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Mental fatigue has been highly cited as having a negative impact on endurance performance. Few, however, have investigated whether different types of mental fatigue, namely active and passive fatigue, might affect endurance performance differently. This study used a repeated-measures design where 11 participants completed a 3 km run after three 32-min conditions: an actively fatiguing task (Task-load Dual-back; TloadDback); a passively fatiguing task (Mackworth Clock); and a control task (Documentary). Subjective ratings and performance on a second task (Flanker task) were taken before and after the 32-min tasks, while ratings of perceived effort, motivation and workload were taken during the 3 km run. Results showed that both fatigue conditions were mentally fatiguing, with the TloadDback rated as more demanding and the Mackworth Clock more boring and less motivating. Performance on subsequent tasks showed different effects: the TloadDback condition had the slowest responses on the post-test Flanker task, while the Mackworth Clock condition had the slowest completion time on the 3 km run, though this difference in completion times was non-significant. These results suggest that different cognitive tasks lead to different types of mental fatigue, which can lead to different outcomes on subsequent cognitive tasks but non-significant differences on subsequent physical tasks. This study highlights that to understand the influence of mental fatigue on physical performance, it is important to understand the cognitive tasks used and how different cognitive and physical tasks interact. Future work should examine whether performance outcomes in other areas commonly affected by mental fatigue, like technical and tactical sporting skills, are affected differently by active and passive fatigue., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest This work was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship. There are no relationships to disclose. There are no patents to disclose. There are no additional activities to disclose., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Temporary reductions in self-control due to previous cognitive effort, also known as 'ego depletion', have been shown to negatively impact performance in subsequent tasks requiring self-control. Various theoretical accounts suggest that high levels of task motivation may prevent negative behavioural effects of ego depletion. Against this background, the current study performed a conceptual replication of a previous study examining the effects of ego depletion on sprint start performance (i.e., Englert et al., 2015) and implemented additional monetary incentives to manipulate task motivation. Using a pretest-intervention-posttest design, ninety-six novice sprinters performed a sprinting task that required them to complete a series of 20-m sprints. In between pretest and posttest, participants performed a letter writing task either under high cognitive demand (depletion group) or low cognitive demand (non-depletion control group). Subsequently, and prior to starting the posttest, participants were presented either with a monetary incentive or no incentive. Manipulation checks confirmed that the letter writing task successfully manipulated perceived regulatory demand and that task motivation at the posttest was higher for participants who were offered a monetary incentive. The number of false starts decreased significantly with ego depletion, while sprint start reaction times and sprint finish times remained unaffected. Regardless of ego depletion, sprint finish times significantly improved with monetary incentives. These results suggest that brief engagement in a demanding cognitive task is unlikely to impair novice sprinters' ability to self-regulate during the start of a subsequent, maximal sprinting effort for which they are highly motivated., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Arne Nieuwenhuys reports financial support was provided by The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, this game-to-game study among Flemish volleyball coaches and athletes had two primary objectives. First, we examined how variations in need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching styles related to variations in athletes' basic psychological needs, motivation, and coach-rated performance. Second, we examined whether athletes who perceived their coach as need-thwarting during a specific game would experience different outcomes based on the overall need-supportive or need-thwarting coaching style they encountered across games. Linear mixed modeling on data from 190 elite volleyball athletes (M age  = 23.95, 32.6 % male) and their 26 coaches (M age  = 48.12, 95.7 % male) indicated positive associations between game-specific need-supportive coaching and athletes' reports of game-specific basic psychological need experiences and motivation, as well as coach-rated performance, whereas game-specific need-thwarting coaching showed opposite trends. Athlete perceptions of a coaching style were more predictive of the outcomes than coach perceptions. Second, the lack of systematic cross-level interactions between game-specific coaching and team-level coaching indicated that the observed correlates of game-specific need-thwarting and need-supportive coaching hold regardless of the perceived overall need-thwarting or need-supportive style of the coach across games., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The current study examined whether meditation experience is associated with changes in endurance performance and inhibitory control-relevant neurocognitive functions caused by mental fatigue. Twenty-four athletes with meditation experience (AME) and twenty-five athletes without meditation experience (AWME) underwent a 30-min incongruent Stroop test in mental fatigue condition (MF) and a 30-min congruent Stroop test in control condition (CON) in a randomised-counterbalanced order. Inhibitory control-relevant neurocognitive functions were assessed using Flanker task and event-related potentials, followed by an endurance task using the Bruce treadmill protocol. Visual analogue scale was used to evaluate perceived mental fatigue (VAS-MF) before (T1), after Stroop test (T2) and after Flanker task (T3), and VAS for motivation (VAS-M) was used to evaluate motivation in Flanker task and endurance task. Results indicated that, compared to the CON, AWME in the MF exhibited overall lower accuracy, smaller incongruent N2 amplitude of the Flanker task ( ps  < .05), and shorter time to exhaustion (TTE) of the endurance task ( p  < .001), whereas AME did not exhibited difference in these outcomes between the conditions. Along with athletes in the MF reported lower VAS-M in endurance task. These findings suggest the benefits of meditation experience in mitigating the negative effects of mental fatigue.

