current policy trends in the EU are not in favor of POME‐based HVO. Exports to the EU are shadowed by uncertainty regarding its eligibility for double counting owing to its links with the oil palm industry, despite it being claimed to be a waste‐based biofuel. Domestically, Malaysia is still lagging behind in the policy for advanced biofuels. However, the country has shown its ambition in becoming a bio‐jet fuel producer in the recently announced 12th Malaysia Plan (RMK‐12). Converting POME oil into sustainable aviation fuel with HVO technology may be a promising option given the global commitment including Malaysia to reducing emissions in the aviation sector. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extraction of palm oil fruit (E. guineensis) is achieved by a combination of methods such as pressing, sterilizing, digesting, peeling, grading, purifying, and vacuum drying the extracted oil. This process requires excessive use of water and produces a large amount of wastewater with a high concentration of pollutants, called palm oil mill efluent (POME). This waste water is a high-viscosity liquid with a brown color and a temperature of 80–90 °C. It has a very low pH value, between 4.2–4.5, has a high chemical and biochemical oxygen demand, and is extremely toxic. POME treatment has adopted a variety of methods and technologies, including coagulation-flocculation, anaerobic-aerobic treatment and membrane technology. Biological treatment is mainly used to treat POME, and the POME treated through biological treatment is called palm oil mill secondary effluent (POMSE). Unfortunately, the treated wastewater still contains high concentrations of organic matter. The color of the effluent is still dark brown. The remaining pollutants from this biological process are generally difficult to degrade biologically, thus requiring suitable processing methods for its removal, so that it can be discharged to the environment safely or even reused orrecycled. One of the challenging processing methods is photocatalytic process. This method is able to utilize abundant resources in the form of sunlight, and is also effective to degrade a wide variety of recalcitrant organic pollutants in the wastewater. This paper presents the current research and development of photocatalytic degradation process for processing of palm oil mill secndary effluent. The review and analysis are focused on synthesis of photocatalyst and the photoreactor design. Based on the results of the literature review and analysis, some recommendations are formulated for future research for their application in advanced POMSE management so that it can be reused for various purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Refined red palm-pressed mesocarp olein (PPMO) is recovered from palm-pressed mesocarp fiber, which is a by-product from palm oil mill. Its utilization in food industry is extremely limited even though it contains various phytonutrients. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate its toxicity effects by using the male Sprague-Dawley rat model. The rats were administered with a single dose of 2 g/kg PPMO in an acute toxicity study while administered with 2, 1, or 0.5 g/kg PPMO daily for 28 days in a sub-chronic toxicity study. The mortality, oral LD50 value, clinical observation, body and organ weight, hematological and biochemical analyses, pathological and histopathological examinations were assessed. The overall outcomes indicated that PPMO is non-toxic up to 2 g/kg and considered safe to be used in food application, especially as functional food ingredient and supplement attributed to its phytonutrients. Besides, this study provides an insight in alternative utilization of the wastes from palm oil mill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wastewater from crude palm oil mills contains high organic matter, which potentially produces biogas through anaerobic digestion processes. The design and operation of an anaerobic bioreactor require a good understanding of the reaction kinetic in the bioreactor. This study aimed to evaluate the biogas production from POME and to determine the kinetic parameters of microbial growth and the substrate utilization rates in a CIGAR. An experiment was conducted using a 5-m3 bioreactor with a working volume of 4.4 m3. Wastewater from the Bekri palm oil mill was stored in a 5-m3 tank. After stabilization, the wastewater was loaded into the reactor at a rate of 100 to 250 L/d, corresponding to a COD loading rate of 1.373-3.097 kg·m-3.d-1, and an HRT of 18-44 days. Monod, Contois, Moser, and Shuler kinetic models were evaluated. The results showed that the Shuler model performed best for microbial activities, while the first order reaction model performed best for the substrate utilization kinetic. The maximum specific growth rate (µmax) for the Shuler model was 0.052 d-1 and the saturation constant (Kso) was 0.119. The maximum substrate utilization rate constant (ks) was 2.183 d-1 and biomass yield (Yx/s) 0.024 kg/kg. The maximum average efficiency of anaerobic degradation (34.4%) occurred at a feeding rate of 100 L/d with methane yield of 0.120 Nm3/kg of removed COD. This value is relatively low compared to the maximum potential of 0.350 Nm3/kg CODr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sterilisation in palm oil mills is considered a pre-treatment process as it affects stripping efficiency and oil quality. Although sterilisation technology has been well-established in the palm oil milling industry, the roles and principles of sterilisation, particularly related to the chemical changes in fruits and stalks occurring during the process, have been rarely reported. The review begins