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Global longitudinal strain (GLS) is a more sensitive prognostic factor than left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) in various cardiac diseases. Little is known about the clinical impact of GLS changes after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). The present study aimed to explore if non-improvement of GLS after 3 months was associated with higher risk of subsequent composite cardiovascular events (CCVE). Patients with AMI were consecutively included at a secondary care center in Norway between April 2016 and July 2018 within 4 days following percutaneous coronary intervention. Echocardiography was performed at baseline and after 3 months. Patients were categorized with non-improvement (0 to - 100%) or improvement (0 to 100%) in GLS relative to the baseline value. Among 214 patients with mean age 65 (± 10) years and mean LVEF 50% (± 8) at baseline, 50 (23%) had non-improvement (GLS: - 16.0% (± 3.7) to - 14.2% (± 3.6)) and 164 (77%) had improvement (GLS: - 14.0% (± 3.0) to - 16.9% (± 3.0%)). During a mean follow-up of 3.3 years (95% CI 3.2 to 3.4) 77 CCVE occurred in 52 patients. In adjusted Cox regression analyses, baseline GLS was associated with all recurrent CCVE (HR 1.1, 95% CI 1.0 to 1.2, p < 0.001) whereas non-improvement versus improvement over 3 months follow-up was not. Baseline GLS was significantly associated with the number of CCVE in revascularized AMI patients whereas non-improvement of GLS after 3 months was not. Further large-scale studies are needed before repeated GLS measurements may be recommended in clinical practice.Trial registration: Current Research information system in Norway (CRISTIN). Id: 506563., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Recent EACVI recommendations described the importance of limiting cardiovascular imaging during the COVID-19 pandemic in order to reduce virus transmission, protect healthcare professionals from contamination, and reduce consumption of personal protective equipment. However, an elevated troponin remains a frequent request for cardiac imaging in COVID-19 patients, partly because it signifies cardiac injury due to a variety of causes and partly because it is known to convey a worse prognosis. The present paper aims to provide guidance to clinicians regarding the appropriateness of cardiac imaging in the context of troponin elevation and myocardial injury, how best to decipher the mechanism of myocardial injury, and how to guide patient management., (Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. All rights reserved. © The Author(s) 2020. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Current guidelines on the use of β-blockers in post-acute myocardial infarction (MI) patients without reduced left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) are based on studies before the implementation of modern reperfusion and secondary prevention therapies. It remains unknown whether β-blockers will reduce mortality and recurrent MI in contemporary revascularized post-MI patients without reduced LVEF., Design: BETAMI is a prospective, randomized, open, blinded end point multicenter study in 10,000 MI patients designed to test the superiority of oral β-blocker therapy compared to no β-blocker therapy. Patients with LVEF ≥40% following treatment with percutaneous coronary intervention or thrombolysis and/or no clinical signs of heart failure are eligible to participate. The primary end point is a composite of all-cause mortality or recurrent MI obtained from national registries over a mean follow-up period of 3 years. Safety end points include rates of nonfatal MI, all-cause mortality, ventricular arrhythmias, and hospitalizations for heart failure obtained from hospital medical records 30 days after randomization, and from national registries after 6 and 18 months. Key secondary end points include recurrent MI, heart failure, cardiovascular and all-cause mortality, and clinical outcomes linked to β-blocker therapy including drug adherence, adverse effects, cardiovascular risk factors, psychosocial factors, and health economy. Statistical analyses will be conducted according to the intention-to-treat principle. A prespecified per-protocol analysis (patients truly on β-blockers or not) will also be conducted., Conclusions: The results from the BETAMI trial may have the potential of changing current clinical practice for treatment with β-blockers following MI in patients without reduced LVEF. EudraCT number 2018-000590-75., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Patients surviving an acute myocardial infarction (AMI) are different today than when oral β-blockers first were shown to have an incremental effect on mortality. They are now, as opposed to then, offered revascularization procedures and effective secondary prevention. In this pilot-study, we aimed to explore the prescription of β-blockers to these patients stratified by their left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)., Methods: Consecutive stable patients treated with a percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) procedure following an AMI were included for measurement of LVEF after 1-5 days. β-Blocker treatment was recorded at inclusion and after 3 months., Results: We included 159 patients, 89% with LVEF ≥40% (56% had a LVEF ≥50% [preserved], 33% LVEF 40-49% [mid-range] and 11% LVEF <40% [reduced]). At discharge the prescription rates of β-blockers according to LVEF stratification were 79% for preserved, 79% for mid-range and 94% for reduced LVEF. After 3 months 72% of all patients continued such treatment., Conclusions: In this prospective study, a large proportion of contemporary managed patients with AMI but without clinical heart failure does not have reduced LVEF shortly after PCI, but the majority is still treated with a β-blocker., (© 2018 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Background In contemporary atrial fibrillation trials most deaths are cardiac related, whereas stroke and bleeding represent only a small subset of deaths. We aimed to evaluate the long-term risk of cardiac events and all-cause mortality in individuals with atrial fibrillation compared to no atrial fibrillation. Design A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies published between 1 January 2006 and 21 October 2016. Methods Four databases were searched. Studies had follow-up of at least 500 stable patients for either cardiac endpoints or all-cause mortality for 12 months or longer. Publication bias was evaluated and random effects models were used to synthesise the results. Heterogeneity between studies was examined by subgroup and meta-regression analyses. Results A total of 15 cohort studies was included. Analyses indicated that atrial fibrillation was associated with an increased risk of myocardial infarction (relative risk (RR) 1.54, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.26-1.85), all-cause mortality (RR 1.95, 95% CI 1.50-2.54) and heart failure (RR 4.62, 95% CI 3.13-6.83). Coronary heart disease at baseline was associated with a reduced risk of myocardial infarction and explained 57% of the heterogeneity. A prospective cohort design accounted for 25% of all-cause mortality heterogeneity. Due to there being fewer than 10 studies, sources of heterogeneity were inconclusive for heart failure. Conclusions Atrial fibrillation seems to be associated with an increased risk of subsequent myocardial infarction in patients without coronary heart disease and an increased risk of, all-cause mortality and heart failure in patients with and without coronary heart disease.

Myocardial scar burden is an important prognostic factor after myocardial infarction. This cohort study compared assessment of left ventricle scar burden between pathological Q waves on electrocardiography (ECG), Selvester multiparametric ECG scoring system for scar burden, and global longitudinal strain (GLS) by speckle-tracking echocardiography 6 months after myocardial infarction. The scar burden was defined by late gadolinium enhancement cardiac magnetic resonance as fraction of total left ventricle tissue. ECG measures were presence of pathologic Q waves and Selvester scores. GLS was the average of peak strain from 16 left ventricle segments. In 34 patients aged 58 ± 10 years (mean ± SD), the scar burden was 19% (9, 26) (median [quartiles]) and 79% had scar burden >5%. Patients with scar burden >5% more frequently had pathologic Q waves (63% vs 14%) and had worse Selvester scores (5 [3, 7] vs 0 [0, 1]) and worse GLS (-16.6 ± 2.4% vs -19.9 ± 1.1%). Pathologic Q waves, Selvester scores, ejection fraction, and GLS related to scar burden in univariable analyses. Sensitivity and specificity for detecting scar burden >5% was 63% and 86% (pathologic Q waves), 89% and 86% (Selvester score), 81% and 86% (ejection fraction), 89% and 86% (GLS), and 96% and 71% (combination of Q waves, Selvester score, and GLS). In conclusion, Selvester score and GLS related to scars 6 months after myocardial infarction, and pathologic Q waves were only weakly associated with scar and GLS was associated with scar independently of ECG markers., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and cardiac troponins (cTns) measured with sensitive assays provide strong prognostic information in patients with stable coronary artery disease. However, the relationship between these biomarkers and myocardial contractile function, as well as infarct size, in this patient group, remains to be defined. The study population consisted of 160 patients referred to a follow-up echocardiography scheduled 1 year after coronary revascularization. Concentrations of NT-proBNP, high-sensitive cTnT (hs-cTnT) and sensitive cTnI assays were assessed. Left ventricular function was measured as global peak systolic longitudinal strain by speckle tracking echocardiography and infarct size was assessed by late-enhancement MRI. NT-proBNP and sensitive cTnI levels were significantly associated with left ventricular function by peak systolic strain (R-values 0.243 and 0.228, p = 0.002 and 0.004) as well as infarct size (R-values 0.343 and 0.366, p = 0.014 and p = 0.008). In contrast, hs-cTnT did not correlate with left ventricular function (R = 0.095, p = 0.231) and only marginally with infarct size (R = 0.237, p = 0.094). NT-proBNP and sensitive cTnI levels correlate with left ventricular function and infarct size in patients with stable coronary artery disease after revascularization. As opposed to hs-cTnT, NT-proBNP and cTnI seem to be indicators of incipient myocardial dysfunction and the extent of myocardial necrosis.