This study explored how manipulating the colour of training vests affects footballers' individual and collective performance during a Gk+6vs6+Gk medium-sided game. A total of 21 under-17 years old players were involved in three experimental conditions in a random order for a total of four days: i) CONTROL, two teams using two different colour vests; ii) SAME, both teams wearing blue vests; iii) MIXED, all 6 players per team wore different colour vests. Players' positional data was used to compute time-motion and tactical-related variables, while video analysis was used to collect technical variables. Further, these variables were synchronized with spatiotemporal data allowing to capture ball-related actions in a horizontal 2D plan. All variables were analysed from the offensive and defensive perspective. From the offensive perspective, players performed more and further shots to goal during the CONTROL than in SAME and MIXED (small effects) conditions, with a decreased distance to the nearest defender (small effects). While defending, results revealed lower distance to the nearest teammate (small effects) in the CONTROL than in the SAME and MIXED conditions, and higher team longitudinal synchronization (small effects). In addition, the CONTROL showed in general lower values of team width while defending than in the other 2 conditions. Overall, coaches may use the CONTROL condition to emphasize offensive performance and defensive behaviour over the longitudinal direction with increased physical demands. In turn, coaches may use the manipulation of players vests to emphasize defensive performance, as players seem to behave more cohesively under such scenarios., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Endurance sports pose a plethora of mental demands that exercisers have to deal with. Unfortunately, investigations of exercise-specific demands and strategies to deal with them are insufficiently researched, leading to a gap in knowledge about athletic requirements and strategies used to deal with them. Here, we investigated which obstacles exercisers experience during an anaerobic (Wingate test) and an aerobic cycling test (incremental exercise test), as well as the strategies they considered helpful for dealing with these obstacles (qualitative analysis). In addition, we examined whether thinking of these obstacles and strategies in terms of if-then plans (or implementation intentions; i.e., "If I encounter obstacle O, then I will apply strategy S!") improves performance over merely setting performance goals (i.e., goal intentions; quantitative analysis). N = 59 participants (age: M = 23.9 ± 6.5 years) performed both tests twice in a 2-within (Experimental session: 1 vs. 2) × 2-between (Condition: goal vs. implementation intention) design. Exercisers' obstacles and strategies were assessed using structured interviews in Session 1 and subjected to thematic analysis. In both tests, feelings of exertion were the most frequently stated obstacle. Motivation to do well, self-encouragement, and focus on the body and on cycling were frequently stated strategies in both tests. There were also test-specific obstacles, such as boredom reported in the aerobic test. For session 2, the obstacles and strategies elicited in Session 1 were used to specify if-then plans. Bayesian mixed-factor ANOVA suggests, however, that if-then plans did not help exercisers to improve their performance. These findings shed novel light into the mental processes accompanying endurance exercise and the limits they pose on performance., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The present study identified profiles of perfectionism and inauthenticity at baseline and tested whether they differed in the maladaptive outcomes of controlled motivation, performance anxiety, and exhaustion after a nine-month period. We purposefully selected elite junior performers ( N T1   = 219; N T2   = 156), 16-19 years of age, from Norwegian talent development schools in sports and performing arts. The participants completed questionnaires to report their perceptions of the study variables. The results of the latent profile analysis indicated a multidimensionality of perfectionism, thereby identifying four profiles. Although our identified profiles are in line with the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism; however, the results of the mean differences between the identified profiles did not align with the 2 × 2 model's hypotheses. The elite junior performers who displayed non-perfectionism demonstrated to be the most adaptive profile. They reported the lowest level of