with the background literature on the biochemical properties of the FFBs, such as the compositions of binding carbohydrates and the phenomena of natural fruit detachment. Followed by the harvesting practice to understand the type of FFBs supplied to the industry. In addition, a comparison of the well-established conventional and alternative sterilisation technologies and sterilisation functions is critically reviewed and assessed. Establishing the current sterilisation process initiatives to address the natural fruit’s separation more efficiently in palm oil mills is important. Particularly visualise sterilisation as a breakup of specific binding carbohydrates that leads to strippability. It will provide a further understanding of the sterilisation mechanism, which would benefit the palm oil miller in optimising the processing of fresh fruit bunches. The information provided in this review is necessary to mitigate the percentage of unstripped bunches and reduce the oil losses and ultimately enhance the oil extraction rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fixed bed column studies were carried out to evaluate the performance of natural Ceiba pentandra (kapok) in removal of residual oil from palm oil mill effluent (POME) under varying flow rate and packing density. A multilevel factorial design based on chemical oxygen demand (COD) and turbidity of the effluent was developed. COD was significantly affected by the effects of flow rates. The maximum packing density and flow rate for maximum COD reduction were observed at 0.08 g/cm3and 5ml/min. COD reductions were observed more than 99% at all packing densities and flow rates. Turbidity reduction ranged from 92.9-95.8% at all packing densities and flow rates. Fixed bed column designed had been successfully achieved to remove residual oil from palm oil mill effluent (POME) under different packing densities and flow rates. The results suggest that kapok fiber can be used as a low-cost alternative for the removal of residual oil from palm oil mill effluent (POME). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Methods are investigated to prepare active hydrogen (H 2)-producing cultures originating from palm oil mill sludge using dark fermentation. The first successful method that produces potent H 2 -producing cultures and avoids growing H 2 -consuming methanogens involves heat pretreatment of the sludge at 100 °C for 2 h and then the sludge sample is shocked in an ice bath for 15 min. Subsequently, a glucose solution rich in nutrients (glucose-based substrate) of 14.80 g chemical oxygen demand (COD)/L is fed in to enrich the H 2 -producing cultures. The H 2 production reaches 78.63% on day 31. The second method involves acid pretreatment of sludge with 10 M hydrochloric acid at pH 3 for 48 h. Glucose-based substrate of 25.47 g COD/L is fed into the system. The H 2 production is 69.41% on day 27. For both methods, the H 2 production is stable after the H 2 content reached its maximum. The operation is performed semi-continuously using a hydraulic retention time of 1 day and at 30 °C. The optimum bacterial cells-to-COD level of substrate is approximately 0.60 in the start-up medium. The fermentation medium has an optimum initial pH of 5 and a final pH of 5.2–5.3. These two methods are recommended to produce active H 2 -producing cultures for plant start-up in bio-H 2 production. • Active H 2 -producing cultures are prepared for system start-up. • Pretreatment of palm oil mill sludges and preparation methods are proposed. • Glucose-based substrate is used in maximizing consistency for bacterial growth. • The fermentation medium has initial pH 5 and final pH 5.2–5.3. • The H 2 content reaches 78.63% on day 31 with production stable thereafter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presence of free fatty acids (FFA) and chloride contents in crude palm oil is not desirable because they have an impact on oil quality and food safety. This work presents a method to reduce these compounds by washing the crude palm oil (CPO) with treated aerobic liquor (AL). The effects of process parameters on the reduction of FFA and chloride in CPO and the resultant 3‐monochloropropane‐1,2 diol ester (3‐MCPDE) formed after refining are investigated. The results show that the AL dosage, initial FFA content, mixing speed, and duration have significant influence on the reduction of FFA in the CPO. Meanwhile, the chloride content is reduced by approximately 50% regardless of the AL dosage used. Consequently, the 3‐MCPDE content in the oil after refining is up to 53% lower than that of the refined oil produced from the untreated CPO. Furthermore, an oil recovery above 97% can be achieved after the AL‐washing step. The implementation strategy of this method in the palm oil mills has also been proposed. In conclusion, an effective and sustainable method for in situ improvements of the quality and food safety of palm oil has been developed without the need for additional water or chemical. Practical Applications: Treated aerobic liquor can be used to wash the CPO in palm oil mill for in situ reductions of FFA and chloride contents in CPO to improve the oxidative stability of CPO. The lower content of chlorides in CPO could mitigate the formation of 3‐MCPDE during refining, thus improving the food safety of palm oil. This method can readily be implemented by the industry and it is sustainable because it does not require the use of additional process water or chemical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palm Oil Mill Effluents (POME) are complex fermentative substrates which habour diverse native microbial contaminants. However, knowledge on the microbiota community shift