Objectives: Myocardial scar will lead to heterogeneous left ventricular deformation. We hypothesized that a myocardial scar will display an elevated standard deviation (SD) of phase and that this effect could be compared with mechanical dispersion., Design: Thirty patients (three women and 27 men) were investigated over 4-8 weeks after ST-elevation myocardial infarction treated with percutaneous coronary intervention. Seventeen had a scar area > 75% in at least one antero- or inferoseptal segment (scar) and 13 had a scar area < 1% (non-scar). The phase delays of velocity, displacement, and strain were measured in the longitudinal direction, tangential to the endocardial outline, and in the radial direction, perpendicular to the tangent., Results: The SD of phase in radial measurements differentiated scar patients from those without scar (p < 0.01), while longitudinal measurements did so only for longitudinal strain. Likewise, the SD for radial measurements of time to peak for segmental velocity, displacement, and strain performed better than longitudinal measurements and equal to the results of phase., Conclusion: Phase dispersion in deformation imaging may be used for detecting heterogeneous left ventricular contraction.

Background: Left ventricular (LV) motion and deformation is dependent on mechanical load and do therefore not reflect myocardial energy consumption directly. Regional myocardial work, however, constitutes a more complete assessment of myocardial function., Methods and Results: Strain was measured using high-resolution phase-contrast MRI in 9 adult male rats with myocardial infarction (MI) and in 5 sham-operated control animals. Timing of LV valvular events and LV dimensions were evaluated by cine MRI. A separate cohort of 14 animals (MI/sham=9/5) underwent measurement of LV pressure concurrent with identification of valvular events by Doppler-echocardiography for the purpose of generating a standard LV pressure curve, normalized to valvular events. The infarctions were localized to the anterolateral LV wall. Combining strain with timing of valvular events and a measurement of peak arterial pressure, regional myocardial work could be calculated by applying the standard LV pressure curves. Cardiac output and stroke work was preserved in the MI hearts, suggesting a compensatory redistribution of myocardial work from the infarcted region to the viable tissue. In the septum, regional work was indeed increased in MI rats compared with sham (median work per unit long-axis length in a mid-ventricular slice: 241.2 [224.1-271.2] versus 137.2 [127.0-143.8] mJ/m; P<0.001). Myocardial work in infarcted regions was zero. Additionally, eccentric work was increased in the MI hearts., Conclusions: Phase-contrast MRI, in combination with measurement of peak arterial pressure and MRI-derived timing of valvular events, represent a noninvasive approach for estimation of regional myocardial work in rodents., (© 2015 American Heart Association, Inc.)

Purpose: To compare long axis strain (LAS) by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and echocardiography in a postinfarct patient population. Long axis left ventricle (LV) function is a sensitive index of incipient heart failure by echocardiography, but is less well established in MRI. LAS is an index of global LV function, which is easily assessed in cine loops provided by most cardiac MRI protocols., Materials and Methods: In all, 116 patients (57 ± 9 years) were studied the same day using echocardiography and MRI 7.4 ± 4.1 months after a first myocardial infarction. LV length was measured in end diastole and end systole in conventional cine images with a temporal resolution of 50 msec or less, and LAS (%) was calculated as the change in LV length, relative to end diastole. Infarct mass was assessed by contrast-enhanced MRI., Results: LAS was progressively reduced in patients with larger infarcts, and demonstrated good correlations with infarct mass (r = 0.55, P < 0.01). There was a good agreement between LAS assessed by echocardiography and MRI (r = 0.77, P < 0.01), and between LAS by MRI and speckle tracking strain by echocardiography (r = 0.74, P < 0.01)., Conclusion: LAS is an index that allows measurement of LV long axis function by conventional cine MRI., (© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Aims: Ischaemic myocardial segments tend to stretch as the intraventricular pressure rises steeply during the isovolemic contraction phase, before they contract during ejection. We hypothesized that the time they remain stretched, called duration of early systolic lengthening (DESL), correlates with final infarct size as defined by contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (CE-MRI). We also assessed whether DESL could identify patients with acute coronary occlusion, and compared it with traditional measures for myocardial function., Methods and Results: In this retrospective study, 150 consecutive patients with Non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS) referred for coronary angiography were included. Speckle tracking echocardiography was performed prior to angiography to determine DESL. The final infarct size was quantified at follow-up 9 ± 3 months after initial admission in 61 patients and echocardiography performed in 143 patients. DESL showed good correlation with the final infarct size (r = 0.67, P < 0.001). Thirteen patients had no visible sign of infarct on CE-MRI (minimal myocardial damage), and DESL was significantly shorter in these patients than in patients with signs of infarct (27 ± 19 vs. 84 ± 41 ms, P < 0.001). Compared with left ventricular ejection fraction, wall motion score index, and global longitudinal strain, DESL showed the best accuracy in detecting patients with minimal myocardial damage, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.92 (0.82 to 0.99, P < 0.001). DESL was more prolonged in patients with coronary occlusions, compared with those without occlusions (86 ± 45 vs. 63 ± 31 ms, P < 0.01). DESL was significantly shorter at follow-up, compared with baseline (P = 0.04)., Conclusions: DESL could identify patients with minimal myocardial damage, differentiate between occlusion and non-occlusion, and may be helpful in the risk stratification of patients with NSTE-ACS., (Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. All rights reserved. © The Author 2014. For permissions please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Risk prediction of ventricular arrhythmias after myocardial infarction (MI) is still insufficient. Prolonged QTc is a known risk marker of mortality and ventricular arrhythmias. QTc has not achieved clinical importance in predicting arrhythmic events in patients after MI. Recent studies have displayed that the terminal part of the QT-interval, Tpeak to Tend (TpTe), may be a more promising predictor of adverse outcome. Herein, we assessed whether TpTe may serve as a predictor of ventricular arrhythmias in patients with previous MI fulfilling current implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) indications., Methods: Seventy-six patients with previous MI eligible for ICD therapy were prospectively enrolled. ECG measurements at baseline were recorded using a 12-lead ECG with 50 mm/s paper speed. TpTe was measured from peak of the T wave to end of T wave. Events during follow up were defined as ventricular arrhythmias requiring appropriate ICD therapy, including antitachycardia pacing and shock., Results: During 23 ± 19 months, arrhythmic events occurred in 36 (47%) patients. TpTe was longer in ICD patients with recorded ventricular arrhythmias compared with those without (116 ± 26 ms vs. 102 ± 20 ms; P = 0.01), whereas ejection fraction (EF) at baseline did not differ (35 ± 9% vs. 35 ± 11%; P = 0.87). TpTe was an independent predictor of ventricular arrhythmias when adjusted for age, EF and QRS duration (HR 1.16; 95% CI 1.03-1.31; P = 0.02)., Conclusions: TpTe predicted malignant arrhythmias in patients after MI independently of EF. TpTe may contribute in the risk stratification of patients to identify post-MI patients disposed to malignant arrhythmias and their need of ICD therapy., (© 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Current methods for the estimation of infarct size by late-enhanced cardiac magnetic imaging are based upon 2D analysis that first determines the size of the infarction in each slice, and thereafter adds the infarct sizes from each slice to generate a volume. We present a novel, automatic 3D method that estimates infarct size by a simultaneous analysis of all pixels from all slices. In a population of 54 patients with ischemic scars, the infarct size estimated by the automatic 3D method was compared with four established 2D methods. The new 3D method defined scar as the sum of all pixels with signal intensity (SI) ≥35 % of max SI from the complete myocardium, border zone: SI 35-50 % of max SI and core as SI ≥50 % of max SI. The 3D method yielded smaller infarct size (-2.8 ± 2.3 %) and core size (-3.0 ± 1.7 %) than the 2D method most similar to ours. There was no difference in the size of the border zone (0.2 ± 1.4 %). The 3D method demonstrated stronger correlations between scar size and left ventricular (LV) remodelling parameters (LV ejection fraction: r = -0.71, p < 0.0005, LV end-diastolic index: r = 0.54, p < 0.0005, and LV end-systolic index: r = 0.59, p < 0.0005) compared with conventional 2D methods. Infarct size estimation by our novel 3D automatic method is without the need for manual demarcation of the scar; it is less time-consuming and has a stronger correlation with remodelling parameters compared with existing methods.