inauthenticity and the maladaptive outcomes of controlled motivation, performance anxiety, and exhaustion. The mixed perfectionism profile, displaying high levels of perfectionistic concerns (PC) and perfectionistic strivings (PS), demonstrated to be the least adaptive profile. This profile reported higher levels of inauthenticity and was even more maladaptive than the PC dominated profile contrary to the proposed hypotheses. Findings showed that a heightened vulnerability of perfectionism seems evident in PC, independent of the reported PS levels. Because only one out of five elite junior performers were distributed in the non-perfectionism profile, the vulnerability of perfectionism might be an important risk factor to note in talent development settings.

Background: Research on achievement goal orientations in sport has typically relied on the use of variable-centered approaches that tend to overlook population heterogeneity. In this study, we used a person-centered approach to identify subgroups of competitive tennis players according to unique combinations of achievement goal orientations and tested for subgroup differences in motivation and mental toughness., Methods: A sample of 323 competitive tennis athletes (69.35% male) between 15 and 25 years of age (17.60 ± 2.40 years, mean ± SD) completed the 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Sport, Sport Motivation Scale II, and Mental Toughness Index. Latent profile analysis was used to identify unique combinations of achievement goal orientations. Comparisons between latent subgroups on autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and mental toughness were performed using analysis of variance., Results: Latent profile analysis supported 3 distinct patterns of achievement goal profiles that were primarily distinguishable based on valence of competence (i.e., approach vs. avoidance). Analyses of variance indicated that athletes who were classified into subgroups that endorsed approach types of goals (regardless of the types of avoidance goals they endorsed) reported higher levels of autonomous motivation and mental toughness., Conclusion: Results indicated that athletes tend to pursue a number of achievement goals collectively rather than in isolation. Although approach goals are more commonly linked to adaptive psychological functioning and positive outcomes, avoidance goals may also be associated with desirable psychological characteristics if they are pursued in conjunction with approach types of achievement goals., (Copyright © 2019. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.)

Purpose : The present study aimed to investigate associations between hormonal profile (cortisol and testosterone) and the psychobiological aspects of Paralympic athletes during a competitive season. Method : Male Brazilian Paralympic swimmers (n = 11) were evaluated in three Training Camps (TC) during the cycle of training for the Paralympic Games RIO 2016. Questionnaires were used for data collection of stress and recovery, motivation in sport and hormonal status was assessed by salivary samples of cortisol ([Csal]) and testosterone ([Tsal]) concentrations. The Friedman test was used to identify overall significant differences at the three TC for each variable. When the overall p value indicated statistical significance ( p < .05), a post hoc Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired data was used to compare pairs of TC. The Spearman correlation was used to identify associations between the hormonal profile and the psychobiological aspects. Results : There was an association between the [Csal] and the "Conflicts/Pressure" sub-scale (r = 0.60; p = .04) in TC1 and the "Lack of Energy" subscale (r = 0.63; p = .03) in TC2. In the TC3, there were correlations between [Tsal] and "To Know" intrinsic motivation (r = 0.83, p < .01), "Objectives"(r = 0.66, p < .02), "Experiences" (r = 0.65, p < .02) and "Amotivation" (r = -0.70, p = .01). There were also associations between the [Tsal] and the "Social Recovery" (r = 0.77, p < .01), "General Wellness" (r = 0.73, p < .01), "Sleep Quality" (r = 0.63, p = .03) and "Self-efficacy" (r = 0.60, p = .05) subscales. In TC3, there was an association between [Tsal] and the "Success" (r = 0.61, p = .04), "Sleep Quality" (r = 0.62, p = .03), "Personal Accomplish" (r = 0.82, p < .01), "Self-efficacy" (r = 0.82, p < .05), "Self-regulation" (r = 0.85, p < .01) and "Physical Recovery" (r = 0.80, p < .01) subscales. The data demonstrate associations between biomarkers (salivary testosterone and cortisol) and psychobiological domains of Paralympic swimmers.