caused by the anthropogenic effects of POME in the environment is up to date still to be extensively documented. In this study, the bacterial and archaeal communities of POME from two palm oil processing systems (artisanal and industrial) were investigated by Illumina MiSeq Platform. Despite the common characteristics of these wastewaters, we found that their microbial communities were significantly different with regard to their diversity and relative abundance of their different Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASV). Indeed, POME from industrial plants harboured as dominant phyla Firmicutes (46.24%), Bacteroidetes (34.19%), Proteobacteria (15.11%), with the particular presence of Spirochaetes, verrucomicrobia and Synergistetes, while those from artisanal production were colonized by Firmicutes (92.06%), Proteobacteria (4.21%) and Actinobacteria (2.09%). Furthermore, 43 AVSs of archaea were detected only in POME from industrial plants and assigned to Crenarchaeota, Diapherotrites, Euryarchaeota and Nanoarchaeaeota phyla, populated mainly by many methane-forming archaea. Definitively, the microbial community composition of POME from both type of processing was markedly different, showing that the history of these ecosystems and various processing conditions have a great impact on each microbial community structure and diversity. By improving knowledge about this microbiome, the results also provide insight into the potential microbial contaminants of soils and rivers receiving these wastewaters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of crude palm oil is a resource-intensive process because it requires a considerable amount of clean water during milling and generates a large amount of wastewater. The goal of this work was to improve the process sustainability by repurposing the treated wastewater (i.e. aerobic liquor, AL) for improving the quality of crude palm oil (CPO). The AL was first pre-treated by filtration and heating before it was used to wash the CPO under mixing. Critical quality parameters of CPO, i.e. free fatty acid, anisidine value and Deterioration of the Bleachability Index, showed improvement after washing with AL. The level of phytonutrient present in the CPO was not affected by washing. Furthermore, the amount of undesirable trace elements phosphorus, iron, copper and chlorine showed a significant reduction. By repurposing the AL to treat CPO, the quality of the CPO can be improved. This practical and sustainable treatment process can be performed in situ in a palm oil mill without the need for clean water and chemical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytonutrients are plant‐derived bioactives which are widely utilized as colorants or supplements in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products. To meet the global demand for phytonutrients, oil palm has emerged as a promising source of phytonutrients on account of its large‐scale plantation worldwide and high oil productivity. Phytonutrients including carotenoids, tocols, sterols, squalene, phospholipids, coenzyme Q10, and polyphenols can be found in crude palm oil as well as in the byproducts (e.g. palm oil mill effluent and palm‐pressed fiber oil) generated from the palm oil milling process. However, the high viscosity and semisolid properties of palm oil are problematic in phytonutrient extraction. Another major challenge is the retention of the sensitive phytonutrients during the extraction process. Over the years, the advances in the extraction methods have improved the extractability of phytonutrients. The emerging extraction methods can operate under mild conditions to mitigate the risk of phytonutrient degradation. This review outlines the types of phytonutrient in palm oil and their extraction strategies. The working principles and operating conditions of extraction methods are discussed along with their potential and limitations in terms of extraction efficiency and practicability. The methods for pretreatment of feedstocks for improving extraction efficiency are also highlighted. The challenges in the extraction of phytonutrient from palm oil feedstock are summarized. Lastly, we provide suggestions for overcoming the limitations and improving the performances of phytonutrient extraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• POMSE treatment via MPR assisted biosynthesized ZnO-CC nanoparticles under various operational condition. • Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to analyze the effect of operating parameter in MPR. • The quality of treated POMSE are within the acceptable discharge limit of effluent. Membrane photocatalytic reactor (MPR) has become one of the promising methods for palm oil mill secondary effluent (POMSE) polishing process. However, the utilization of green synthesis zinc oxide- Cymbopogon citratus (ZnO-CC) nanoparticles to improve MPR performance for POMSE treatment has been rather limited to date. In this study, the effects of different operating conditions (pH, initial concentrations, and catalyst loadings) and membrane cleaning using distilled water for treating POMSE via MPR assisted ZnO-CC nanoparticles were elucidated. The behaviour of the membrane fouling was evaluated through normalized flux, colour rejection, water quality and membrane surface characteristics. The results revealed that colour rejection reached 99.9%, normalized flux up to 0.33 and the water quality parameters attained are within the acceptable discharge limit of wastewater, thus verifying the effectiveness of POMSE treatment via MPR assisted ZnO-CC nanoparticles. In addition, the best performance in terms of flux, colour, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and