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Polyphenols have a variety of physiological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, their applications are often limited because due to the instability of polyphenols. Encapsulation technologies can be employed to overcome these problems and increase the utilization of polyphenols. In this article, the utilization of protein-based nanoparticles for encapsulating polyphenols is reviewed due to their good biocompatibility, biodegradability, and functional attributes. Initially, the various kinds of animal and plant proteins available for forming protein nanoparticles are discussed, as well as the fabrication methods that can be used to assemble these nanoparticles. The molecular interaction mechanisms between proteins and polyphenols are then summarized. Applications of protein-based nanoparticles for encapsulating polyphenols are then discussed, including as nutrient delivery systems, in food packaging materials, and in the creation of functional foods. Finally, areas where further research is need on the development, characterization, and application of protein-based polyphenol-loaded nanoparticles are highlighted.

Three nanoparticles were fabricated for the co-delivery of quercetin and resveratrol. Nanoparticles consisted of a zein and carboxymethyl cellulose assembled using antisolvent precipitation/layer-by-layer deposition method. Nanoparticles contained quercetin in the core and resveratrol in the shell, resveratrol in the core and quercetin in the shell or both quercetin and resveratrol in the core. The particle sizes of nanoparticles were 280.4, 214.8, and 181.8 nm, respectively. Zeta-potential was about -50 mV and PDI was about 0.3. The different positions of polyphenol distribution nanoparticles could reduce the competition between the two polyphenols, the encapsulation rate, loading rate and storage stability reached up to 91.7 %, 5.37 % and 97.1 %, respectively. FT-IR showed that hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions were the main driving forces of nanoparticle assembly. XRD showed that two polyphenols were successfully encapsulated in nanoparticles. TGA showed that distributing the nanoparticles in different layers would enhance thermal stability. TEM and SEM showed that polysaccharides attached to the surface of nanoparticles formed a core-shell structure with uniform particle size. All three nanoparticles could release two polyphenols slowly in simulated gastrointestinal digestion, Korsmeyer-Peppas was the most suitable kinetic release model. Therefore, biopolymer-based nanocarriers can be created to enhance the loading, stability, and bioaccessibility of co-encapsulated nutraceuticals., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome. We confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by all of us. We confirm that we have given due consideration to the protection of intellectual property associated with this work and that there are no impediments to publication, including the timing of publication, with respect to intellectual property. In so doing we confirm that we have followed the regulations of our institutions concerning intellectual property., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The potential of using emulsion gels stabilized by binary plant protein nanoparticle mixtures for the encapsulation and delivery of lipophilic nutraceuticals was evaluated. The particle characteristics, physical stability, water diffusivity, microrheology, large amplitude oscillating shear (LAOS) properties, and in vitro digestion of emulsion gels prepared by different ratios of hydrolyzed rice glutelin fibrils (HRGFs) and pea protein nanoparticle (PNP) were characterized. The emulsion gel with P/H = 2:1 (0.84 μm) exhibited the best storage stability and freeze-thaw stability, as seen by the smaller oil droplet size (1.02 and 1.42 μm, respectively). Low-field pulsed NMR indicated that the majority of water in samples was highly mobile. All the samples were predominantly elastic-like materials. The P/H 2:1 emulsion gel had the lowest FI value (6.21 × 10 -4  Hz), the highest MVI value (5.57 s/nm 2 ), G'/ G″ values and enclosed area, showing that it had denser 3D network structures, higher stiffness values, and a high sensitivity to changes in strain. Additionally, P/H 2:1 emulsion gel had a relatively high lipid digestibility (96.1 %), curcumin bioaccessibility (58.9 %), and curcumin stability (94.2 %). This study showed that emulsion gels stabilized by binary protein nanoparticle mixtures (PNP/HRGF) have potential as edible delivery systems for lipophilic nutraceuticals., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In this study, a combination of whey protein (hydrophilic coating) and polydopamine (crosslinking agent) was used to improve the stability and functionality of quercetin-loaded zein nanoparticles. There are two key benefits of the core-shell nanoparticles formed. First, the ability of the polydopamine to bind to both zein and whey protein facilitates the formation of a stable core-shell structure, thereby protecting quercetin from any pro-oxidants in the aqueous surroundings. Second, neutral and hydrophilic whey proteins were used for the surface coating of the nanoparticles to further enhance the sustained and slow release of quercetin, facilitating its sustained release into the body at a slow and steady rate. The results of this study will promote the innovative development of precise nutritional delivery systems for zein and provide a theoretical basis for the design and development of dietary supplements based on hydrophobic food nutrient molecules., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest No conflicts of interest are declared for any of the authors., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

The low bioavailability of polyphenolic compounds due to poor solubility and stability is a major challenge. Encapsulation of polyphenols in zein-based composite nanoparticles can improve the water dispersion, stability, targeted delivery, and controlled release of polyphenols in the gastrointestinal tract. In this study, we investigated the fluorescence properties, bioactivity, and microstructural characteristics of polyphenols during digestion, revealing that zein nanoparticles protect polyphenols from gastric degradation and promote their sustained release in the small intestine. The effects of different ionic species and salt ion concentrations on the digestive properties of polyphenol complex delivery systems have also been explored. In addition, the formation of "protein corona" structures during digestion may affect bioavailability. These findings highlight the potential of nanoparticle formulations to improve polyphenol stability and absorption. The results of this study may provide new insights and references for the study of polyphenol bioavailability enhancement., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest All authors have read this manuscript. None of the material related to this manuscript has been published or is under consideration for publication elsewhere, including the Internet., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Previously, we found that whey proteins form biomolecular coronas around titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) nanoparticles. Here, the gastrointestinal fate of whey protein-coated TiO 2 nanoparticles and their interactions with gut microbiota were investigated. The antioxidant activity of protein-coated nanoparticles was enhanced after simulated digestion. The structure of the whey proteins was changed after they adsorbed to the surfaces of the TiO 2 nanoparticles, which reduced their hydrolysis under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. The presence of protein coronas also regulated the impact of the TiO 2 nanoparticles on colonic fermentation, including promoting the production of short-chain fatty acids. Bare TiO 2 nanoparticles significantly increased the proportion of harmful bacteria and decreased the proportion of beneficial bacteria, but the presence of protein coronas alleviated this effect. In particular, the proportion of beneficial bacteria, such as Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium , was enhanced for the coated nanoparticles. Our results suggest that the formation of a whey protein corona around TiO 2 nanoparticles may have beneficial effects on their behavior within the colon. This study provides valuable new insights into the potential impact of protein coronas on the gastrointestinal fate of inorganic nanoparticles.