Penalty kicks often play a decisive role in the most prestigious international football tournaments. The present study investigated whether shooting performance of the penalty kick in football would be improved by providing specific attentional and motivational instructions. Twenty-four experienced male volunteers were asked to kick a ball at one of four targets located in a regulation-sized goal. Using a goalkeeper-independent strategy, subjects performed the penalty kicks under external focus (EF; targets in the goal), autonomy support (AS; choice of target order), combining external focus and autonomy support (EF/AS), and control conditions (C). A goalkeeper tried to save the ball during each attempt. The mean number of scored goals and kicking accuracy of goal scored were used to determine penalty kick performance. The EF/AS combination enhanced the number of goals scored compared to the C condition. No other significant differences were observed between the conditions in the number of goals scored. The EF/AS group displayed greater kicking accuracy of goals scored relative to the AS and C conditions. Also, the kicking accuracy of the EF condition was significantly better than the C condition. Additionally, the results demonstrated that the EF/AS condition resulted in fewer missed shots compared to the C condition. There were no significant differences in blocked shots between the conditions. The findings suggest that promoting an external focus of attention and autonomy support collectively may enhance penalty kick performance.

This study aimed to explore relationships between contextual self-determined motivation, everyday appraisals and emotions related to the competitive environment and subjective performance of young elite athletes. Thirty-one young tennis players (18.45 years ± 4.63) involved in intensive training centres completed initial (Time 0 - T0) self-determined motivation questionnaire and a fortnightly logbook including everyday cognitive appraisals, discrete emotions and subjective performance. We computed a series of hierarchical linear modelling analyses (HLM) to explore the relationships between the variables and Sobel tests to examine the mediating effects. HLM results showed that: (a) T0 autonomous motivation was positively associated with adaptive appraisals (challenge and benefits); (b) threat and loss were positively related to unpleasant emotions (anxiety, anger, dejection) and negatively associated with pleasant emotions whereas challenge and benefits were positively related to pleasant emotions and negatively associated with unpleasant emotions; (c) subjective performance was positively associated with happiness and negatively associated with dejection. Moreover, the Sobel tests revealed that: (a) appraisal was a mediator of the relationship between T0 self-determined motivation and discrete emotions; and; (b) emotions were mediators of the relationship between appraisals and subjective performance. In sum, the present study showed that young athletes' self-determined motivation assessed at the beginning of the study impacted their everyday cognitive appraisals, their experience of pleasant and unpleasant emotions, and their subjective performance levels along a 4-month period. To conclude, this study highlighted the relationships between the self-determined motivation, the emotional process and the performance of young elite athletes involving in intensive training settings.

This study investigated the effects of preferred and non-preferred warm-up music listening conditions on subsequent exercise performance. A total of 12 physically active male and female participants engaged in a crossover, counterbalanced research design in which they completed exercise trials after 3 different warm-up experiences of (a) no music (NM), (b) preferred music (PREF), and (c) nonpreferred music (NON-PREF). Participants began warming up by rowing at 50% of of age-predicted heart rate maximum (HR max ) for 5 minutes while exposed to the three music conditions. Immediately following the warm-up and cessation of any music, participants completed a 2000-m rowing time trial as fast as possible. Relative power output, trial time, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and motivation were analyzed. Results indicated that, compared with NM, relative power output was significantly higher ( p   =    .018), trial time was significantly lower ( p   =    .044), and heart rate was significantly higher ( p   =    .032) during the PREF but not the NON-PREF condition. Rating of perceived exertion was not altered, regardless of music condition ( p  > .05). Motivation to exercise was higher during the PREF condition versus the NM ( p   =    .001) and NON-PREF ( p  <   .001) conditions. Listening to preferred warm-up music improved subsequent exercise performance compared with no music, while nonpreferred music did not impart ergogenic benefit.

