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c-Cbl suppresses RelB activation to facilitate protective benefits of commensal fungi and maintain intestinal homeostasis., Intestinal fungi are critical for modulating host immune homeostasis and underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We show that dendritic cell (DC)–specific deficiency of casitas B-lineage lymphoma (c-Cbl) renders mice susceptible to dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)–induced colitis. Mechanistically, we identify that c-Cbl functions downstream of Dectin-2 and Dectin-3 to mediate the ubiquitination and degradation of noncanonical nuclear factor κB subunit RelB. Thus, c-Cbl deficiency in DCs promotes α-mannan–induced activation of RelB, which suppresses p65-mediated transcription of an anti-inflammatory cytokine gene, il10, thereby aggravating DSS-induced colitis. Moreover, suppressing fungal growth with fluconazole or inhibition of RelB activation in vivo attenuates colitis in mice with DC-specific deletion of c-Cbl. We also demonstrate an interaction between c-Cbl and c-Abl tyrosine kinase and find that treatment with DPH, a c-Abl agonist, synergistically increases fungi-induced c-Cbl activation to restrict colitis. Together, these findings unravel a previously unidentified fungi-induced c-Cbl/RelB axis that sustains intestinal homeostasis and protects against intestinal inflammation.

Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii cause life-threatening meningoencephalitis or lung diseases in immunocompetent individuals or immunocompromised ones. C. neoformans and C. gattii are subdivided into five serotypes based on their capsular glucuronoxylomannan (GXM). C. neoformans consists of serotypes A, D, and AD hybrid, and C. gattii consists of serotypes B and C. Given structural differences of GXM between C. neoformans and C. gattii, it remains unclear that how innate immune system recognizes GXM. Here, we report that C-type lectin receptor Dectin-3 (MCL encoded by Clec4d) is a direct receptor for GXMs from C. neoformans serotype AD (C.n-AD) and C. gattii serotype B (C.g-B). GXMs from C.n-AD and C.g-B activated NF-κB and ERK pathways to induce pro-inflammatory cytokine production, whereas it was completely abolished due to deficiency of Dectin-3 or caspase recruitment domain family member 9 (CARD9). Upon pulmonary C.n-AD and C.g-B infection, Dectin-3- and CARD9-deficient mice were highly susceptible and showed augmented lung injury due to impairment of alveolar macrophage accumulation and killing activities. Our study provides the first biological and genetic evidence demonstrating that Dectin-3 recognizes GXM of C.n-AD and C.g-B to initiate host defense against cryptococcosis.

CARD9 is dispensable for NF-κB activation induced by Dectin-1 ligands in mice. However, Dectin-1–induced H-Ras activation is mediated by a complex with CARD9, which leads to ERK activation for host innate immune responses to Candida albicans infection., Dectin-1 functions as a pattern recognition receptor for sensing fungal infection. It has been well-established that Dectin-1 induces innate immune responses through caspase recruitment domain-containing protein 9 (CARD9)–mediated NF-κB activation. In this study, we find that CARD9 is dispensable for NF-κB activation induced by Dectin-1 ligands, such as curdlan or Candida albicans yeast. In contrast, we find that CARD9 regulates H-Ras activation by linking Ras-GRF1 to H-Ras, which mediates Dectin-1–induced extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) activation and proinflammatory responses when stimulated by their ligands. Mechanistically, Dectin-1 engagement initiates spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk)–dependent Ras-GRF1 phosphorylation, and the phosphorylated Ras-GRF1 recruits and activates H-Ras through forming a complex with CARD9, which leads to activation of ERK downstream. Finally, we show that inhibiting ERK activation significantly accelerates the death of C. albicans–infected mice, and this inhibitory effect is dependent on CARD9. Together, our studies reveal a molecular mechanism by which Dectin-1 induces H-Ras activation that leads to ERK activation for host innate immune responses against fungal infection.

Previous studies indicate that both Dectin-3 (also called MCL or Clec4d) and Mincle (also called Clec4e), two C-type lectin receptors, can recognize trehalose 6,6′-dimycolate (TDM), a cell wall component from mycobacteria, and induce potent innate immune responses. Interestingly, stimulation of Dectin-3 by TDM can also induce Mincle expression, which may enhance the host innate immune system to sense Mycobacterium infection. However, the mechanism by which Dectin-3 induces Mincle expression is not fully defined. Here, we show that TDM-induced Mincle expression is dependent on Dectin-3-mediated NF-κB, but not nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT), activation, and Dectin-3 induces NF-κB activation through the CARD9-BCL10-MALT1 complex. We found that bone marrow-derived macrophages from Dectin-3-deficient mice were severely defective in the induction of Mincle expression in response to TDM stimulation. This defect is correlated with the failure of TDM-induced NF-κB activation in Dectin-3-deficient bone marrow-derived macrophages. Consistently, inhibition of NF-κB, but not NFAT, impaired TDM-induced Mincle expression, whereas NF-κB, but not NFAT, binds to the Mincle promoter. Dectin-3-mediated NF-κB activation is dependent on the CARD9-Bcl10-MALT1 complex. Finally, mice deficient for Dectin-3 or CARD9 produced much less proinflammatory cytokines and keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH)-specific antibodies after immunization with an adjuvant containing TDM. Overall, this study provides the mechanism by which Dectin-3 induces Mincle expression in response to Mycobacterium infection, which will have significant impact to improve adjuvant and design vaccine for antimicrobial infection.

SummaryC-type lectin receptors (CLRs) play critical roles as pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) for sensing Candida albicans infection, which can be life-threatening for immunocompromised individuals. Here we have shown that Dectin-3 (also called CLECSF8, MCL, or Clec4d), a previously uncharacterized CLR, recognized α-mannans on the surfaces of C. albicans hyphae and induced NF-κB activation. Mice with either blockade or genetically deleted Dectin-3 were highly susceptible to C. albicans infection. Dectin-3 constantly formed heterodimers with Dectin-2, a well-characterized CLR, for recognizing C. albicans hyphae. Compared to their respective homodimers, Dectin-3 and Dectin-2 heterodimers bound α-mannans more effectively, leading to potent inflammatory responses against fungal infections. Together, our study demonstrates that Dectin-3 forms a heterodimeric PRR with Dectin-2 for sensing fungal infection and suggests that different CLRs may form different hetero- and homodimers, which provide different sensitivity and diversity for host cells to detect various microbial infections.