Essential oils (EOs) are biologically active and volatile substances that have found widespread applications in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. However, there are some challenges to their commercial utilization due to their high volatility, susceptibility to degradation, and hydrophobicity. In their free form, EOs can quickly evaporate, as well as undergo degradation reactions like oxidation, isomerization, dehydrogenation, or polymerization when exposed to light, heat, or air. Encapsulating EOs within mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNPs) could overcome these limitations and thereby broaden their usage. MSNPs may endow protection and slow-release properties to EOs, thereby extending their stability, enhancing their efficacy, and improving their dispersion in aqueous environments. This review explores and compares the design and development of different MSNP-based nanoplatforms to encapsulate, protect, and release EOs. Initially, a brief overview of the various types of available MSNPs, their properties, and their synthesis methods is given to better understand their roles as carriers for EOs. Several encapsulation technologies are then examined, including solvent-based and solvent-free methods. The suitability of each technology for EO encapsulation, as well as its impact on their stability and release, is discussed in detail. Opportunities and challenges for using EO-loaded MSNPs as preservatives, flavor enhancers, and antimicrobial agents in the food industry are then highlighted. Overall, this review aims to bridge a knowledge gap by providing a thorough understanding of EO encapsulation within MSNPs, which should facilitate the application of this technology in the food industry., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Increasing demand for high-quality fresh fruits and vegetables has led to the development of innovative active packaging materials that exhibit controlled release of antimicrobial/antioxidant agents. In this study, composite biopolymer films consisting of methylcellulose (MC) and chitosan nanofibers (ChNF) were fabricated, which contained lactoferrin (LAC)-loaded silver-metal organic framework (Ag-MOF) nanoparticles. The results indicated that the nanoparticles were uniformly distributed throughout the biopolymer films, which led to improvements in tensile strength (56.1 ± 3.2 MPa), thermal stability, water solubility, swelling index, water vapor barrier properties (from 2.2 ± 2.1 to 1.9 ± 1.9 × 10 -11  g. m/m 2 . s. Pa), and UV-shielding effects. The Ag-MOF-LAC2% films also exhibited strong and long-lasting antibacterial activity against E. coli (19.8 ± 5.2 mm) and S. aureus (20.1 ± 3.2 mm), which was attributed to the slow release of antimicrobial LAC from the films. The composite films were shown to maintain the fresh appearance of apples for at least seven days, which was attributed to their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Consequently, these composite films have the potential in the assembly of innovative active packaging materials for protecting fresh fruits and vegetables. However, further work is required to ensure their safety and economic viability., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

High internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) stabilized by protein nanoparticles have been widely reported, but the use of enzymatic methods for preparing these nanoparticles remains underexplored. Our hypothesis is that enzymatically crosslinked α-lactalbumin (ALA) nanoparticles (ALATGs) prepared using transglutaminase will demonstrate improved properties as stabilizers for HIPPEs. In this study, we investigated the physicochemical properties and microstructures of ALATGs, finding that enzymatic crosslinking could be enhanced by removing Ca 2+ ions from ALA and preheating the proteins (85 °C, 15 min). The electrical charge, secondary structure, and surface hydrophobicity of ALATGs were found to depend on crosslinking conditions. HIPPEs formed with an ALA concentration of 10 mg/mL and an enzyme activity of 120 U/g exhibited the highest apparent viscosity and mechanical strength, as well as significantly improved loading capacity and photostability for the encapsulated lycopene. Overall, our results support the hypothesis that ALATG-nanoparticles show superior performance as emulsifiers compared to ALA-nanoparticles., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Different fruit and vegetable juices were first used to encapsulate curcumin to improve its solubility, stability, and bioaccessibility, which is expected to enable designing of polyphenol-enriched beverages and impact human health and well-being. Briefly, fruit and vegetable-derived extracellular vesicles usually serve as transport and communication tools between different cells, which means they also may be utilized as delivery carriers for other bioactive agents. Curcumin, as a model polyphenol with many physiological activities, typically has low water-solubility, stability, and bioaccessibility. Therefore, extracellular vesicles were applied to load curcumin to overcome these challenges and to facilitate its incorporation into fruit and vegetable juices. Three kinds of curcumin-loaded fruit and vegetable juices, including curcumin-loaded grape (Cur-G), tomato (Cur-T), and orange (Cur-O) juices, exhibited higher encapsulation efficiency (>80%) than others. The patterns of XRD and FTIR confirmed that curcumin moved into extracellular vesicles in the amorphous form and that the hydrogen bonding force was found between them. Three kinds of fruit and vegetable juices can significantly enhance the solubility, stability and bioavailability of curcumin, but the degrees of improvement are different. For instance, Cur-O exhibited the highest encapsulation efficiency, chemical stability, and effective bioaccessibility than Cur-G and Cur-T. In summary, this study shows that natural fruit and vegetable juices can effectively improve the solubility, stability and bioaccessibility of active polyphenols, which is expected to enable successful designing of nutrient-enriched beverages with a simple method according to various needs of people and be directly applied to food processing and home production.

Zein-quercetagetin-chondroitin sulfate (Zein-Que-CS) composite nanoparticles with different compositions were successfully fabricated using a novel antisolvent co-precipitation method. The mean particle diameter (97.5 to 219.4 nm), negative surface potential (-29.9 to -51.1 mV), and turbidity (265 to 370 NTU) of suspensions of Zein-Que nanoparticles increased after the addition of CS. Electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic attraction were the main driving forces for the formation of the composite nanoparticles. The encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of the quercetagetin within the Zein-Que-CS (100:10:30) nanoparticles were 91.6 % and 6.1 %, respectively. The photostability and thermal stability of the encapsulated quercetagetin were 3.4- and 3.2- fold higher than that of the free form. The nanoparticles had good resistance to sedimentation and exhibited slow-release properties under simulated gastrointestinal conditions. The Zein-Que-CS nanoparticles developed in this study may therefore be useful for the encapsulation, protection, and delivery of quercetagetin., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In aqueous media, titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) nanoparticles can interact with proteins in their environment and form a protein corona. The pH of the aqueous media affects the structure and properties of the protein corona, and currently there is a lack of understanding of the effects of pH on the characteristics of protein coronas. In this study, we examined the impact of pH (2-11) on the structural and physicochemical properties of whey protein coronas formed around TiO 2 nanoparticles. The pH of the solution influenced the structure of whey protein molecules, especially around their isoelectric point. Thermogravimetric and quartz crystal microbalance analyses showed that the adsorption capacity of the whey proteins was the largest at their isoelectric points and the lowest under highly acidic or alkaline conditions. The majority of the proteins were tightly bound to the nanoparticle surfaces, forming a hard corona. The influence of solution pH on protein corona properties was mainly attributed to its impact on the electrostatic forces in the system, which impacted the protein conformation and interactions. This study provides useful insights into the influence of pH on the formation and properties of protein coronas around inorganic nanoparticles, which may be important for understanding the gastrointestinal and environmental fates.