Purpose: Motivational processes are insufficiently recognized in models of human endurance. Hence, two studies examined a motivational model proposing that the quality of pre-task autonomous motivation influences performance at high intensity via the in-task temptation to reduce effort and value of goal pursuit., Methods: The studies involved 40 participants each (Study 1:33% female, M age  = 21.55, SD = 1.97; Study 2:45% female, M age  = 22.65, SD = 2.61) completing measures of autonomous motivation prior to a 10-minute cycling task. Measures of the temptation to reduce effort and value of goal pursuit were taken every minute during the trial (Study 1) or near the midpoint of the trial (Study 2). Data were analyzed using multilevel growth and parallel mediation models., Results: In both studies, autonomous motivation was associated with lower temptation to reduce effort and higher value of goal pursuit, which were subsequently characteristic of better performance. Study 1 revealed nuances within these relationships depending on whether task initiation or change over time was considered. In Study 2, indirect effects of autonomous motivation on performance via temptation to reduce effort (b = 0.20, 95% CIs 0.03-0.50) and goal value (b = 0.26, 95% CIs 0.01-0.44) were evidenced., Conclusion: Two studies supported a theoretically viable model explaining the dynamics between pre-task and in-task motivation underpinning performance at high intensities., (© 2020 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science In Sports published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Self-talk is helpful in motivating shooting athletes and promoting effortful behavior. This study aimed to examine how the degree and intensity of self-talk of shooting athletes during matches affects their actual internal motivation and careers. In particular, the primary objective was to determine the effects of the level and intensity of self-talk on the effort value, fun and interest, tension and anxiety, and competence of intrinsic motivation for different levels of achievement and athletic performance. One hundred seventy participants who were shooting athletes registered with the Korea Shooting Federation (national team, n = 55; high performance team, n = 62; general team, n = 53). The self-talk questionnaire was developed to measure the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS). The intrinsic motivation scale developed and applicable to sports situations was used to measure the motivation of the shooting athletes. Significant differences were observed using MANOVA as well as the basic statistics of intrinsic motivation by self-talk. The intrinsic motivation self-talk was correlated to effort value, fun and interest, and competence. There was a significant relationship between shooting athletes' self-talk and intrinsic motivation. This study indicated that athletes using self-talk experienced more fun and interest, and they perceived higher effort value and competence. Further, the multiple regression analysis revealed that self-talk affected the intrinsic motivational factors of effort value and fun and interest., (© Journal of Sports Science and Medicine.)

Objectives: Leadership has been suggested to be a key factor in gaining a competitive advantage as a team, with shared leadership being a better predictor of team functioning than vertical leadership. Although the benefits of shared leadership are well-documented, evidence about how to implement a shared leadership structure remains sparse. This leaves coaches with three key challenges: (1) identifying the best leaders; (2) defining what roles those leaders should fulfill; and (3) developing their leadership skills. Solutions to these challenges have been proposed in the 5R Shared Leadership Program (5R S ) - a leadership development program that seeks to implement an effective structure of shared leadership within sports teams., Design: To test the effectiveness of 5R S program, we conducted an experimental-comparison group intervention in which eight national-level basketball teams (N = 96) completed a questionnaire at two points in time (i.e., pre- and posttest). The teams in the intervention condition completed the 5R S program, in which we identified the leadership structure in their teams (through Shared Leadership Mapping), appointed the best leaders in their leadership role, and then developed their identity leadership skills., Results: The results revealed that the 5R S program was successful in strengthening athlete leaders' identity leadership skills, and as a result also team members' identification with their team. Furthermore, in contrast to athletes in the comparison condition, athletes in the 5R S condition were able to maintain their levels of intrinsic motivation and commitment to team goals, while also reporting improved well-being., Conclusions: The present study provides encouraging evidence that, by