turbidity removal efficiency was achieved after six cycles of POMSE treatment via MPR. Hence, cleaning of the membrane was able to recover the quality of permeate to a certain extent and this results in reusability of the membrane, which can serve as an alternative to improving severe membrane fouling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palm oil mill (POM) sterilization condensate is recognized as the source of polyphenols with interesting biological activities, for example, inflammatory processes prevention, UV protection, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticarcinogen. Reactive extraction is one of the promising methods for bioactive compounds (polyphenols) recovery offering various merits such as simple, efficient, easy to scale up, and high selectivity. In this work, reactive extraction of polyphenols from POM sterilization condensate using synergistic organic formulation was investigated. The extraction was performed by screening several base and synergist extractants using palm cooking oil as a green diluent. The results showed that about 85% of polyphenols were extracted using 0.25 M 1-Octanol and 0.05 M Aliquat 336 with a synergistic coefficient of 2.59. Meanwhile, the back-extraction study demonstrated that 0.3 M NaOH was selected as the most appropriate stripping agent where almost 100% of stripping performance was achieved. Therefore, the synergistic green formulation offers great potential for polyphenols recovery from POM sterilization condensate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polluted sterilization condensate discharged from palm oil mill may contain polyphenols that are rich in the antioxidant property. Emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) process is a promising method for polyphenol recovery due to its several attractive features such as high selectivity, simple operation, and low energy consumption. In this study, the condensate was characterized to determine its total phenolic content (TPC), ionic elements, and pH. ELM formulation containing tributylphosphate (TBP) as a carrier, kerosene as a diluent, sorbitan monooleate (Span 80) as a surfactant, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as a stripping agent was developed. The results show that sterilization condensate contains 700–1500 mg GAE/L of TPC. During the ELM process, more than 91% of extraction with 83% recovery and 8.3 enrichment were achieved at the favorable condition of 0.1 M TBP, external phase pH 5, 1 M NaOH, 1:5 treat ratio, 5% v/v of octanol as a modifier, and 100 mg GAE/L external phase concentrations. Thus, ELM offers a potential alternative technology to extract and recover polyphenols from palm oil mill sterilization condensate while contributing to sustainable production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Certification of sustainable palm oil as organised through the Round Table on Sustainable Palm Oil is based on a simplified understanding of the global palm oil value chain – according to which instructions about production practices can be directly translated from the palm oil mill to the primary producer. The reality of palm oil provision is much more complex than this as is shown in the case of Thailand. On the basis of qualitative field study in Southern Thailand this paper clarifies that intermediary stages, such as the collection of oil palm fruit bunches at the ramp, play a key role in the organisation of the chain. The fluidity and complexity of the palm oil flow at the local level complicates the promotion of sustainability through certification. Global and national stakeholders, such as processing and trading firms, non‐governmental organisations and national governments, should therefore open this black box of local dynamics to more effectively contribute to sustainability in palm oil supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The demand for palm oil is rapidly growing, but its production is faced with unreliable manufacturing indices, including processing time standards. In this study, an artificial neural network (ANN) model was developed as a solution for the prediction of standard time. The primary data were obtained through an industry survey and a direct time study measured at an oil mill using a stopwatch for each process and recorded on a standard time observation sheet. These direct time data collected over a 12-month period were standardized into numeric input data for ANN. A standard multilayered, feed-forward back-propagation type of neural network architecture was proposed. Direct time study data involving eleven different operations for a 22.5 tonne capacity Roche palm oil mill in Ohaji-Egbema were used in training, testing and validating the network. Time Processor software was developed in FORTRAN for investigating the quality of the trained network's output and standard time. Also, the labour and cost requirements of the mill were effectively optimized using linear programming (LP). Results from LP showed that optimal cost requirement of the mill was 6,330.16 USD per month. This amounts to a savings of 86.92%, compared with current requirement of 48,395.14 USD per month. The ANN model output was 423.666 mins compared with the current time of 540 mins for processing the same palm fruit. This shows that time standardization through ANN provides a savings of 21.54%. Thus, the developed ANN model has a reliable and good prediction capacity. It can be applied in a timely manner to medium and large scale oil mills or similar processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of palm oil mill effluent (POME) on the populations of Rhizobium and Meloidogyne species was tested at the