Curcumin has been reported to exhibit free radical antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, which are beneficial for nutraceutical applications. However, its application for this purpose is limited by its poor water solubility, stability, and bioavailability. These problems can be overcome using food-grade colloidal particles that encapsulate, protect, and deliver curcumin. These colloidal particles can be assembled from structure-forming food components that may also exhibit protective effects, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. In this study, lactoferrin (LF), (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and hyaluronic acid (HA) were used to fabricate composite nanoparticles using a simple pH-shift method. We showed that curcumin could be successfully loaded into these LF-EGCG-HA nanoparticles ( d = 145 nm). The encapsulation efficiency (86%) and loading capacity (5.8%) of curcumin within these nanoparticles were relatively high. Encapsulation improved the thermal, light, and storage stabilities of the curcumin. Moreover, the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles exhibited good redispersibility after dehydration. The in vitro digestion properties, cellular uptake, and anticancer effects of the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles were then explored. Compared to free curcumin, the bioaccessibility and cellular uptake of the curcumin were significantly improved after encapsulation in the nanoparticles. Furthermore, the nanoparticles significantly promoted the apoptosis of colorectal cancer cells. This study suggests that food-grade biopolymer nanoparticles can be used to improve the bioavailability and bioactivity of an important nutraceutical.

Biodegradable food packaging films (FPFs) assembled from sustainable biopolymeric materials are of increasing interest to the food industry due to pollution and health risks resulting from the use of conventional plastic packaging. However, the functional performance of these FPFs is often poorer than that of plastic films, which limits their commercial application. This problem may be partly overcome by incorporating nano-additives like zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZNPs) into the films. The incorporation of ZNPs into FPFs can improve their functional performance. The properties of these films depends on the concentration, dispersion state, and interactions of ZNPs with the biopolymeric matrix in the films. ZNPs-loaded films and coatings are highly effective at preserving a variety of fresh foods. Studies of ZNPs migration through FPFs have shown that the zinc is mainly transported in an ionic form and the amount entering foods is below safety standards. This article reviews recent developments in the design, fabrication, and application of ZNPs-loaded FPFs based on biopolymers, focusing on the impacts of ZNPs on the optical, barrier, mechanical, water sensitivity, and antimicrobial properties of the films. The potential applications of ZNPs-loaded FPFs for fresh food preservation is also discussed., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Pickering emulsion gels (PKEGs) are being explored as solid fat substitutes and delivery systems due to their semi-solid textures and high stabilities. However, these PKEGs have relatively high-fat content, which is undesirable for nutritional and cost reasons. Therefore, in this study, low-fat PKEGs (10 % oil content) were successfully fabricated using zein/phytic acid (ZPA) complex nanoparticles with zein to phytic acid mass ratio of 1:0.006. These nanoparticles have a mean diameter of around 161 nm and wettability of around 89°. The formation of PKEGs were confirmed by the results of dynamic rheology (G' > G″). Confocal laser scanning microscope showed that the complex nanoparticles formed a dense barrier on the surface of the oil droplets, which prevented the oil droplets against coalescence. The chemical stability of curcumin was greatly improved by encapsulation in the PKEGs. The low-fat PKEGs developed in this study may be effective delivery systems for hydrophobic bioactive substances., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this study, curcumin, zein, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and carrageenan were used to fabricate curcumin-zein-EGCG-carrageenan (CZEC) layer-by-layer nanoparticles. These nanoparticles were embedded within carrageenan films to form composite films with enhanced antioxidant activity and smart responses. Light scattering, micro-electrophoresis, FTIR, and SEM were used to characterize the size, charge, interactions, and morphology of CZEC nanoparticles. The optical, mechanical, morphological, spectroscopic, thermal, and other functional attributes of the films were evaluated. The CZEC nanoparticles were uniformly dispersed within the carrageenan matrices, and improved their UV barrier (2.4-11.1 A mm -1 ), mechanical (7.09 %-9.35 %), and thermal resistance properties. The films exhibited a color change, from yellow to red, in response to an increase in pH (2.0-12.0) or ammonia concentration (8.0 mM). The films also displayed relatively high DPPH (79.46 %) and ABTS (73.34 %) free radical scavenging activities. Finally, the composite film exhibited the ability of monitoring and extending the freshness of packaged fish., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Starches are a major constituent of staple foods and are the main source of energy in the human diet (55-70%). In the gastrointestinal tract, starches are hydrolyzed into glucose by α-amylase and α-glucosidase, which leads to a postprandial glucose elevation. High levels of blood glucose levels over sustained periods may promote type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity. Increasing consumption of starchy foods with a lower glycemic index may therefore contribute to improved health. In this paper, the preparation and properties of several starch-based nanoparticles (SNPs) and cyclodextrins (CDs) derivatives are reviewed. In particular, we focus on the various mechanisms responsible for the ability of these edible nanomaterials to modulate glucose release and the gut microbiome in the gastrointestinal tract. The probiotic functions are achieved through encapsulation and protection of prebiotics or bioactive components in foods or the human gut. This review therefore provides valuable information that could be used to design functional foods for improving human health and wellbeing.

The improved understanding of the connection between diet and health has led to growing interest in the development of functional foods designed to improve health and wellbeing. Many of the potentially health-promoting bioactive ingredients that food manufacturers would like to incorporate into these products are difficult to utilize because of their chemical instability, poor solubility, or low bioavailability. For this reason, nano-based delivery systems are being developed to overcome these problems. Food proteins possess many functional attributes that make them suitable for formulating various kinds of nanocarriers, including their surface activity, water binding, structuring, emulsification, gelation, and foaming, as well as their nutritional aspects. Proteins-based nanocarriers are therefore useful for introducing bioactive ingredients into functional foods, especially for their targeted delivery in specific applications.This review focusses on the preparation, properties, and applications of protein-based nanocarriers, such as nanoparticles, micelles, nanocages, nanoemulsions, and nanogels. In particular, we focus on the development and application of stimulus-responsive protein-based nanocarriers, which can be used to release bioactive ingredients in response to specific environmental triggers. Finally, we discuss the potential and future challenges in the design and application of these protein-based nanocarriers in the food industry.

Edible proteins can self-assemble into fibrils, which can improve their performance as emulsifiers. However, they are limited in some food applications. We prepared whey protein isolate fibril-cellulose nanocrystal complexes (WPIF-CNC) by electrostatic complexation. The stabilities of emulsions prepared using either WPIF or WPIF-CNC were compared to evaluate the effect of complexation on emulsion formation and properties. Moreover, the potential of the emulsions to act as delivery systems for curcumin was investigated. WPIF and CNC were found to complex by hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, and electrostatic interactions. The complexes formed were good Pickering stabilizers in oil-in-water emulsions. Emulsions formulated using the complexes were more resistant to creaming than those stabilized by WPIF. The complexes were able to form self-supporting gelled emulsions at 70 % oil concentration, which protected curcumin from photo- and thermal-degradation. Consequently, dual-fibrous complexes may have application in the food industry as novel emulsifiers for the creation of nutraceutical delivery systems., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest No author has financial or other contractual agreements that might cause conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Oral administration of combinations of specific nutrients and nutraceuticals can provide synergistic health benefits to humans. In this work, zein/carboxymethyl cellulose composite nanoparticles were successfully prepared using antisolvent precipitation methods. Zein/carboxymethyl cellulose nanoparticles with the smallest size (204.6 nm) were formed when the mass ratio of zein to CMC was 2 : 1. Hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions were dominant binding forces to stabilize the composite nanoparticles. Quercetin and resveratrol were then encapsulated within these nanocarriers, which improved their resistance to both light and thermal degradation. Encapsulation of the nutraceuticals was shown to delay their release under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, which may be beneficial for some applications. Moreover, encapsulation increased the in vitro bioaccessibility of the quercetin and resveratrol. Our results indicate that zein/carboxymethyl cellulose nanoparticles can be used to co-deliver combinations of bioactive compounds, which may be useful for the development of functional foods, supplements, and pharmaceuticals.