implementing a structure of shared leadership and by promoting athlete leaders' identity leadership skills, the 5R S program is able to improve the team's functioning and the well-being of its members., (Copyright © 2020 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Emotional contagion has been recognized as a variable influencing individual behaviour and team functioning. In particular, leaders within the team have been suggested to have a significant impact on their teammates through the expression of their emotions. As a result, the aim of this study was to provide greater insight into how different athlete leaders impact the emotional state of their team members, and whether gender differences existed in these relationships. Participants were 295 university student-athletes (200 male and 95 female) recruited from four universities in the UK. Data were collected in a two-step process. First, a voting/rating procedure was conducted within team to identify dominant task, motivational, social and external leaders. Then, participants completed the emotional contagion subscale of the Measure of Empathetic Tendency to rate the impact different athlete leaders had upon their emotional state. A MANOVA was conducted to explore gender differences in reported emotional susceptibility by leadership role. Subsequent ANOVAs highlighted significant differences between leadership role scores for female participants only. The results suggest that female athletes are more susceptible to emotional influence than male athletes. Furthermore, female athletes experienced a greater variation in the perceived emotional influence of different leadership roles in the team.

The purpose of this study was to examine the variation in accumulated basketball training experience, body size, functional performance, deliberate practice motivation, achievement and competitiveness motivation and sources of enjoyment among young female basketball players, partitioning the potential variation by individuals´ biological characteristics (menarche status) and contextual characteristics (competitive age group and competitive level). We considered 114 adolescent female basketball players aged 14.3 (1.8) years. We used multilevel regression and poststratification estimations. The adolescent female basketball players selected for state-level had more accumulated experience, were taller and with better functional performance. Conditional on the data, youth female coaches tend to value (probably overvalue) size and function when selecting/promoting players, even at early age groups, likely contributing to an overrepresentation of early maturing girls in at early age groups. Players from club- and state-level were similarly highly motivated for deliberate practice and to achievement. Only for competitiveness, state-level players had higher values than club level players. The sources of enjoyment were influenced by context (competitive levels) for self-referenced competencies and others-referenced competencies. Structured programs of training and competition in youth female basketball provide a nurturing environment for the development of players´ engagement and commitment to training and excellence attainment.

The understanding of placebo and nocebo effects in psychological responses to exercise may be improved by measuring expectations. Despite availability of several validated expectation measures, we argue for using scales that take both positive and negative expectations for exercise-induced changes into account. A cross-sectional survey was used to collect information on positive and negative expectations pertaining to how exercise would affect 14 different outcomes related to psychological health ( n  = 966). Outcomes for which a majority of the sample (>50%) reported positive expectations for exercise-induced changes included: psychological well-being (75.3%), depression (74.3%), relaxation (74.2%), sleep quality (73.3%), stress (72.2%), anxiety (69.8%), energy (67.1%), and attention (60.2%). Outcomes for which a majority of the sample (>50%) reported a negative expectation for exercise-induced changes were muscle pain (66.3%), fatigue (57.3%), and joint pain (50.7%). Across all 14 outcomes, the percentage of participants with negative expectations for exercise-induced changes ranged from 5.9 to 66.3%. Elucidating the potential presence of placebo and nocebo effects through measurement of expectations may improve the understanding of variability in the direction and magnitude of exercise-related effects on psychological health. Although there were only 3 outcomes for which the majority of participants reported negative expectations, we found that negative expectations were present to some degree for all 14 outcomes. Thus, for researchers who wish to characterize expectations in studies of psychological responses to exercise, we recommend using measures that give equal consideration to positive and negative expectations.