Background: Left ventricular (LV) remodeling takes place after acute myocardial infarction (MI), potentially leading to overt heart failure (HF). Enhanced inflammation may contribute to LV remodeling. Our hypothesis was that the immunomodulating effects of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) would be beneficial in patients with impaired myocardial function after MI by reducing myocardial remodeling and improving myocardial function., Methods: Sixty-two patients with acute MI treated by percutaneous coronary intervention, with depressed LV ejection fraction (LVEF) were randomized in a double-blinded fashion to IVIg as induction therapy and thereafter as monthly infusions or placebo for 26 weeks. The primary end point was changes in LVEF from baseline to 6 months as assessed by MRI., Results: Our main findings were: (i) LVEF increased significantly from 38 ± 10 (mean ± SD) to 45 ± 13% after IVIg and from 42 ± 9 to 49 ± 12% after placebo with no difference between the groups. (ii) The scar area decreased significantly by 3% and 5% in the IVIg and placebo group, respectively, with no difference between the groups. (iii) During the induction therapy (baseline to day 5), IVIg induced both inflammatory (e.g., increase in tumor necrosis factor α and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) and anti-inflammatory (e.g., increase in interleukin-10 and decrease in leukocyte counts) variables, but during maintenance therapy there were no differences in changes of inflammatory mediators between IVIg and placebo., Conclusions: IVIg therapy after ST elevation MI managed by primary PCI does not affect LV remodeling or function. This illustrates the challenges of therapeutic intervention directed against the cytokine network, to prevent post-MI remodeling., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Mitral annular displacement (MAD) is a simple marker of left ventricular (LV) systolic function. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that MAD can distinguish patients with non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarctions (NSTEMIs) from those with significant coronary artery disease without infarctions, identify coronary occlusion, and predict mortality in patients with NSTEMIs. MAD was compared with established indices of LV function., Methods: In this retrospective study, 167 patients with confirmed NSTEMIs were included at two Scandinavian centers. Forty patients with significant coronary artery disease but without myocardial infarctions were included as controls. Doppler tissue imaging was performed at the mitral level of the left ventricle in the three apical planes, and velocities were integrated over time to acquire MAD. LV ejection fraction, global longitudinal strain (GLS), and wall motion score index were assessed according to guidelines., Results: MAD and GLS could accurately distinguish patients with NSTEMIs from controls. During 48.6 ± 12.1 months of follow-up, 22 of 167 died (13%). MAD, LV ejection fraction, and GLS were reduced and wall motion score index was increased among those who died compared with those who survived (P < .001, P < .001, P < .001, and P = .02, respectively). Multivariate Cox proportional-hazards analyses revealed that MAD was an independent predictor of death (hazard ratio, 1.36; 95% confidence interval, 1.07-1.73; P = .01). MAD and GLS were reduced and wall motion score index was increased in patients with coronary artery occlusion compared with those without occlusion (P = .006, P = .001, and P = .02), while LV ejection fraction did not differ (P = .20)., Conclusions: MAD accurately identified patients with NSTEMIs, predicted mortality, and identified coronary occlusion in patients with NSTEMIs., (Copyright © 2013 American Society of Echocardiography. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that strain echocardiography might improve arrhythmic risk stratification in patients after myocardial infarction (MI)., Background: Prediction of ventricular arrhythmias after MI is challenging. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) <35% is the main parameter for selecting patients for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy., Methods: In this prospective, multicenter study, 569 patients >40 days after acute MI were included, 268 of whom had ST-segment elevation MIs and 301 non-ST-segment elevation MIs. By echocardiography, global strain was assessed as average peak longitudinal systolic strain from 16 left ventricular segments. Time from the electrocardiographic R-wave to peak negative strain was assessed in each segment. Mechanical dispersion was defined as the standard deviation from these 16 time intervals, reflecting contraction heterogeneity., Results: Ventricular arrhythmias, defined as sustained ventricular tachycardia or sudden death during a median 30 months (interquartile range: 18 months) of follow-up, occurred in 15 patients (3%). LVEFs were reduced (48 ± 17% vs. 55 ± 11%, p < 0.01), global strain was markedly reduced (-14.8 ± 4.7% vs. -18.2 ± 3.7%, p = 0.001), and mechanical dispersion was increased (63 ± 25 ms vs. 42 ± 17 ms, p < 0.001) in patients with arrhythmias compared with those without. Mechanical dispersion was an independent predictor of arrhythmic events (per 10-ms increase, hazard ratio: 1.7; 95% confidence interval: 1.2 to 2.5; p < 0.01). Mechanical dispersion and global strain were markers of arrhythmias in patients with non-ST-segment elevation MIs (p < 0.05 for both) and in those with LVEFs >35% (p < 0.05 for both), whereas LVEF was not (p = 0.33). A combination of mechanical dispersion and global strain showed the best positive predictive value for arrhythmic events (21%; 95% confidence interval: 6% to 46%)., Conclusions: Mechanical dispersion by strain echocardiography predicted arrhythmic events independently of LVEF in this prospective, multicenter study of patients after MI. A combination of mechanical dispersion and global strain may improve the selection of patients after MI for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy, particularly in patients with LVEFs >35% who did not fulfill current implantable cardioverter-defibrillator indications., (Copyright © 2013 American College of Cardiology Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Perfusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and delayed contrast-enhanced MRI (DE-MRI) serve as tools for tissue characterization., Purpose: To assess and compare semi-quantitative parameters of myocardial infarct (MI) in the subacute and chronic phase, and to correlate these parameters with qualitative enhancement analysis., Material and Methods: Perfusion MRI at rest and DE-MRI were performed in 63 patients with anterior wall MI at 2-3 weeks after revascularization and repeated after 6 months. Descriptive enhancement parameters of contrast arrival time, initial upslope, enhancement at normal tissue peak (TTPn) and wash-out slope, and kinetic tissue parameters rBF, K (trans), k ep and v e were calculated. Subacute infarct tissue was compared to normal myocardium and chronic infarct tissue. Patients were stratified at baseline according to a qualitative grading of hypoenhancement based on first-pass enhancement and presence of microvascular obstruction (MO) at perfusion MRI and on persistent MO at DE-MRI. The qualitative grade was correlated to semi-quantitative perfusion MRI parameters., Results: Initial upslope, enhancement at TTPn, rBF, and k ep were decreased and wash-out slope and v e were increased in infarct tissue (P < 0.001 for all analyses). Infarct tissue v e decreased from baseline to 6 months (P = 0.045). At baseline infarct tissue with persistent MO revealed decreased K (trans) and delayed contrast arrival, and more pronounced decrease of enhancement at TTPn, rBF and k ep compared to other enhancement groups (P < 0.008 for pairwise analyses)., Conclusion: Perfusion is decreased in subacute reperfused infarct tissue compared to normal tissue. K (trans) is not decreased, consistent with increased surface area of the vascular bed of the subacute infarct. Infarct tissue v e is increased, and decreases with scarring. The presence of persistent MO correlates to more pronounced perfusion reduction and results in delayed contrast arrival, indicating microvascular collateral circulation., (© 2013 The Foundation Acta Radiologica.)