Teaching and Research Farm of Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, Nigeria. Three cowpea cultivars ,Dan Kano, Borno local and Sokoto local were used as target crops on plots that received 0 l/ha(control),4000l/ha, 6000l/ha and 8000l/ha levels of POME applications. The treatments combinations were randomized within each block and replicated three times. Generally, increasing level of POME application increased number of functional root nodules in all the cultivars, but decreased length of roots and number of non- functional nodules. Nematode populations drastically decreased with increase in POME quantities. Both Rhizobium and Meloidogyne species compete for establishment sites on cowpea roots and high POME rates decreased Nematode population which is why all the three cowpea cultivars had their highest yields at 8000l/ha POME application rate. So POME, an organic waste from oil palm processing can be used at up to 8000l/ha to effectively control obnoxious root knot nematode and enrich soil for crop cultivation especially Sokoto local cowpea cultivar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the global palm oil production, it can be identified as the second largest vegetable oil. Palm oil is a natural resource that is favorable for the Malaysian climate. In 2017, Malaysia had a total of 454 palm oil mills with a production capacity of approximately 112 million tonnes of fresh fruit bunches. A sustainable environment denotes high income, value addition and zero waste. Nonetheless, palm oil mills are being associated with the discharge of untreated effluent water stream pollution, solid wastes, air pollution, etc. The important objective of this study is to measure the level of sustainable environmental practices parameters and awareness of millers. The primary data were collected through questionnaire survey and interviews from 71 millers in Malaysia. This study used confirmatory factor analysis to describe the relationships between the environmental parameters for measuring environment sustainability. This study found that most of the millers employ positive practices for environmental sustainability, and the highest environment parameter is disposal of solid wastes. However, this study can be implemented in Malaysian palm oil mills for identifying the lowest parameters. This study suggested to the industries that the new national sustainable policies for palm oil mills, especially for small and medium players, may enhance the environmental parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sustainable practices framework in accordance with environmental, economic, and social dimensions is an important constituent of the palm oil milling sub-sector for its effective contribution to the national economy of Malaysia. A major threat to the palm oil mills is the adoption of a lower sustainability practices framework that can result in environmental degradation, low production, prices of crude palm oil (CPO). The main objective is to examine the sustainability practices framework of the palm oil mills in Malaysia, through a comprehensive literature survey. Therefore, the methodology for the framework was studied using public-domain journal articles found through electronic databases. The literature survey encompasses publications dating from 1987 to 2018. The findings reveal that production rates and price of CPO are decreasing, although demand remains high. It suggests a further study of better national sustainable policies and standard for the palm oil mills via a primary survey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation was applied to simulate the dilution of undiluted crude oil (UCO) in a dilution tank of a palm oil mill. Fluid flow and mixing characteristics were examined. Considering the mixing behavior, the mixing of dilution water and UCO occurred as soon as these fluids entered the dilution tank, and the oil mass fraction in the mixture decreased gradually towards the outlet of the tank. Meanwhile, the velocity of dilution water and UCO declined as the fluids moved from their respective inlets. The intensity of turbulence flow remained until near the tank outlet. For the parametric study, the oil mass fraction of diluted crude oil (DCO) increased with higher UCO flow rate and oil mass fraction in the UCO but declined with higher dilution water flow rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coal bottom ash (CBA) sourced from thermal power plant was chemically treated using hydrochloric acid (HCl), namely CBA-HCl, and used as an adsorbent for palm oil mill effluent (POME) decolourisation. The treated CBA-HCl was characterised for surface property via Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), surface chemistry via Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and surface morphology via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Its effectiveness for adsorption of POME colour was investigated via batch experiments as a function of pH, initial POME concentration, adsorbent dosage and contact time. The adsorption increased with increasing contact time until an equilibrium state was achieved within 18 h to 24 h. The maximum POME colour removal, 81.15% was achieved at pH 6 utilising 14% (w/v) adsorbent dosage for 24 h. The colour adsorption isotherm and kinetics of the CBA-HCl was well-fitted with Freundlich and pseudo-second order models with correlation coefficient, R² = 0.9991 and R² = 0.9996, respectively. Based on the results, CBA can be a potential adsorbent in removing POME colour before being discharged into a watercourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Palm kernel shells (PKS), empty fruit bunches (EFB), and trunks are by-products