The properties of nutraceutical-loaded biopolymer nanoparticles fabricated by antisolvent co-precipitation (ASCP) and precipitation (ASP) were compared. Curcumin-loaded zein-tea saponin nanoparticles were fabricated using both methods and then their structural and physicochemical properties were characterized. The diameter of the nanoparticles prepared by ASCP were smaller (120-130 nm) than those prepared by ASP (140-160 nm). The encapsulation efficiency of the ASCP-nanoparticles (80.0%) was higher than the ASP-ones (71.0%) at a zein-to-curcumin mass ratio of 3:1, which was also higher than previous studies. The storage and light stability of curcumin was higher in zein-saponin nanoparticles than in zein nanoparticles. All nanoparticles had good water dispersibility after freeze-drying and rehydration. This study shows that nanoparticles produced by antisolvent co-precipitation have superior properties to those produced by antisolvent precipitation. The co-precipitation method leads to a higher encapsulation efficiency, smaller particle size, and greater storage stability, which may be advantageous for some applications., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the impact of their dietary choices on the environment, animal welfare, and health, which is causing many of them to adopt more plant-based diets. For this reason, many sectors of the food industry are reformulating their products to contain more plant-based ingredients. This article describes recent research on the formation and application of nano-enabled colloidal delivery systems formulated from plant-based ingredients, such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and phospholipids. These delivery systems include nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoliposomes, nanophytosomes, and biopolymer nanoparticles. The composition, size, structure, and charge of the particles in these delivery systems can be manipulated to create novel or improved functionalities, such as improved robustness, higher optical clarity, controlled release, and increased bioavailability. There have been major advances in the design, assembly, and application of plant-based edible nanoparticles within the food industry over the past decade or so. As a result, there are now a wide range of different options available for creating delivery systems for specific applications. In the future, it will be important to establish whether these formulations can be produced using economically viable methods and provide the desired functionality in real-life applications., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Nanotechnology is being utilized in various industries to increase the quality, safety, shelf-life, and functional performance of commercial products. Nanoemulsions are thermodynamically unstable colloidal dispersions that consist of at least two immiscible liquids (typically oil and water), as well as various stabilizers (including emulsifiers, texture modifiers, ripening inhibitors, and weighting agents). They have unique properties that make them particularly suitable for some applications, including their small droplet size, high surface area, good physical stability, rapid digestibility, and high bioavailability. This article reviews recent developments in the formulation, fabrication, functional performance, and gastrointestinal fate of nanoemulsions suitable for use in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, nutraceutical, and food industries, as well as providing an overview of regulatory and health concerns. Nanoemulsion-based delivery systems can enhance the water-dispersibility, stability, and bioavailability of hydrophobic bioactive compounds. Nevertheless, they must be carefully formulated to obtain the required functional attributes. In particular, the concentration, size, charge, and physical properties of the nano-droplets must be taken into consideration for each specific application. Before launching a nanoscale product onto the market, determination of physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles and their potential health and environmental risks should be evaluated. In addition, legal, consumer, and economic factors must also be considered when creating these systems., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) nanoparticles are utilized within the food industry as an additive to alter food brightness and whiteness. Amphiphilic food ingredients, like proteins, can adsorb on to the surfaces of TiO 2 nanoparticles and form protein coronas that could alter their gastrointestinal fate. At present, our understanding of the factors influencing the formation and properties of protein coronas was limited. In this study, we explored the influence of thermal treatments of proteins on the physicochemical properties of protein coronas formed on TiO 2 nanoparticles. Four plant proteins (glutenin, soy protein isolate, gliadin, and zein) were heat-treated at different temperatures for 30 min. Heat treatment (100 °C) disrupted the structure of the original proteins and changed the structure properties of the protein and formed coronas. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation results showed that for the heat-sensitive proteins, such as glutenin, a high temperature treatment (100 °C) weakened the binding affinity between the protein and the nanoparticle surfaces. In contrast, for more heat-resistant proteins, such as gliadin, a high-temperature treatment had much less effect. In summary, this study showed that the structural properties of plant proteins affected by heat were an important factor affecting the formation of protein coronas on food nanoparticles.

In this study, core-shell biopolymer nanoparticles were fabricated for the encapsulation and delivery of curcumin using a pH-driven method. The influences of the coating composition on the physicochemical properties and curcumin release characteristics of the core-shell nanoparticles were studied. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analyses indicated that curcumin was encapsulated in an amorphous state inside the nanoparticles. Particle size and ζ-potential measurements indicated that the biopolymer nanoparticles were relatively stable under different environmental conditions: long term storage, heating, pH changes and salt. The DPPH radical scavenging activity of the curcumin was increased after encapsulation within the nanoparticles, whereas the gastrointestinal release of curcumin was prolonged. These results were attributed to the ability of alginate and NaCas to form a thick layer around the nanoparticles, which increased the steric and electrostatic repulsion between them, as well as inhibiting the release of curcumin., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Titanium dioxide is widely utilized as a pigment in the food industry to enhance the whiteness or brightness of foods and beverages. The powdered forms of titanium dioxide used as food ingredients contain a substantial fraction of nanoparticles ( d < 100 nm), which may have adverse effects on human health. This is a model study that investigated the molecular interactions between TiO 2 nanoparticles and selected polyphenols, as well as their influence on the in vitro bioavailability and antioxidant activity of the polyphenols. Our results showed that the chemical structure of polyphenols significantly influenced their binding affinity to TiO 2 nanoparticle surfaces, with those possessing vicinal trihydroxy groups having the highest binding affinities. The presence of TiO 2 nanoparticles was shown to reduce the bioavailability of polyphenols using an in vitro digestion model. This effect was mainly ascribed to the formation of large TiO 2 nanoparticle-polyphenol complex agglomerates that could not pass through the pores in the dialysis tube used to simulate the epithelium layer. Additionally, the binding of polyphenols to the surfaces of TiO 2 nanoparticles reduced their antioxidant activity. This study provides valuable insights into the impact of inorganic nanoparticles on the bioavailability and bioactivity of polyphenols.