Background: The aim of this study was to investigate whether strain Doppler echocardiography before reperfusion therapy could quantify ischemic dysfunction and predict viable myocardium in acute myocardial infarction as determined by magnetic resonance imaging., Methods: Twenty-six patients (mean age, 60 ± 12 years; seven women) with acute myocardial infarctions who underwent acute percutaneous coronary intervention were examined using strain Doppler echocardiography immediately before the procedure. Percutaneous coronary intervention was performed 296 ± 122 min after the onset of pain. Peak left ventricular systolic longitudinal strain and the duration of systolic lengthening were analyzed. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed 11 ± 5 months after therapy. Scarring exceeding 50% of the segment area was considered nonviable., Results: Peak systolic strain fell gradually (becoming less negative) from normal segments to segments with transmural infarction (P < .0001), and the duration of systolic lengthening increased (P < .0001). Myocardial scarring was closely correlated with peak systolic strain (R = 0.76, P < .00001) and the duration of systolic lengthening (R = 0.88, P < .00001). There was a significant correlation between the degree of scarring and time to percutaneous coronary intervention (R = 0.40, P = .045). In segments with systolic lengthening, the improvement in strain after remodeling was significantly higher (5.5 ± 5.1%) than in segments with duration of systolic lengthening > 67% of systole (2.2 ± 3.7%) (P < .001). Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses showed that duration of systolic lengthening > 67.3% could identify nonviable myocardium (sensitivity, 90%; specificity, 94%)., Conclusions: In patients with acute myocardial infarctions in the anterior wall, strain measurements can identify myocardium with nontransmural scarring. The duration of systolic lengthening is a novel, easily implemented variable that may identify ischemic but viable myocardium. Myocardial infarctions in other left ventricular regions should be investigated in future studies., (Copyright © 2012 American Society of Echocardiography. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Aims: Myocardial CCN2/CTGF is induced in heart failure of various etiologies. However, its role in the pathophysiology of left ventricular (LV) remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI) remains unresolved. The current study explores the role of CTGF in infarct healing and LV remodeling in an animal model and in patients admitted for acute ST-elevation MI., Methods and Results: Transgenic mice with cardiac-restricted overexpression of CTGF (Tg-CTGF) and non-transgenic littermate controls (NLC) were subjected to permanent ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery. Despite similar infarct size (area of infarction relative to area at risk) 24 hours after ligation of the coronary artery in Tg-CTGF and NLC mice, Tg-CTGF mice disclosed smaller area of scar tissue, smaller increase of cardiac hypertrophy, and less LV dilatation and deterioration of LV function 4 weeks after MI. Tg-CTGF mice also revealed substantially reduced mortality after MI. Remote/peri-infarct tissue of Tg-CTGF mice contained reduced numbers of leucocytes, macrophages, and cells undergoing apoptosis as compared with NLC mice. In a cohort of patients with acute ST-elevation MI (n = 42) admitted to hospital for percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) serum-CTGF levels (s-CTGF) were monitored and related to infarct size and LV function assessed by cardiac MRI. Increase in s-CTGF levels after MI was associated with reduced infarct size and improved LV ejection fraction one year after MI, as well as attenuated levels of CRP and GDF-15., Conclusion: Increased myocardial CTGF activities after MI are associated with attenuation of LV remodeling and improved LV function mediated by attenuation of inflammatory responses and inhibition of apoptosis.

Background: Early prediction of infarct size directs therapy in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Global strain by echocardiography describes myocardial deformation and correlates with infarct size. However, peak strain measures deformation at a single time point, whereas ischemia and necrosis influence deformation throughout the heart cycle. It was hypothesized that the measurement of myocardial deformation throughout the heart cycle by mean strain is a more comprehensive expression of myocardial deformation. The aim of this study was to assess the ability of mean strain to predict infarct size and to identify large infarctions at admission and after revascularization in patients with AMI., Methods: Seventy-six patients with AMI were included. Echocardiographic measurements were performed at admission and after revascularization. Myocardial strain was calculated using speckle-tracking echocardiography. Infarct size was measured using contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging ≥3 months after revascularization., Results: There were significant correlations between infarct size and longitudinal global mean strain, longitudinal global strain, and left ventricular ejection fraction (P < .0001), both at admission and after revascularization. The correlations improved after revascularization. Longitudinal global mean strain had the best correlation with infarct size and the best ability to discriminate between different infarct size categories. At admission, a cutoff value of -7.6 had 89% sensitivity, 88% specificity, and an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.92 for the identification of large infarctions. Prediction of infarct size improved for all parameters after revascularization., Conclusions: Longitudinal global mean strain provides improved early prediction of infarct size in patients with AMI compared with longitudinal global strain and left ventricular ejection fraction.

Aims: Differentiation between necrotic and viable myocardium is difficult in the setting of acute myocardial infarction (MI). Post-systolic shortening (PSS) has been proposed as a marker of recovery after revascularization, but has not previously been assessed in patients with NSTEMI prior to revascularization. In this study, we aimed to examine the relation between PSS and improvement of contractile function after successful revascularization., Methods and Results: Thirty-five patients with non-segment elevation MI and regional systolic dysfunction were examined immediately prior to revascularization, and at follow-up 9 ± 3 months after successful revascularization. Regional systolic function was assessed by speckle tracking echocardiography as regional strain, expressed as mean peak negative longitudinal strain in segments supplied by the culprit artery. Recovery of systolic function was assessed as the difference between regional strain at follow-up and baseline (ΔStrain). Post-systolic shortening was defined as shortening in diastole beyond minimum systolic length. By multivariate regression analysis, several other variables that may affect viability were also assessed. Post-systolic shortening was observed in 32 patients (91%), mean -1.9 ± 1.4%. Mean ΔStrain was -3.3 ± 2.9%. After adjustment for baseline systolic function, PSS (β = 0.77, P= 0.022), and angiographic severity were independent predictors of viability by multiple regression analysis. Interestingly, troponin T was not a significant predictor., Conclusions: Post-systolic shortening is associated with improved myocardial function after revascularization in patients with acute MI. It predicts long-term systolic function, and provides information on the potential benefit of the procedure.