of the palm oil industry and form approximately 50 wt % of fresh fruit bunch (FFB). In particular, EFB accounts for approximately 20 wt % of FFB. Although large amounts of EFB are generated from palm oil mills every year in Indonesia and Malaysia, EFB is treated as waste because commercial technologies for thermo-chemical conversion of EFB into renewable energy are still under development. A robust conversion method can transform EFB into an appealing renewable energy source. In order to secure this renewable energy source, Korea can import EFB as biomass. This paper investigates literature on the status of utilization of EFB, by-products from palm oil mills in order to identify the best available technological process to use EFB as bio-solid refuse fuels (SRF). Meanwhile, physico-chemical analyses (proximate, elemental, and calorific value analyses), biomass and heavy metal content were measured in order to assess whether EFB would be suitable for use as a bio-SRF, in accordance with the Korean quality standard for SRF. According to the analysis results, EFB showed applicability to use as bio-SRF; main analysis results - moisture (9.63 wt %), ash (5.94 wt %), biomass content (97.82 wt %) and calorific value (3668 kcal kg). Graphical abstract Image 10060 Highlights • Many information on EFB such as utilization status of imported biomass, policy and laws in Korea were summarized.. • Physico-chemical analysis was also carried out to assess whether EFB would be suitable for use as a bio-SRF. • The effect of combustion on heavy metal concentrations (Hg, Cd, Pb, As, Cr, Cu) was also assessed. • All analysis results were found out to be in line with those outlined in the quality standard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Global demand of palm oil and palm oil derivatives lead to generate a huge quantity of palm oil mill effluent (POME). A post treatment is an essential step to a polish biologically treated POME before final discharge. In this study, the performance of employing hydrogen peroxide to enhance electro coagulation process in polishing POME was investigated. Operational variables including current density, contact time, initial pH, and H 2 O 2 dosage were applied and optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). An optimized condition of 40.21 mA/cm2 of current density, 45.67 min of contact time, initial pH of 4.4 and 0.5 g/L of H 2 O 2 was able to achieve removal of 71.3%, 96.8%, and 100% for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), colour, and Total Suspended Solid (TSS), respectively. The parameters of polished POME were found below discharge limits of 1000 mg/L and 400 mg/L for COD and TSS, respectively. The biodegradability of POME increased from 0.037 to 0.14 by electro-coagulation-peroxidation (ECP) process. Compared with electrocoagulation alone, employing ECP in polishing POME can reduce current density by 28.2% and reaction time by 30%. Graphical abstract Image Highlights • Electro-coagulation-peroxidation (ECP) was examined as a post treatment for Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME). • The optimum treatment efficiency of 71.3%, 96.8%, and 100% for COD, colour, and TSS were obtained, respectively. • The optimum factors were current density 40.21 mA/cm2, contact time 45.67 minutes, initial pH of 4.4 and 0.5 g/L of H 2 O 2. • Employing ECP in polishing POME instead of EC alone can reduce current density by 28.2% and 30% of reaction time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palm oil mills discharge raw effluent with high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of about 25 000 mg O2/dm3. Conventional effluent treatment system uses ponds with a long hydraulic retention time of about 55-85 days, but the reduction of BOD is usually halted at 100-250 mg O2/dm3. Further reduction of BOD to below 20 mg O2/dm3 to meet regulation requirement needs further advanced treatment. This study evaluates the efficiency of an effluent polishing plant installed at a palm oil mill targeting final effluent BOD below 20 mg O2/dm3. Characteristic of the incoming and treated effluent, dissolved oxygen in the aeration ponds and the effluent flow rate of the treatment plant have been determined. Due to low process throughput at the mill, the polishing plant operated at only 60% of its designed capacity. Treatment of effluent showed reduction of BOD from 39.3±5.8 to 6.1±3.8 mg O2/dm3, i.e., a reduction by 80-94%. Colour - a newly proposed regulation parameter - was reduced from 1081±69 to 845±60 ADMI, i.e., by 11-30%. This study indicates that while the treatment of effluent to reduce the BOD to below 20 mg O2/dm3 is feasible, reduction of colour to less than 100 ADMI is not achievable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Chlorella sorokiniana CY-1 outcompeted Chlorella vulgaris ESP-31 to grow in POME. • POME pretreatment using acid and heat improved biomass and lipid yields of CY-1. • CY-1 produced biomass (2.12 g L−1) and lipid yields (11.21%) in pretreated POME. • Pollutants removal efficiencies were 62.07% (TN), 47.09% (COD) and 30.77% (TP). Abstract Microalgae cultivation in wastewaters has been identified as the solution for economical microalgae cultivation. This study investigated the feasibility of using POME for Chlorella sp. cultivation to yield biomass and lipids, as it generates massively in Malaysia which ranked world palm oil exporter. The optimal POME concentration and pretreatment strategy were applied to promote biomass and lipid productivities. Chlorella sorokiniana CY-1 attained maximal of 11.21% of lipid content with 2.12 g L−1 of biomass concentration when cultivation in acid-heat pretreated 30% (v/v) POME. This