Tannic acid was loaded into zein nanoparticles using antisolvent precipitation and then these particles were coated by anionic pectin using electrostatic deposition. The resulting core-shell nanoparticles were near spherical and had an average diameter of 166 nm, a particle yield of 95%, a tannic acid content of 5.4%, and a tannic acid loading efficiency of 89%. Circular dichroism revealed that the presence of tannic acid caused little change in the secondary structure of the zein within the nanoparticles. Fluorescence spectroscopy suggested the formation of a molecular complex between the zein and tannic acid molecules. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated that hydrogen bonding was the main force holding these complexes together. The core-shell nanoparticles remained resistant to flocculation from pH 2 to 8, when heated at 80 °C for 2 h, and when the NaCl concentration was below 30 mM. The encapsulated tannic acid preserved its high antioxidant capacity. The tannic acid was progressively released from the core-shell nanoparticles under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, with the majority of release occurring within the small intestine. Overall, this research suggests that pectin-coated zein nanoparticles may be effective encapsulation and delivery systems for hydrophilic polyphenols in nutraceutical, supplements, or pharmaceutical formulations., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The development of plant-based functional food ingredients has become a major focus of the modern food industry as a response to changes in consumer attitudes. In particular, many consumers are switching to a plant-based diet because of their concerns about animal-derived foods on the environment, human health, and animal welfare. There has therefore been great interest in identifying, isolating, and characterizing functional ingredients from botanical sources, especially waste streams from food and agricultural production. However, many of these functional ingredients cannot simply be incorporated into foods because of their poor solubility, stability, or activity characteristics. In this article, we begin by reviewing conventional and emerging methods of extracting plant-based bioactive agents from natural resources including ultrasound-, microwave-, pulsed electric field- and supercritical fluid-based methods. We then provide a brief overview of different methods to characterize these plant-derived ingredients, including conventional, chromatographic, spectroscopic, and mass spectrometry methods. Finally, we discuss the design of plant-based delivery systems to encapsulate, protect, and deliver these functional ingredients, including micelles, liposomes, emulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, and microgels. The potential benefits of these plant-based delivery systems are highlighted by discussing their use for incorporating functional ingredients into traditional meat products. However, the same technologies could also be employed to introduce functional ingredients into plant-based meat analogs.

In this article, the application of nanocelluloses, especially cellulose nanofibrils and cellulose nanocrystals, as functional ingredients in foods is reviewed. These ingredients offer a sustainable and economic source of natural plant-based nanoparticles. Nanocelluloses are particularly suitable for altering the physicochemical, sensory, and nutritional properties of foods because of their ability to create novel structures. For instance, they can adsorb to air-water or oil-water interfaces and stabilize foams or emulsions, self-assemble in aqueous solutions to form gel networks, and act as fillers or fat replacers. The functionality of nanocelluloses can be extended by chemical functionalization of their surfaces or by using them in combination with other natural food ingredients, such as biosurfactants or biopolymers. As a result, it is possible to create stimuli-responsive, tailorable, and/or active functional biomaterials suitable for a range of foodapplications. In this article, we describe the chemistry, structure, and physicochemical properties of cellulose as well as their relevance for the application of nanocelluloses as functional ingredients in foods. Special emphasis is given to their use as particle stabilizers in Pickering emulsions, but we also discuss their potential application for creating innovative biomaterials with novel functional attributes, such as edible films and packaging. Finally, some of the challenges associated with using nanocelluloses in foods are critically evaluated, including their potential safety and consumer acceptance.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in unprecedented increases in sickness, death, economic disruption, and social disturbances globally. However, the virus (SARS-CoV-2) that caused this pandemic is only one of many viruses threatening public health. Consequently, it is important to have effective means of preventing viral transmission and reducing its devastating effects on human and animal health. Although many antivirals are already available, their efficacy is often limited because of factors such as poor solubility, low permeability, poor bioavailability, un-targeted release, adverse side effects, and antiviral resistance. Many of these problems can be overcome using advanced antiviral delivery systems constructed using nanotechnology principles. These delivery systems consist of antivirals loaded into nanoparticles, which may be fabricated from either synthetic or natural materials. Nevertheless, there is increasing emphasis on the development of antiviral delivery systems from natural substances, such as lipids, phospholipids, surfactants, proteins, and polysaccharides, due to health and environmental issues. The composition, morphology, dimensions, and interfacial characteristics of nanoparticles can be manipulated to improve the handling, stability, and potency of antivirals. This article outlines the major classes of antivirals, summarizes the challenges currently limiting their efficacy, and highlights how nanoparticles can be used to overcome these challenges. Recent studies on the application of antiviral nanoparticle-based delivery systems are reviewed and future directions are described., (Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In this study, food-grade nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were used as delivery systems to overcome some of the limitations of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and liquid lipid nanoparticles (LLNs). Organogel NLCs were prepared using an oil phase consisting of a hydrophobic gelator (Candelilla wax) dispersed in liquid corn oil. The oil phase undergoes a gel-to-sol transition when heated, which means that oil-in-water nanoemulsions can be used as templates to form the NLCs. The impact of lipid phase composition on the gastrointestinal fate of the NLCs was determined using a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The particle size, ζ-potential, and microstructure of the LLNs, NLCs and SLNs were characterized when they were exposed to model oral, gastric, and small intestine conditions. The oil phase in the LLNs and SLNs consisted of pure corn oil and pure Candelilla wax, respectively. Initially, all samples contained small lipid particles (d 43  = 150-202 nm) with negative surface potentials (ζ = -26 to -47 mV). The LLNs, SLNs and NLCs behaved similarly in the simulated GIT in terms of their particle properties: there was a large increase in particle size and decrease in charge magnitude in the mouth, stomach, and intestine. The Candelilla wax in the SLNs and NLCs was not digested by lipase, but the corn oil in the LLNs and NLCs was fully digested. This phenomenon may be used to create colloidal delivery systems that can control the release of encapsulated bioactive agents within the GIT., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The design, fabrication, and application of edible nanoemulsions for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactive agents has been a highly active research field over the past decade or so. In particular, they have been widely used for the encapsulation and delivery of hydrophobic bioactive substances, such as hydrophobic drugs, lipids, vitamins, and phytochemicals. A great deal of progress has been made in creating stable edible nanoemulsions that can increase the stability and efficacy of these bioactive agents. This article highlights some of the most important recent advances within this area, including increasing the water-dispersibility of bioactives, protecting bioactives from chemical degradation during storage, increasing the bioavailability of bioactives after ingestion, and targeting the release of bioactives within the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, it highlights progress that is being made in creating plant-based edible nanoemulsions. Finally, the potential toxicity of edible nanoemulsions is considered., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this study, nanocomposite films with enhanced functional properties were prepared by loading titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) and/or zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles within 4A zeolite (4AZ) particles, and then incorporating these nanocomposites into a poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and gelatin matrix. The composition and morphology of the films were characterized using atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The thermal behavior of the films was established using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). SEM showed the nanoparticles were dispersed throughout the films when used at these levels. FTIR indicated that the inorganic nanoparticles interacted with the PVA/gelatin polymer network through hydrogen bonding. XRD confirmed that the nanoparticles were in a crystalline state within the films. DSC and TGA showed that introduction of the nanoparticles modified the nanocomposite's thermal behavior. Nanoparticle addition had a number of effects: (i) it decreased film transparency from 78.7% to 69.4% 72.0% and 69.7%; (ii) it decreased film water vapor permeability (WVP) from 8.20 × 10 -9 to 5.13 × 10 -9 , 5.71 × 10 -9 and 5.24 × 10 -9 g/Pa.h.m; (iii) it reduced film oxygen permeability from 4.57 to 3.29, 3.10 and 3.00 mEq/g; and (i) it increased film tensile strength (TS) from 14.6 to 22.0, 20.3 and 18.0 MPa, for PVA/gelatin films containing 0%, 1.5% ZnO, 1.5% TiO 2 and 1% (ZnO + TiO 2 ) nanoparticles, respectively (with the nanoparticles being trapped within 4AZ). Moreover, active nanocomposite films exhibited significant antimicrobial effects especially against gram-negative bacteria. Overall, our results show that nanoparticle-loaded PVA/gelatin nanocomposites may be useful as active biodegradable nanocomposite films for application in the packaging industry and that their properties can be modulated by controlling the nature and level of nanoparticles incorporated., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this study, we investigated the tailoring of food emulsions using interactions between rice bran cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and lauric arginate (LAE), which is food-grade cationic surfactant. Complexes of anionic CNCs and cationic LAE (CNCs/LAE) were formed through electrostatic attraction which were characterized using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), turbidity, and zeta-potential measurements. The saturation complexes could be formed at ratios of 1:2 (w/w) CNCs-to-LAE. Furthermore, the physical and oxidative stability of oil-in-water emulsions containing lipid droplets coated by CNCs/LAE complexes was determined. Electrostatic complexes formed from 0.02% CNCs and 0.1% LAE produced stable Pickering emulsions that were resistant to droplet coalescence. It was also exhibited that 0.02% CNCs and 0.1% LAE complexes stabilized-emulsions was able to extend the lag phase to 20 days for lipid hydroperoxide and to 14 days for hexanal production. This study shows that food-grade Pickering emulsions with good stability can be produced by CNCs with LAE complexes., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Curcumin is a bioactive constituent isolated from turmeric that has historically been used as a seasoning, pigment, and herbal medicine in food. Recently, it has become one of the most commonly studied nutraceuticals in the pharmaceutical, supplement, and food areas because of its myriad of potential health benefits. For instance, it is claimed to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiparasite, and anticancer activities when ingested as a drug, supplement, or food. Toxicity studies suggest that it is safe to consume, even at relatively high levels. Its broad-spectrum biological activities and low toxicity have meant that it has been widely explored as a nutraceutical ingredient for application in functional foods. However, there are several hurdles that formulators must overcome when incorporating curcumin into commercial products, such as its low water solubility (especially under acidic and neutral conditions), chemical instability (especially under neutral and alkaline conditions), rapid metabolism by enzymes in the human body, and limited bioavailability. As a result, only a small fraction of ingested curcumin is actually absorbed into the bloodstream. These hurdles can be at least partially overcome by using encapsulation technologies, which involve trapping the curcumin within small particles. Some of the most commonly used edible microparticles or nanoparticles utilized for this purpose are micelles, liposomes, emulsions, solid lipid particles, and biopolymer particles. Each of these encapsulation technologies has its own benefits and limitations for particular product applications and it is important to select the most appropriate one.