The aim of the study was to compare the ability of global strain and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) to predict outcome after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Left ventricular (LV) function was measured using strain by Doppler and LVEF in 77 patients. Measurements were performed at admission and after 10 ± 5 days. Outcome was measured as the combined end point of cardiac death, reinfarction and hospitalization for heart failure, unstable angina or life threatening arrhythmia. The patients were followed for 3.29 ± 1.59 years (range 0-5.22 years) and 17 cardiac events were registered. The cutoff value of LVEF was 44% for optimal prediction of outcome. We used LVEF ≤ 44% vs. > 44% and the corresponding global strain value ≥ -15.6% vs. < -15.6% to predict cumulative event-free survival. Both methods significantly predicted cardiac combined events at admittance and after 10 days with no difference. After 10 days, however, global strain remained the only significant predictor of outcome in a multivariate logistic regression model (P < 0.0001, odds ratio 1.79). Interobserver reproducibility measured as intraclass correlation was better for global strain than for LVEF (0.92 vs. 0.71). In conclusion, the measurement of global strain in patients with AMI may predict cardiac combined events to the same extent as LVEF in the acute phase and superior to LVEF after 10 days. In addition, global strain demonstrates better interobserver reproducibility and may become an improved bedside tool to evaluate LV function as a prognostic marker after AMI., (© 2011, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Aims: To clarify long-term changes in global, regional, and diastolic left ventricular (LV) function after intracoronary injection of autologous mononuclear bone marrow cells (mBMCs) in acute myocardial infarction (AMI)., Methods and Results: In the Autologous Stem cell Transplantation in Acute Myocardial Infarction (ASTAMI) study, 100 patients with anterior ST-elevation myocardial infarction and percutaneous coronary intervention on the left anterior descending artery (LAD) were randomized to receive intracoronary injection of mBMCs or not. Transthoracic echocardiography was performed at baseline, 3, 6, 12 months, and 3 years. Regional LV function was assessed by two-dimensional speckle-tracking echocardiography. From baseline to 3 years, LV ejection fraction changed from 45.7 to 47.5% in the mBMC group, and from 46.9 to 46.8% in the control group (P = 0.87 for difference in change over time between groups). Longitudinal strain in the LAD territory improved from -9.7 to -12.2% in the mBMC group and from -9.9 to -12.8% in the control group (P = 0.45). E/e' decreased from 14.7 to 12.9 in the mBMC group and from 14.8 to 11.9 in the control group (P = 0.31). There were no significant differences between groups in change of LV volumes, global systolic function, regional function, or diastolic function during 3 years follow-up., Conclusion: No differences between groups indicating beneficial effect of intracoronary mBMC injection could be identified. Both groups in ASTAMI experienced improvement of global, regional, and diastolic LV function after 3-6 months, with effects sustained at 3 years.

Aims: Patients with acute coronary occlusion may lack typical signs of myocardial infarction in the electrocardiogram. We tested the ability of different echocardiographic modalities to identify coronary occlusion by quantifying myocardial dysfunction in patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS)., Methods and Results: One hundred and fifty patients were examined by echocardiography immediately prior to coronary angiography, 2.2 +/- 0.7 days (mean +/- SD) after hospitalization for a first NSTE-ACS. Thirty-three patients (22%) had acute coronary occlusion. These patients had impaired left ventricular function as ejection fraction was reduced (54.9 +/- 9.6 vs. 59.1 +/- 7.6%, P = 0.02). Regional myocardial function was assessed in a 16-segment model by two methods: longitudinal strain by speckle tracking echocardiography and wall motion score (WMS) by visual assessment. Patients with acute coronary occlusion had an increased number of adjacent dysfunctional segments. The median size of the dysfunctional area by strain was 7 [inter-quartile range (IQR) 4.5-9] vs. 2 (IQR 0-5) segments (P < 0.001). An area of >or=4 adjacent dysfunctional segments (strain greater than or equal to -14%) had the best ability to identify patients with acute coronary occlusion, with sensitivity 85% and specificity 70%. WMS demonstrated slightly less accuracy than strain., Conclusion: Strain echocardiography identifies NSTE-ACS patients with acute coronary occlusion, who may benefit from urgent reperfusion therapy.

Background: Infarct size is a strong predictor of mortality and major adverse cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. Acute reperfusion therapy limits infarct size and improves survival, but its use has been confined to patients with ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between echocardiographic parameters of left ventricular (LV) systolic function obtained before revascularization and final infarct size in patients with non-ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction, as well as the ability of these parameters to identify patients with substantial infarction., Methods and Results: Sixty-one patients with non-ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction were examined by echocardiography immediately before revascularization, 2.1+/-0.6 days after hospitalization. LV systolic function was assessed by ejection fraction, wall motion score index, and circumferential, longitudinal, and radial strain in a 16-segment LV model. Global strain represents average segmental strain values. Infarct size was assessed after 9+/-3 months by late-enhancement MRI, as a percentage of total LV myocardial volume. A good correlation was found between infarct size and wall motion score index (r=0.74, P<0.001) and global longitudinal strain (r=0.68, P<0.001). Global longitudinal strain >-13.8% and wall motion score index >1.30 accurately identified patients with substantial infarction (> or =12% of myocardium, n=13; area under the receiver operator curve, 0.95 and 0.92, respectively)., Conclusions: Echocardiographic parameters of LV systolic function correlate to infarct size in patients with non-ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction. Global longitudinal strain and wall motion score index are both excellent parameters to identify patients with substantial myocardial infarction, who may benefit from urgent reperfusion therapy.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate whether myocardial strain echocardiography can predict ventricular arrhythmias in patients after myocardial infarction (MI)., Background: Left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction (EF) is insufficient for selecting patients for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) therapy after MI. Electrical dispersion in infarcted myocardium facilitates malignant arrhythmia. Myocardial strain by echocardiography can quantify detailed regional and global myocardial function and timing. We hypothesized that electrical abnormalities in patients after MI will lead to LV mechanical dispersion, which can be measured as regional heterogeneity of contraction by myocardial strain., Methods: We prospectively included 85 post-MI patients, 44 meeting primary and 41 meeting secondary ICD prevention criteria. After 2.3 years (range 0.6 to 5.5 years) of follow-up, 47 patients had no and 38 patients had 1 or more recorded arrhythmias requiring appropriate ICD therapy. Longitudinal strain was measured by speckle tracking echocardiography. The SD of time to maximum myocardial shortening in a 16-segment LV model was calculated as a parameter of mechanical dispersion. Global strain was calculated as average strain in a 16-segment LV model., Results: The EF did not differ between ICD patients with and without arrhythmias occurring during follow-up (34 +/- 11% vs. 35 +/- 9%, p = 0.70). Mechanical dispersion was greater in ICD patients with recorded ventricular arrhythmias compared with those without (85 +/- 29 ms vs. 56 +/- 13 ms, p < 0.001). By Cox regression, mechanical dispersion was a strong and independent predictor of arrhythmias requiring ICD therapy (hazard ratio: 1.25 per 10-ms increase, 95% confidence interval: 1.1 to 1.4, p < 0.001). In patients with an EF >35%, global strain showed better LV function in those without recorded arrhythmias (-14.0% +/- 4.0% vs. -12.0 +/- 3.0%, p = 0.05), whereas the EF did not differ (44 +/- 8% vs. 41 +/- 5%, p = 0.23)., Conclusions: Mechanical dispersion was more pronounced in post-MI patients with recurrent arrhythmias. Global strain was a marker of arrhythmias in post-MI patients with relatively preserved ventricular function. These novel parameters assessed by myocardial strain may add important information about susceptibility for ventricular arrhythmias after MI., (Copyright 2010 American College of Cardiology Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The aim was to compare left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and left ventricular (LV) global strain by speckle tracking as predictors of final infarct size., Methods: LV global strain and LVEF by echocardiography were assessed in the acute phase and after revascularization in 39 patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction treated with thrombolysis., Results: After revascularization, global strain and LVEF correlated well with infarct size measured by contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance. A cutoff value of -15.0% for global strain had a sensitivity of 90% and a specificity of 86% to identify myocardial infarcts larger than 20%. Interobserver variability, expressed by intraclass correlation coefficients, for global strain and LVEF was 0.91 and 0.72, respectively., Conclusions: LV global strain is a more precise diagnostic predictor of large infarcts compared with LVEF and is more reproducible. Global strain measured after revascularization demonstrates advantages over LVEF in the evaluation of LV injury in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction.