provides relatively higher yield than those reported values on POME. Pretreatment was found effective to enhance biomass productions, as it converts lignin in POME into reducing sugars to serve as the supplement. The pollutants removal efficiencies were 62.07% for TN, 47.09% for COD, and 30.77% for TP. This contributes towards greater feasibility in microalgae cultivation for biofuel productions and as well towards environmental sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The environmental load of continuous bioenergy production from palm oil ( Elaeis guineensis ) included with a proposed 10 ha of microalgae production system were assessed to be implemented in Indonesia. Material and energy balances, greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, nutrient requirement and also water scarcity during bioenergy production cycle were evaluated. The integrated system was developed for 60 tons h −1 of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) processing capacity of a conventional mill. Aggregate of energy-profit ratio from the proposed system was 5.20, which indicates a positive balance. The total water footprint for each palm oil and microalgae cultivation was 3.18 and 2.85 m 3  kg −1 of biodiesel production, respectively. Microalgae mix-culture has the potential to treat organic compounds from palm oil mill effluent (POME) and combined with flue gases from biomass and biogas power plant as the alternative nutrient sources contributed to net-reduction of GHG emission for 158.8 tons ha −1 of microalgae culture, annually. The integrated system produced 26,471 tons of biodiesel that included 223 tons from microalgae and contribute to 39.90% of total GHG emission reduction from diesel fuel substitute. Additional co-product of 520.33 tons year −1 of animal feed from defatted biomass also possible to be produced and have potential for environmental benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study is to use a life-cycle assessment (LCA) to compare and evaluate the environmental impact of combinations of open lagoon technology (COLT) with composting and COLT-Biogas for palm oil mill effluent (POME) treatment in North Sumatera, Indonesia. COLT-Biogas technology consists of three major types: composting, land application, and membrane technology. The environmental impact was evaluated by focusing on global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential, eutrophication potential, human toxicity potential, energy consumption (EC), and net energy ratio (NER). The results presented herein indicate that the GWP was the most significant criteria in the POME environmental impact assessment. With respect to GWP, COLT-Biogas A integrated with composting was observed more environmentally friendly than the other combinations. Approximately 357.18 kg CO 2-eq of GWP reduction could be achieved with this technology without considering the utilization potential of its products. With respect to NER, COLT-Biogas B with land application and COLT-Biogas C with membrane technology achieved better results since they do not require fossil fuel input. In terms of EC, COLT Biogas C with membrane technology required the lowest amount of energy among the alternative technologies. A novel approach of comparing POME treatment technologies is presented herein, and the findings could help decision makers and planners to adopt the more environmentally friendly policies, resulting in more sustainable palm oil products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high color intensity of palm oil mill effluent (POME) is because of the presence of plant constituents and melanoidins produced during Maillard reactions. In this study, various plant polysaccharide degrading microorganisms were isolated from enriched soil and utilized for decolorizing POME. The soil was screened for starch, cellulose, xylan, and chitin degrading microorganisms by using specific media and agar plate screening techniques. Based on the results of scoring, seven isolates were selected and treated with POME collected in liquid form from the palm oil industry in Malaysia. Morphological examinations and Gram staining were done for characterization of the selected isolates. The best three isolates, which were shown their potential for decolorization in terms of percentage of POME, were identified (DE 9, 11, and 17). It was expressed as mean ±SD. In a seven-day study period of POME with isolates, shaking in room temperature conditions provided maximum percentage of decolorization over that of static in 37°C conditions. The maximum percentages of decolorization for DE 9, DE 11, and DE 17 were 35.1±1.26, 20±1.0, and 30±1.0 on days 6, 5, and 5, respectively. This study primarily focused on decolorizing POME using various plant polysaccharide degrading aerobic bacteria isolated from the soil as an economic method of bioremediation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to examine the potential of palm biomass, taking a case of the Juaben Oil Mills in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, which has over the years generated electricity for its operations from its waste products and other benefits that have accrued to the company and the host community. Primary data collection and intensive desk study approaches were employed albeit qualitatively, to describe the use of palm biomass as supplementary source of electricity generation in Ghana. The study showed that there is enough potential (waste byproducts) for electricity generation to supplement current production from hydropower to meet growing demand. However, policy and institutional arrangements do not easily allow generation and extension for communal benefits. The