Starch-based nanoparticles (SNPs) have attracted great interest for their ability to encapsulate, protect, and orally deliver bioactive components because of their diverse functionality, high biocompatibility, and environmental friendliness. SNPs can be synthesized with a broad range of particle sizes, ranging from a few nanometers to a few hundred nanometers (approximately 8-448 nm), which is comparable to the dimensions of proteins (1-10 nm), nucleic acids (2 nm wide, 5-100 nm long), viruses (10-500 nm), and cell organelles (5-100 mm). The ability to tune the dimensions and properties of SNPs allows them to be used to construct complexes with various biological entities, thereby altering their functional performance. SNPs can also be used to enhance the solubility of hydrophobic substances and to improve the nutritional attributes of bioactives. For instance, SNPs can be designed to increase the bioavailability of bioactives or to target their delivery to specific regions of the gastrointestinal tract. In this review, we provide an overview of the methods available for preparing SNPs, the application of SNPs for encapsulating and delivering bioactives, and the potential gastrointestinal fate of SNPs., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest No conflicts of interest are declared for any of the authors., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Application of bioactive phytochemicals in foods, supplements, and pharmaceuticals is often limited because of their poor solubility, stability, and bioavailability. Phytochemical oral delivery systems (PODS), consisting of phytochemical-loaded nanoparticles or microparticles, can overcome these challenges. PODS can be produced in liquid, gel, paste, or solid forms. They must be carefully formulated to be compatible with the product matrix, economical, robust, and maintain phytochemical bioactivity. This review evaluates recent advances in the development of PODS, including microemulsions, nanoemulsions, emulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, and biopolymer microgels. Properly designed PODS will increase phytochemical applications in commercial products., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Curcumin and piperine are natural nutraceuticals that exhibit synergistic biological activities, but have different polarities, which can make their encapsulation within a single delivery system challenging. In this study, the two bioactive components were encapsulated within core-shell nanoparticles formed by a combination of antisolvent precipitation and layer-by-layer deposition. Initially, strongly hydrophobic curcumin (log P = 4.12) was embedded in the hydrophobic core of zein-hyaluronic acid nanoparticles using the antisolvent precipitation method. Then, the weakly hydrophobic piperine (log P = 2.78) was adsorbed to the outer biopolymer shell of these nanoparticles. Finally, the nutraceutical-loaded particles were coated with a layer of chitosan by the electrostatic deposition method. The surface charge and coating thickness depended on the number of adsorbed layers and the nature of the outer layer, being negative for hyaluronic acid and positive for chitosan. Low-, medium-, and high-molecular weight chitosan were utilized to modify the surface properties. Chitosan with a low-molecular weight was selected to fabricate the core-shell nanoparticles because it produced small highly charged cationic particles ( d = 599 nm; ζ = +38.1 mV). The encapsulation efficiency and loading capacities were 90.4 and 5.7% for curcumin, and 86.4 and 5.4% for piperine, respectively. The core-shell nanoparticles protected the nutraceuticals from chemical degradation during light exposure, thermal processing, and storage for 2 months. Moreover, the nanoparticles were able to control the release of the bioactive components in simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Our results should facilitate the development of more effective nanodelivery systems for nutraceuticals that exhibit synergistic activities, but have different molecular characteristics.