Aims: We studied the time-dependent relationships between microvascular obstruction (MO), infarct size, and left ventricular (LV) remodelling after acute myocardial infarction (MI)., Methods and Results: Forty-two consecutive patients with first-time ST-elevation MI, single-vessel disease, successfully treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) were included. Microvascular obstruction, infarct size, and LV remodelling were assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance. Cardiac magnetic resonance was performed at: 2 days, 1 week, 2 months, and 1 year following PCI. Microvascular obstruction was assessed by first-pass perfusion. Patients were divided into three groups according to the presence or absence of MO at 2 days and 1 week: no detectable MO at any time point (11 patients), MO detectable only at 2 days (16 patients), and MO detectable both at 2 days and 1 week (15 patients). In multivariable analysis adjusting for infarct size at 2 days, detectable MO at 1 week was an independent predictor (P = 0.003) of infarct size at 1 year follow-up, associated with adverse infarct healing, adverse LV remodelling, increased LV volumes, and lower ejection fractions when compared with the rest of the cohort., Conclusion: Microvascular obstruction is an important determinant of infarct healing. The effect of MO on infarct size translated into distinct patterns of LV remodelling during long-term follow-up.

Left ventricular (LV) circumferential strain and rotation have been introduced as clinical markers of myocardial function. This study investigates how regional LV apical rotation and strain can be used in combination to assess function in the infarcted ventricle. In healthy subjects (n = 15) and patients with myocardial infarction (n = 23), LV apical segmental rotation and strain were measured from apical short-axis recordings by speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) and MRI tagging. Infarct extent was determined by late gadolinium enhancement MRI. To investigate mechanisms of changes in strain and rotation, we used a mathematical finite element simulation model of the LV. Mean apical rotation and strain by STE were lower in patients than in healthy subjects (9.0 +/- 4.9 vs. 12.9 +/- 3.5 degrees and -13.9 +/- 10.7 vs. -23.8 +/- 2.3%, respectively, P < 0.05). In patients, regional strain was reduced in proportion to segmental infarct extent (r = 0.80, P < 0.0001). Regional rotation, however, was similar in the center of the infarct and in remote viable myocardium. Minimum and maximum rotations were found at the infarct borders: minimum rotation at the border zone opposite to the direction of apical rotation, and maximum rotation at the border zone in the direction of rotation. The simulation model reproduced the clinical findings and indicated that the dissociation between rotation and strain was caused by mechanical interactions between infarcted and viable myocardium. Systolic strain reflects regional myocardial function and infarct extent, whereas systolic rotation defines infarct borders in the LV apical region. Regional rotation, however, has limited ability to quantify regional myocardial dysfunction.

Aims: This study assessed the relationship between inflammatory mediators and indices of infarct size and left-ventricular (LV) remodelling following successful primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in patients with first time ST elevation myocardial infarction (MI)., Methods and Results: Forty-two patients admitted with an occluded single vessel were recruited consecutively. Cardiac magnetic resonance was used for serial assessment (2 days, 1 week, 2 months) of infarct size, microvascular obstruction (MO), and LV remodelling. Inflammatory mediators were analysed before and after PCI. Our major findings were: (1) Following PCI, there was a marked increase in plasma levels of C-reactive protein, closely correlated with an increase in interleukin-6 and terminal complement complex, reaching maximum 2 days after PCI; (2) C-reactive protein 2 days after PCI was significantly correlated with infarct size and parameters of LV remodelling 2 months after PCI; (3) Patients with persistent MO had significantly higher C-reactive protein levels 2 days following PCI., Conclusion: We suggest that the rapid increase in C-reactive protein levels in this model of successful revascularization of a single, totally occluded vessel reflects the degree of inflammation within the infarcted area. Our findings support a role for C-reactive protein-mediated complement activation as both a marker and mediator of myocardial damage following MI. Clinical study no.: NCT 00465868.

The present study introduces a new clinical method to define left ventricular (LV) end systole (ES) during tissue Doppler imaging (TDI). Preliminary experiments showed a sharp inflection point in strain traces (S(IP)) from ischemic borderzones, which coincided with onset of a postsystolic shortening wave (V(PS)) in the velocity trace. In a single-vessel disease model, we investigated whether S(IP) and V(PS) may serve as markers of global ES and their mechanism. In six anesthetized dogs we measured LV pressure and myocardial long-axis function by using TDI and sonomicrometry. Ischemia was induced by left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion. ES was defined by the minimum first derivative of LV pressure. TDI and sonomicrometry demonstrated a sharp S(IP) and V(PS) at ES in the ischemic borderzone (defined as moderately ischemic myocardium by pressure-dimension loop analysis). Time differences relative to ES ( +/- SD) were -0.1 +/- 2.3 (intraclass correlation coefficient R(IC) = 0.996) and 6.8 +/- 10.7 ms (R(IC) = 0.89) for S(IP) as shown by sonomicrometry and TDI, respectively. There was a strong inverse relationship between postsystolic shortening in the borderzone and simultaneous lengthening of nonischemic myocardium. In 30 patients with acute myocardial infarction, S(IP) and V(PS) evaluated by TDI were compared with ES defined by aortic valve closure. Time differences were -4 +/- 14 (R(IC) = 0.94) and -2 +/- 11 ms (R(IC) = 0.96), respectively. In the ischemic borderzone, S(IP) and V(PS) identified global ES with high accuracy. The force balance or "tug of war" between borderzone and nonischemic myocardium is a likely underlying mechanism for these markers. The method may be used as an "all in one heart beat" approach for TDI analysis in acute myocardial ischemia.

Objectives: The objective of the present study was to investigate the ability of strain by Doppler and by speckle tracking echocardiography in the acute phase in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) to diagnose left ventricular (LV) infarct size. Furthermore, we wanted to study at which time during the cardiac cycle strain should be measured., Background: The assessment of regional myocardial dysfunction may be an important diagnostic tool in the evaluation of acute myocardial injury., Methods: Strain by Doppler and speckle tracking were assessed in the acute phase and after 10 days in 36 patients (61 +/- 11 years) with STEMI treated with thrombolysis. In a 16-segment model of the LV, peak systolic, end systolic, and peak negative strain were validated against the corresponding myocardial segments measured by contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance. The 16 segments were averaged to assess LV global longitudinal strain. In addition, 6 segments were analyzed from parasternal short-axis recordings at the papillary muscle level to assess circumferential strain. Reproducibility was tested in 20 patients., Results: The different segmental strain assessments separated significantly (p < 0.0001) between the different levels of infarct transmurality regardless of method, with better reproducibility for speckle strain. Circumferential strain separated better than longitudinal strain. With a cutoff value of -13.3% for segmental circumferential strain, sensitivity was 80% and specificity was 74% for prediction of transmural infarction. The LV global strain showed a good correlation with LV infarct size, with the best correlation for LV global peak systolic speckle strain (beta = 0.76, p < 0.0001)., Conclusions: On a segmental level, circumferential strain separated transmural from subendocardial necrosis better than longitudinal strain in the acute phase in patients with STEMI. Our findings suggest that in the acute phase in patients treated with thrombolysis, LV global peak systolic speckle strain should be the preferred method for predicting final LV infarct size.