authors therefore recommend a relook at existing policy and institutional arrangements to help promote this alternative source of energy for efficient and sustainable domestic and industrial uses. We also argue that ensuring efficiency in energy generation calls for R&D into its commercial potential and explore more efficient means of managing industrial and other agro biofuel wastes in developing economies. Future energy policy must also create and harness diversity of available biomass resources and reduce the delivery risks of the resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biohydrogen production from palm oil mill effluent (POME) using Thermoanaerobacterium thermosaccharolyticum PSU-2-rich sludge was conducted in a 5 L continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR). Mixing of effluent is crucial factor for hydrogen yield and net energy gain. Two types of turbines, namely the Rushton turbine and paddle turbine at 10, 50, 100, and 150 rpm were the comparative factors in this study. The operating parameters were 60 °C, 24-h hydraulic retention time (HRT), and 55 gCOD L influent −1 d −1 organic loading rate (OLR). Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was employed to understand the flow pattern, including dead zones and swirls of effluent in the CSTR. Mixing by Rushton turbine developed lesser dead zone and better mixing swirl than those of paddle turbine. At all mixing speeds, higher hydrogen yield was obtained when a Rushton turbine was applied. The highest hydrogen yield was 6826 mL H 2 L POME −1 (350 mL H 2 gCOD −1 ) at 150 rpm. However, the operating speed to achieve the maximum net energy gain (of 29.95 kJ) was 100 rpm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A research on the utilization of ink cap mushroom (Coprinus cinereus) on Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) degradation was conducted. Palm oil industry is an agricultural industry which keeps on developing in Indonesia. Aside from producing palm oil, this industry also generates POME. POME has high level of BOD and COD value thus it is dangerous for the environment. Coprinus cinereus was examined to degrade POME because of its ability to produce ligninases enzymes. The aim of this research was to evaluate ligninases enzymes produced by C. cinereus after the addition of inducers and its ability in degrading POME. Coprinus cinereus was cultivated on Defined Medium (DM) then the mycelia was harvested Inducers used in this study were CuSO4, KNO3 and sucrose. The suspension of Coprinus cinereus mycelia was used to degrade POME. The result showed that Coprinus cinereus could produce Laccase, Mangan Peroxidase and Lignin Peroxidase on DM. The addition of 200 µM CuSO4 and 10 mM KNO3 on DM could increase laccase activity by 62.92%. Coprinus cinereus has ability to degrade Poly R-478 and POME. The treatment of 200 µM CuSO4 on media could increase the degradation of Poly R-478 by 19.32% after 9 days of incubation. The addition of 15 g/L sucrose on POME could increase decolorization by 75.26% and COD reduction by 91.26% after 27 days of incubation. Ink Cap Mushroom (Coprinus cinereus) can be used for POME degradation. The addition of sucrose and heating treatment would accelerate COD reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study optimum operation parameters of a newly developed sterilizer of the medium-scale oil palm processing mill were investigated for maximum oil yield. Taguchi's experimental design of orthogonal array L9 ( [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stable isotope technique has been applied in this study to determine whether the isotopic ratio values of ²H and 18O could be used distinctly to identify palm oil mill effluent (POME) as a source of surface water and groundwater contamination in the study area. In this project, surface water samples from upstream and downstream of palm oil effluent mill-related furrow and river groundwater samples within the study site, along with POME samples, were analysed to study the applicability of the stable isotope ratios as a tool for evaluating the characteristics of POME and its impact to the environment. The highly enriched isotopic values of POME and treated POME associated with oil palm production processes and treatment of the POME in the Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) provide unique distinct isotopic composition for the POME and treated POME-impacted waters resulted from the mixing process either in the surface water or groundwater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollution from residual oil contaminating wastewater is a serious environmental problem. The rapid development and growth of palm oil industries in Thailand have generated large volumes of palm oil mill effluent (POME) which contains residual oil. Instead of becoming a pollutant in the environment, residual oil from POME can be used as raw material for producing biodiesel. Biodiesel has recently become more attractive as an alternative energy source due to its environmental friendly properties generated from renewable resources. This study investigated the characteristics of residual oil and found: a free fatty acid content of 22.03 % wt, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) of 3.767 %wt, acid value of 49.29 mg KOH/g, water content of 1.01 % mg/Kg, and total glycerines as monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglyceride at 1.15 % m/m, 11.88 % m/m, and 87.54 % m/m respectively. Optimal conditions to separate water from oil contents are also determined. Separation of residual oil from POME is carried out using the solvent extraction process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]