The rapid synthesis of nanoscale cyclodextrin metal-organic frameworks (CD-MOFs) was successfully achieved using a simple, environmentally friendly process, which involved seed-mediated crystallization combined with sonication. Short-chain starch nanoparticles isolated from debranched starch were used as seeds to promote the assembly of CD molecules on their surfaces. This process led to the formation of small uniform crystals by increasing orderliness and reducing aggregation. The influence of sonication time on the morphology and dimensions of CD-MOF crystals was investigated. CD-MOFs with a range of mean particle diameters (234-894 nm) could be produced by adjusting the sonication time. Compared to conventional methods, sonication offered a simple and effective means to obtain a high yield and thermal stability of the CD-MOF crystals. Glycyrrhizic acid (GA), a natural triterpene glycoside, is recognized for its potentially beneficial biological activities, such as antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. However, it's extremely low water-solubility and loading efficiency currently restrict its application. Fourier transformation infrared (FTIR) analysis provided information about the interactions between GA and CD-MOFs. Analysis of their encapsulation properties showed the potential of the CD-MOF crystals as effective nanocarriers for hydrophobic bioactive agents, such as drugs, vitamins, or nutraceuticals., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The poor water solubility and oral bioavailability of many lipophilic polyphenols can be improved through the use of colloidal delivery systems. In this study, a pH-driven method was used to encapsulate curcumin, quercetin, and resveratrol within nanoliposomes. This method is based on the decrease in water-solubility of certain polyphenols when they move from alkaline to acid conditions. However, the chemical stability of some polyphenols is relatively poor under alkaline conditions. For this reason, the impact of pH on the chemical degradation of the three polyphenols was studied. The polyphenols were then encapsulated within nanoliposomes using the pH-driven method and the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and chemical stability were determined. The EE of curcumin, quercetin, and resveratrol in the nanoliposomes was 100, 54, and 93%, respectively. Differences in the EE were mainly attributed to differences in their stability under alkaline conditions. Our results show that the application of this method to other lipophilic polyphenols depends on the impact of pH on their solubility and chemical stability, which needs to be established on a case-by-case basis.

Gliadin-phospholipid hybrid nanoparticles with a core-multilayered-shell internal structure were fabricated using a coassembly approach based on antisolvent coprecipitation. The mean particle diameters of the nanoparticles depended on their composition, increasing from 78 to 145 nm as the mass ratio of gliadin to phospholipid (G/P) increased from 7:3 to 3:7. The hybrid nanoparticles had better pH, salt, and thermal stabilities than simple gliadin nanoparticles. Hybrid nanoparticles with the highest phospholipid fraction (G/P 3:7) had the best pH, salt, and thermal stabilities, remaining stable from pH 3 to 8, from 0 to 300 mmol/L NaCl, and when boiled at pH 4 or 5 for 90 min. Hybrid nanoparticles also had better foam-formation and stability characteristics than gliadin nanoparticles, particularly at the highest phospholipid level. The structured nanoparticles developed in this study may therefore be useful for application in commercial products, for example, as delivery systems, emulsifiers, or foaming agents.

These is some interest in replacing digestible fats with indigestible ones to decrease the energy-density of foods. The utilization of indigestible oils, however, may have unforeseen nutritional consequences, such as the reduction of vitamin bioavailability. In this study, the impact of an indigestible oil on the bioaccessibility of emulsified vitamin D 3 (VD) was examined. We prepared four kinds of nanoemulsions using different combinations of a digestible oil (DO) and an indigestible oil (IO): DO only; IO only; an oil mixture (OM) consisting of 1:1 DO:IO mixed before homogenization; and, an emulsion mixture (EM) consisting of 1:1 DO:IO nanoemulsions mixed after homogenization. A gastrointestinal tract (GIT) model was employed to elucidate the kinetics of VD bioaccessibility from the nanoemulsions. Both the lipid digestion rate and vitamin bioaccessibility decreased in the same order: DO > OM ≈ EM > IO. The change in vitamin bioaccessibility over time under simulated small intestine conditions was also measured. With the exception of the IO nanoemulsions, the vitamin bioaccessibility increased to a maximum value after around 30 min, but then decreased during the following 24 h. This effect was attributed to an initial solubilization of the vitamin within the mixed micelles, followed by their precipitation during prolonged incubation. Our results show that lipid digestion, micelle solubilization, and micelle aggregation impact the in vitro bioaccessibility of vitamin D. This knowledge may be helpful for designing more efficacious nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for fat-soluble vitamins., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Fine titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) particles have been used as additives (E171) to modify the optical properties of foods and beverages for many years. Commercial TiO 2 additives, however, often contain a significant fraction of nanoparticles (diameter <100 nm), which has led to some concern about their potentially adverse health effects. At present, relatively little is known about how the characteristics of TiO 2 particles are altered as they travel through the human gastrointestinal tract. Alterations in their electrical characteristics, surface composition, or aggregation state would be expected to alter their gastrointestinal fate. The main focus of this study was, therefore, to characterize the behavior of TiO 2 particles under simulated oral conditions. Changes in the aggregation state and electrical characteristics were monitored using particle size, ζ-potential, turbidity, and electron microscopy measurements, whereas information about mucin-particle interactions were obtained using isothermal titration calorimetry and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Our results indicate that there was a strong interaction between TiO 2 and mucin: mucin absorbed to the surfaces of the TiO 2 particles and reduced their tendency to aggregate. The information obtained in this study is useful for better understanding the gastrointestinal fate and potential toxicity of ingested inorganic particles.

Astaxanthin, a hydrophobic carotenoid found in marine plants and animals, is claimed to exhibit various beneficial biological activities. Its use as a nutraceutical in foods, however, is currently limited by its low water-solubility and poor bioavailability. The goal of this paper was to fabricate astaxanthin-loaded colloidal particles to overcome these challenges. Astaxanthin was encapsulated in poly(lactic- co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles coated with chitosan oligosaccharides (COS). The properties of the loaded nanoparticles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering. The influence of PLGA properties on the loading capacity, water solubility, stability, and release of the astaxanthin were determined. The nanoparticles were smooth spheres with mean particle diameters around 150 nm and positive surface potentials (ζ = +30 mV). The encapsulation efficiency (>85%) and loading capacity (>15%) of the astaxanthin in the nanoparticles was relatively high. X-ray analysis suggested that the encapsulated astaxanthin was in an amorphous form. The nanoparticles had good dispersibility and stability in aqueous solutions, as well as high cytocompatibility. In vitro studies showed that the astaxanthin was released from the nanoparticles under simulated gastric and small intestinal conditions. Overall, our results suggest the core-shell nanoparticles developed in this study may be suitable for encapsulating this important nutraceutical in functional foods and cosmetics.

The utilization of layer-by-layer composite nanoparticles fabricated from zein and hyaluronic acid (HA) for the codelivery of curcumin and quercetagetin was investigated. A combination of hydrophobic effects and hydrogen bonding was responsible for the interaction of zein with both curcumin and quercetagetin inside the nanoparticles. Electrostatic attraction and hydrogen bonding were mainly responsible for the layer-by-layer deposition of hyaluronic acid on the surfaces of the nanoparticles. The secondary structure of zein was altered by the presence of the two nutraceuticals and HA. The optimized nanoparticle formulation contained relatively small particles ( d = 231.2 nm) that were anionic (ζ = -30.5 mV). The entrapment efficiency and loading capacity were 69.8 and 2.5% for curcumin and 90.3 and 3.5% for quercetagetin, respectively. Interestingly, the morphology of the nanoparticles depended on their composition. In particular, they changed from coated nanoparticles to nanoparticle-filled microgels as the level of HA increased. The nanoparticles were effective at reducing light and thermal degradation of the two encapsulated nutraceuticals and remained physically stable throughout 6 months of long-term storage. In addition, the nanoparticles were shown to slowly release the nutraceuticals under simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions, which may help improve their oral bioavailability. In summary, we have shown that layer-by-layer composite nanoparticles based on zein and HA are an effective codelivery system for two bioactive compounds.

Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) is used as an additive to whiten some foods and beverages that contain lipid nanoparticles. We therefore investigated the combined influence of TiO 2 and lipid nanoparticles on carotenoid bioaccessibility from tomatoes. TiO 2 nanoparticles ( d = 167 nm) were combined with nanoemulsions ( d ≈ 150 nm) stabilized by various emulsifiers: Tween 80, whey protein, or sodium caseinate. The mixed systems were then mixed with tomatoes and passed through a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The emulsifier type significantly influenced carotenoid bioaccessibility ( p < 0.05), mainly because of differences in the ability of the emulsifier-coated lipid droplets to extract carotenoids from tomatoes and form mixed micelles. TiO 2 addition did not impact lipid digestion and carotenoid bioaccessibility ( p > 0.05). These results suggested that carotenoid bioaccessibility was not influenced by TiO 2 addition but did depend on the type of emulsifier used to stabilize lipid nanoparticles.

Hypothesis: This study compared the interfacial and emulsification properties of tea saponins, quillaja saponins, and Tween 80. We hypothesized that tea saponins are an effective and sustainable source of plant-based emulsifiers that could replace synthetic or animal-based emulsifiers in many commercial applications., Experiments: Interfacial tension measurements were used to characterize the behavior of the three surfactants at an oil-water interface. The emulsifying properties of the surfactants were determined by preparing oil-in-water emulsions containing 10 wt% medium chain triglycerides (MCT) and varying surfactant levels (0.1-2 wt%) using high-pressure homogenization (pH 7). The impact of surfactant type on emulsion formation and stability was determined by measuring particle size, zeta-potential, microstructure, and creaming stability., Findings: The tea saponins were capable of producing nano-scale droplets (d 32  < 200 nm) at low surfactant-to-oil ratios (SOR < 0.1). Emulsions containing tea saponins remained stable to droplet aggregation when exposed to various temperatures (30-90 °C), salt levels (0-200 mM NaCl), and pH values (3-9). However, droplet flocculation and/or coalescence occurred under highly acidic (pH 2) and high ionic strength (300-500 mM NaCl) conditions. Tea saponin-coated oil droplets appeared to be mainly stabilized by a combination of electrostatic and steric repulsion. The tea saponins behaved similarly or better than the other two emulsifiers under most conditions. These results suggest that tea saponins are effective plant-based surfactants that may have applications in commercial products., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Nanostructured colloidal delivery systems comprising of pectin-coated nanoliposomes (pectonanoliposomes) were developed as carriers for a bioactive polyphenolic compound (phloridzin). Phloridzin-loaded nanoliposomes were fabricated using a heating-stirring-sonication method, and coated with low methoxyl pectin using an electrostatic deposition approach. Dynamic light scattering, micro-electrophoresis, atomic force microscopy, and UV-Visible spectroscopy were used to investigate the impact of system composition on the size, charge, morphology and stability as well as immobilization, adsorption and encapsulation efficiencies of the pectonanoliposomes. Response surface methodology was used to optimize the composition of the pectonanoliposomes based on particle size and charge characteristics. Linear, quadratic and interaction effects of 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethyl ammonium propane/lecithin, phloridzin/lecithin and pectin/liposome ratios significantly influenced the mean hydrodynamic diameter and/or surface charge of pectonanoliposomes. Second-order polynomial regression models were generated for intensity-weighted particle size and zeta potential of the designed carriers. Topographic and phase contrast images showed that pectonanoliposomes exhibited a range of different morphologies. Coating the nanoliposomes with pectin improved their immobilization and encapsulation efficiencies as well as physical storage stability. Cationic pectonanoliposomes were superior to plain systems regarding long-term stability. Our results suggest that pectonanoliposomes may be suitable delivery systems for polyphenolic nutraceuticals, such as phloridizin, in functional food and pharmaceutical applications., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

There are many examples of bioactive proteins and peptides that would benefit from oral delivery through functional foods, supplements, or medical foods, including hormones, enzymes, antimicrobials, vaccines, and ACE inhibitors. However, many of these bioactive proteins are highly susceptible to denaturation, aggregation or hydrolysis within commercial products or inside the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Moreover, many bioactive proteins have poor absorption characteristics within the GIT. Colloidal systems, which contain nanoparticles or microparticles, can be designed to encapsulate, retain, protect, and deliver bioactive proteins. For instance, a bioactive protein may have to remain encapsulated and stable during storage and passage through the mouth and stomach, but then be released within the small intestine where it can be absorbed. This article reviews the application of food-grade colloidal systems for oral delivery of bioactive proteins, including microemulsions, emulsions, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, multiple emulsions, liposomes, and microgels. It also provides a critical assessment of the characteristics of colloidal particles that impact the effectiveness of protein delivery systems, such as particle composition, size, permeability, interfacial properties, and stability. This information should be useful for the rational design of medical foods, functional foods, and supplements for effective oral delivery of bioactive proteins., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Curcumin is a bioactive phytochemical that can be utilized as a nutraceutical or pharmaceutical in functional foods, supplements, and medicines. However, the application of curcumin as a nutraceutical in commercial food and beverage products is currently limited by its low water-solubility, chemical instability, and poor oral bioavailability. In this study, all-natural colloidal delivery systems were developed to overcome these challenges, which consisted of saponin-coated curcumin nanoparticles formed using a pH-driven loading method. The physicochemical and structural properties of the curcumin nanoparticles formed using this process were characterized, including particle size distribution, surface potential, morphology, encapsulation efficiency, and loading capacity. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction indicated that curcumin was present in the nanoparticles in an amorphous form. The curcumin nanoparticles were unstable to aggregation at low pH values (<3) and high NaCl concentrations (>200 mM), which was attributed to a reduction in electrostatic repulsion between them. However, they were stable at higher pH values (3 to 8) and lower NaCl levels (0 to 200 mM), due to a stronger electrostatic repulsion between them. They also exhibited good stability during refrigerated storage (4 °C) or after conversion into a powdered form (lyophilized). A simulated gastrointestinal tract study demonstrated that the in vitro bioaccessibility was around 3.3-fold higher for curcumin nanoparticles than for free curcumin. Furthermore, oral administration to Sprague Dawley rats indicated that the in vivo bioavailability was around 8.9-fold higher for curcumin nanoparticles than for free curcumin. These results have important implications for the development of curcumin-enriched functional foods, supplements, and drugs.