Background: The objective of the study was to evaluate the ability of established and new parameters of global systolic left ventricle function to estimate myocardial infarct size. Increasing infarct extent is associated with impaired prognosis in chronic ischemic heart disease. Systolic myocardial deformation is a complex 3D process that is mainly influenced by the amount and transmural distribution of viable myocardium. Speckle-tracking echocardiography (2D-STE) enables deformation assessment along the 3 main cardiac axes independent of insonation angle., Methods and Results: Global longitudinal, circumferential, and radial strain and left ventricle twist by 2D-STE, global longitudinal strain rate and strain by tissue Doppler imaging, and left ventricle ejection fraction and wall motion score index were assessed in 40 patients 8.5+/-5.4 months after a first myocardial infarct and compared with global myocardial infarct mass assessed by contrast-enhanced MRI. Longitudinal and circumferential strain by 2D-STE and longitudinal strain and strain rate by tissue Doppler imaging significantly separated medium-sized infarcts from small or large infarcts at the global level (P<0.05). All deformation indices correlated significantly with global infarct mass (P<0.01). Circumferential and longitudinal strains by 2D-STE demonstrated the best ability to identify medium-sized global myocardial infarcts., Conclusions: Circumferential and longitudinal strains by 2D-STE correlate with myocardial infarct mass and significantly differentiate among large, medium, and small myocardial infarcts.

2D-STE (two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography) is a novel echocardiographic modality that enables angle-independent assessment of myocardial deformation indices. In the present study, we tested whether peak systolic epsilon(parallel) (longitudinal strain) values measured by 2D-STE could identify areas of MI (myocardial infarction) as determined by CE MRI (contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging). Conventional echocardiographic apical long-axis recordings were performed in 38 patients, 9 months after a first MI. Peak systolic epsilon(parallel) measured by 2D-STE in 16 left ventricle segments was compared with segmental infarct mass and transmurality assessed by CE MRI. Segmental values were averaged to global and territorial values for assessment of global function and myocardial function in the coronary distribution areas. CE MRI identified transmural infarction in 27 patients, and a mean infarct size of 36+/-25 g. Peak systolic epsilon( parallel) correlated with the infarct mass at the global level (r=0.84, P<0.001). A strain value of -15% identified infarction with 83% sensitivity and 93% specificity at the global level and 76% and 95% at the territorial level, and a strain value of -13% identified transmural infarction with 80% sensitivity and 83% specificity at the segmental level. Global infarct mass correlates with the wall motion score index (r=0.70, P<0.001), and left ventricular ejection fraction measured by MRI or echocardiography (r=-0.71 and -0.58, both P<0.001). In chronic infarction, peak systolic epsilon(parallel) measured by 2D-STE correlates with the infarct mass assessed by CE MRI at a global level, and separates infarcted from non-infarcted tissue. Global strain is an excellent predictor of myocardial infarct size in chronic ischaemic heart disease.

Objectives: The objective of this study was to investigate whether strain Doppler echocardiography performed immediately after revascularization by percutaneous coronary intervention could predict the extent of myocardial scar, determined by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)., Background: There is considerable variability in survival rate after percutaneous coronary intervention, and accurate early risk stratification is therefore of major clinical importance., Methods: Thirty individuals with acute anterior myocardial infarction were examined with longitudinal strain by Doppler 1.5 h after revascularization. The extent of scarring 9 months later was analyzed by MRI in 16 corresponding myocardial segments. Strain in all left ventricular segments was averaged to obtain a global value. Infarct size was estimated by clinical parameters and cardiac markers., Results: A good correlation was found between the global strain and total infarct size (R = 0.77, p < 0.00001). A multivariate regression analysis showed that global peak strain and serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase correlated with the infarct size measured by MRI (p = 0.0001 and p = 0.001, respectively). Furthermore, a clear inverse relationship was found between the segmental strain and the transmural extent of infarction in each segment (R = 0.67, p < 0.0001)., Conclusions: This study demonstrates that assessment of regional and global strain at 1.5 h after reperfusion therapy correlates with size and transmural extent of myocardial infarction as determined by contrast-enhanced MRI. The novel global strain parameter is a valuable predictor of the total extent of myocardial infarction and may therefore be an important clinical tool for risk stratification in the acute phase of myocardial infarction.

Studies of patients with acute myocardial infarction (MI) suggest that anterior transmural infarcts are associated with greater left ventricular (LV) remodeling compared with nontransmural nonanterior infarctions. It is unclear whether this relation also exists in long-term survivors of MI. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging was used to explore the relation between myocardial scar size, localization, transmurality, and degree of long-term LV remodeling in patients with healed MI. Subjects were recruited from a registry of patients with healed MI who participated in the OPTIMAAL trial. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging was performed to assess LV mass, volumes, LV ejection fraction, and myocardial scarring, adjusting for myocardial ischemia. Fifty-seven patients (mean age 69 +/- 10 years mean ejection fraction 49 +/- 13%) were studied 4.4 +/- 0.4 years after MI. Anterior scar was found in 19 patients and nonanterior scar in 33, whereas 5 patients did not show myocardial scar. Transmural scar was evident in 36 patients. In the 52 patients with scar, average total scar size was 13 +/- 8% of total LV mass. There was a strong linear relation between scar size and LV end-diastolic volume index (r = 0.81, p <0.0001), end-systolic volume index (r = 0.86, p <0.0001), and LV ejection fraction (r = -0.74, p <0.0001). In multivariate analysis, scar size was the strongest independent predictor of ejection fraction and LV volumes independently of scar localization and transmurality. In conclusion, in the studied cohort, there was a linear relation between scar size and ejection fraction and LV volumes. This relation was independent of scar location and transmurality.

Aims: We sought to determine whether intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) counterpulsation improves the recovery of left ventricular (LV) systolic function after reperfused acute myocardial infarction (AMI)., Methods and Results: Fourteen dogs underwent 90-min coronary artery occlusion followed by reperfusion. Seven animals were randomized to IABP counterpulsation immediately after reperfusion. Tagged, cine, and contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging were used for regional and global LV functional assessment and MI characterization, respectively. Image acquisition was performed at 1 h, 6 h, and 24 h after reperfusion, during which the IABP device was paused. Animals randomized to IABP demonstrated an earlier improvement of LV ejection fraction when compared with controls (25+/-3 vs. 25+/-2% at 1 h, P=0.91; 36+/-3 vs. 26+/-2% at 6 h, P=0.015; and 38+/-3 vs. 35+/-1% at 24 h, P=0.34). Regional functional analyses revealed the same behaviour among non-infarcted risk regions, i.e., earlier circumferential systolic strain improvement in the IABP group than in controls (-5.4+/-0.4 vs. -5.3+/-0.5% at 1 h, P=0.86; -12.1+/-1.0 vs. -6.0+/-0.4% at 6 h, P<0.001; and -13.9+/-1.1% vs. -12.8+/-0.6% at 24 h, P=0.40). Importantly, however, the degree of LV functional recovery 24 h after reperfusion was similar whether IABP counterpulsation was used or not., Conclusion: IABP counterpulsation accelerates but does not significantly improve the recovery of LV systolic function after reperfused AMI.

Background: Tissue Doppler echocardiography-derived strain rate and strain measurements (SDE) are new quantitative indices of intrinsic cardiac deformation. The aim of this study was to validate and compare these new indices of regional cardiac function to measurements of 3-dimensional myocardial strain by tagged MRI., Methods and Results: The study population included 33 healthy volunteers, 17 patients with acute myocardial infarction, and 8 patients with suspected coronary artery disease who were studied during dobutamine stress echocardiography. Peak systolic myocardial velocities were measured by tissue Doppler echocardiography, peak systolic strain rates and strains by SDE, and strains by tagged MRI. In healthy individuals, longitudinal myocardial Doppler velocities decreased progressively from base to apex, whereas myocardial strain rates and strains were uniform in all segments. In patients with acute infarction, abnormal strains clearly identified dysfunctional areas. In infarcted regions, SDE showed 1.5+/-4.3% longitudinal stretching compared with -15.0+/-3.9% shortening in remote myocardium (P<0.001), and radial measurements showed -6.9+/-4.1% thinning and 14.3+/-5.0% thickening (P<0.001), respectively. During dobutamine infusion, longitudinal strains by SDE increased significantly from -13.5% to -23.8% (P<0.01) and radial strains increased from 13.1+/-3.1% to 29.3+/-11.5% (P<0.01). Comparisons between myocardial strains by SDE and tagged MRI in healthy individuals (n=11), in infarct patients (n=17), and during stress echo (n=4) showed excellent correlations (r=0.89 and r=0.96 for longitudinal and radial strains, respectively, P< 0.001)., Conclusions: The present study demonstrates the ability of Doppler echocardiography to measure myocardial strains in a clinical setting. Myocardial strains by Doppler may represent a new powerful method for quantifying left ventricular function noninvasively in humans.

Our objective was to compare long-term outcomes in patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) and ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) between two time periods in Southern Norway. There are limited contemporary data comparing long-term follow-up after revascularization in the last decades. This prospective follow-up study consecutively included both NSTEMI and STEMI patients during two time periods, 2014–2015 and 2004–2009. Patients were followed up for a period of 5 years. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality after 1 and 5 years. A total of 539 patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI), 316 with NSTEMI (234 included in 2014 and 82 included in 2007) and 223 with STEMI (160 included in 2014 and 63 included in 2004). Mortality after NSTEMI was high and remained unchanged during the two time periods (mortality rate at 1 year: 3.5% versus 4.9%, p = 0.50; and 5 years: 11.4% versus 14.6%, p = 0.40). Among STEMI patients, all-cause mortality at 1 year was reduced in 2014 compared to 2004 (1.3% versus 11.1%, p < 0.001; and 5 years: 7.0% versus 22.2%, p = 0.004, respectively). Time to coronary angiography in NSTEMI patients remained unchanged between 2014 and 2007 (28.2 h [IQR 18.1–46.3] versus 30.3 h [IQR 18.0–48.3], p = 0.20), while time to coronary angiography in STEMI patients was improved in 2014 compared with 2004 (2.8 h [IQR 2.0–4.8] versus 21.7 h [IQR 5.4–27.1], p < 0.001), respectively. During one decade of AMI treatment, mortality in patients with NSTEMI remained unchanged while mortality in STEMI patients decreased, both at 1 and 5 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose:Diagnostic and prognostic evaluation remains challenging in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC). We measured plasma concentration of soluble ST2 (sST2) and assessed its association with right ventricular (RV) function and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with ARVC. Methods:We included patients with ARVC and genotype positive relatives. Soluble ST2 was determined by ELISA. We assessed myocardial function by echocardiography including strain by speckle tracking technique. Results:We included 44 subjects (age 41 ± 15 years, 21 (48%) female). Soluble ST2 was associated with RV global strain (r = 0.44;p = 0.008), as well as with left ventricular (LV) function. Plasma levels of sST2 were higher in patients with ventricular arrhythmias than in patients without ventricular arrhythmias (35 ± 13 ng/mL vs. 26 ± 7 ng/mL,p = 0.009). The association between sST2 and ventricular arrhythmias remained significant even after adjusting for RV function (Wald = 5.2;p = 0.02). Conclusions:Soluble ST2 is associated with RV and LV function in patients with ARVC. Soluble ST2 may aid in the determination of disease severity in ARVC. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Knowledge about myocardial function is important for diagnosis, treatment and prediction of the majority of all cardiac diseases. Ejection fraction (EF) by echocardiography has been the preferred diagnostic tool for these purposes, but do have some important limitations. Strain imaging has emerged as a relatively new and important echocardiographic method that will give cardiologists incremental and additional information to EF in several important diseases affecting the myocardium. This paper will give the readers a brief overview on how and when the clinicians can use strain imaging by echocardiography in their daily practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Echocardiography is one of the most powerful diagnostic and monitoring tools available to the modern emergency/ critical care practitioner. Currently, there is a lack of specific European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging/Acute Cardiovascular Care Association recommendations for the use of echocardiography in acute cardiovascular care. In this document, we describe the practical applications of echocardiography in patients with acute cardiac conditions, in particular with acute chest pain, acute heart failure, suspected cardiac tamponade, complications of myocardial infarction, acute valvular heart disease including endocarditis, acute disease of the ascending aorta and post-intervention complications. Specific issues regarding echocardiography in other acute cardiovascular care scenarios are also described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Ischaemic myocardial segments tend to stretch as the intraventricular pressure rises steeply during the isovolemic contraction phase, before they contract during ejection.We hypothesized that the time they remain stretched, called duration of early systolic lengthening (DESL), correlates with final infarct size as defined by contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (CE-MRI). We also assessed whether DESL could identify patients with acute coronary occlusion, and compared it with traditional measures for myocardial function. Methods and results In this retrospective study, 150 consecutive patients with Non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS) referred for coronary angiography were included. Speckle tracking echocardiography was performed prior to angiography to determine DESL. The final infarct size was quantified at follow-up 9±3 months after initial admission in 61 patients and echocardiography performed in 143 patients. DESL showed good correlation with the final infarct size (r = 0.67, P < 0.001). Thirteen patients had no visible sign of infarct on CE-MRI (minimal myocardial damage), and DESL was significantly shorter in these patients than in patients with signs of infarct (27±19 vs. 84±41 ms, P < 0.001). Compared with left ventricular ejection fraction, wall motion score index, and global longitudinal strain, DESL showed the best accuracy in detecting patients withminimalmyocardial damage, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.92 (0.82 to 0.99, P < 0.001). DESL was more prolonged in patients with coronary occlusions, compared with those without occlusions (86±45 vs. 63±31 ms, P < 0.01). DESL was significantly shorter at follow-up, compared with baseline (P = 0.04). Conclusions DESL could identify patients with minimal myocardial damage, differentiate between occlusion and non-occlusion, and may be helpful in the risk stratification of patients with NSTE-ACS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Myocardial CCN2/CTGF is induced in heart failure of various etiologies. However, its role in the pathophysiology of left ventricular (LV) remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI) remains unresolved. The current study explores the role of CTGF in infarct healing and LV remodeling in an animal model and in patients admitted for acute ST-elevation MI. Methods and Results: Transgenic mice with cardiac-restricted overexpression of CTGF (Tg-CTGF) and non-transgenic littermate controls (NLC) were subjected to permanent ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery. Despite similar infarct size (area of infarction relative to area at risk) 24 hours after ligation of the coronary artery in Tg-CTGF and NLC mice, Tg-CTGF mice disclosed smaller area of scar tissue, smaller increase of cardiac hypertrophy, and less LV dilatation and deterioration of LV function 4 weeks after MI. Tg-CTGF mice also revealed substantially reduced mortality after MI. Remote/ peri-infarct tissue of Tg-CTGF mice contained reduced numbers of leucocytes, macrophages, and cells undergoing apoptosis as compared with NLC mice. In a cohort of patients with acute ST-elevation MI (n = 42) admitted to hospital for percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) serum-CTGF levels (s-CTGF) were monitored and related to infarct size and LV function assessed by cardiac MRI. Increase in s-CTGF levels after MI was associated with reduced infarct size and improved LV ejection fraction one year after MI, as well as attenuated levels of CRP and GDF-15. Conclusion: Increased myocardial CTGF activities after MI are associated with attenuation of LV remodeling and improved LV function mediated by attenuation of inflammatory responses and inhibition of apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]