Although self-talk during competitive sports is common and predictive of athletes' motivation, experiences, and performance, it is difficult to accurately assess self-talk. An important, yet underexplored, next step in the assessment of self-talk is to rely on a multi-method approach. The present study sought to examine whether tennis players' self-talk assessed either via self-reports or via a live-recorded procedure would relate to each other. Competitive tennis players (N = 120; M age  = 25.22; SD age  = 9.82) were asked to perform multiple tennis exercises while verbalizing their thoughts, which were audio-recorded and subsequently coded. Prior to exercise engagement, they indicated their fear of failure, while, after exercise engagement, they reported on their experienced pressure and self-talk using questionnaires. There was substantial correspondence between the coded and self-reported measure, allowing the estimation of a latent factor representing a multi-method assessment of self-talk. Moreover, in a theory-consistent way, both latent factors representing negative and positive self-talk were related to a hypothesized antecedent (ie, fear of failure), with negative self-talk also relating to a hypothesized consequence (ie, perceived pressure). Overall, the present study shows that athletes' self-talk can be measured reliably through different methods. Guidelines for the assessment of self-talk in future research are provided., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Injuries and lack of motivation are common reasons for discontinuation of running. Real-time feedback from wearables can reduce discontinuation by reducing injury risk and improving performance and motivation. There are however several limitations and challenges with current real-time feedback approaches. We discuss these limitations and challenges and provide a framework to optimise real-time feedback for reducing injury risk and improving performance and motivation. We first discuss the reasons why individuals run and propose that feedback targeted to these reasons can improve motivation and compliance. Secondly, we review the association of running technique and running workload with injuries and performance and we elaborate how real-time feedback on running technique and workload can be applied to reduce injury risk and improve performance and motivation. We also review different feedback modalities and motor learning feedback strategies and their application to real-time feedback. Briefly, the most effective feedback modality and frequency differ between variables and individuals, but a combination of modalities and mixture of real-time and delayed feedback is most effective. Moreover, feedback promoting perceived competence, autonomy and an external focus can improve motivation, learning and performance. Although the focus is on wearables, the challenges and practical applications are also relevant for laboratory-based gait retraining.

Research has documented conflicting evidence about the relationship between a leader's unpleasant affective displays and team performance. Drawing on the dual threshold model of anger, we propose a novel explanation for this paradox such that the positive relationship between leaders' unpleasant affect and team performance turns negative at high levels of intensity. We examined our hypothesis in a multilevel field study of 304 halftime locker room speeches involving 23 high school and college basketball teams and a follow-up experiment. Our results show support for the prediction and suggest that the curvilinear effect of leaders' unpleasant affective displays may be explained by team members' redirection of attention and approach, which is positively associated with team members' effort at moderate levels of leader unpleasantness but leads to lower effort at high and low levels of leader unpleasantness. We discuss the theoretical contributions for scholarship on leadership, emotions as social information theory, and practical implications of the results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Objectives: To investigate health-related factors associated with self-rated race performance outcomes among recreational long-distance runners., Design: Panel study., Methods: Data were collected from runners one month before and after a community-level race event including distances from 8 to 42.2 km. The primary outcome measure was self-rated race performance outcome. The explanatory variables represented health complaints suffered during the build-up year, the pre-race month, and the race and among full marathon runners predicted objective performance outcome (mean pace equal to training pace or faster). Multiple logistic regression was used to determine factors associated with the self-rated performance outcome., Results: Two-hundred forty-five runners (29%) provided complete data sets. Seventy-four percent of the runners reached their desired race performance outcome. Achievement of the performance outcome was more likely when having avoided illness during the build-up and pre-race periods (OR = 3.8; 95% CI:1.8-8.0, p < 0.001), having avoided per-race injury (OR=3.0; 95% CI:1.2-7.4, p = 0.02) and avoided per-race illness (OR = 4.1; 95% CI:1.3-15, p = 0.020). Having obtained the self-rated performance outcome was also associated with running a shorter distance (OR=3.6; 95% CI: 1.7-8.0, p = 0.001) and being younger than 50 years of age (OR = 2.4; 95% CI:1.1-5.3-8.3, p = 0.03). Having met the predicted objective performance outcome predisposed marathon runners to also obtain the self-rated performance outcome (OR = 4.7, 95% CI: 1.5-16, p < 0.01)., Conclusions: Having avoided illness during build-up and pre-race was positively associated with self-rated race performance outcome among recreational runners. Adjusting the desired performance outcomes with regard to recent illness and age may help recreational runners to more often achieve their goals and thereby prevent them from leaving the sport., (Copyright © 2019 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

To investigate the effects of situational factors (match location, strength of team and opponent) and environmental factors (relative air humidity, temperature and air quality index) on the technical and physical match performance of Chinese Soccer Super League teams (CSL). The generalized mixed modelling was employed to determine the effects by using the data of all 240 matches in the season 2015 collected by Amisco Pro ® . Increase in the rank difference would increase the number of goal-scoring related, passing and organizing related actions to a small-to-moderate extent (Effect size [ES]: 0.37-0.99). Match location had small positive effects on goal-scoring related, passing and organizing related variables (ES: 0.27-0.51), while a small negative effect on yellow card (ES = -0.35). Increment in relative air humidity and air quality index would only bring trivial or small effects on all the technical performance (ES: -0.06-0.23). Increase in humidity would decrease the physical performance at a small magnitude (ES: -0.55--0.38). Teams achieved the highest number in the physical performance-related parameters at the temperature between 11.6 and 15.1 °C. In the CSL, situational variables had major effects on the technical performance but trivial effects on the physical performance, on the contrary, environmental factors affected mainly the physical performance but had only trivial or small impact on the technical performance.

Purpose: To examine whether listening to motivational music mitigates heat-related reductions in exercise performance, and leads to a greater increase in thermal and cardiovascular strain., Methods: Twelve participants (26 ± 5 y, 77.5 ± 17.0 kg, 49 ± 8 ml·min -1 ·kg -1 ) completed 30-min of cycling preload at 50% VO 2max followed by a 5-min rest and 15-min cycling time trial on seven separate occasions; three familiarisation sessions in a 20 °C room and four experimental trials in a climatic chamber regulated at either 21 °C, 50%RH (NEU) or 36 °C, 50%RH (HOT), each with and without the participant listening to self-selected motivational music during the 5-min rest and 15-min time trial. Measures of total work, core temperature and heart rate and blood pressure (from which rate-pressure product for cardiovascular strain was calculated), were recorded., Results: Without music, total work was lower (p < .001) in the HOT condition (168 ± 59 kJ) relative to the NEU condition (193 ± 60 kJ). With music, total work was greater relative to no music in both the NEU condition (203 ± 60 kJ vs 193 ± 60 kJ; p = .008) and HOT condition (183 ± 63 kJ vs 168 ± 60 kJ; p = .029). The greater total work in the HOT condition with music relative to no music resulted in a higher (p = .006) core temperature (38.7 ± 0.4 °C vs 38.6 ± 0.5 °C) and a higher (p < .001) rate-pressure product (34.8 ± 7.1 mmHg·beats·min -1 ·10 -3 vs 27.8 ± 3.7 mmHg·beats·min -1 ·10 -3 )., Conclusion: Listening to motivational music mitigated heat-related reductions in exercise performance with an improvement in performance in the heat of ~10%. This improved exercise performance led to a greater increase in thermal and cardiovascular strain in the heat but did not exceed levels typically associated with an elevated health risk in a young, healthy population., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The aim of the present study was to examine the motivation of recreational runners and its variation by sex, age, and performance level. Finishers (female: n = 32, age 40.1 ± 9.0 years old, height 162 ± 7 cm, body mass 57.7 ± 7.5 kg, race record 4:34 ± 0:39 h:min; male: n = 134, 44.2 ± 8.6 years, 176 ± 6 cm, 77.0 ± 9.3 kg, 4:02 ± 0:44 h:min) in the Athens Classic Marathon 2017 completed the Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS) 56-item questionnaire. The highest scores in the MOMS were observed in the general health orientation and personal goal achievement categories, and the lowest in the recognition and competition areas. Female participants scored higher in coping, self-esteem, and goal achievement than their male counterparts ( p < 0.05). The <30 age group scored higher than the 35-40 and 40-45 age groups in "competing with other runners" for male participants ( p < 0.05). The average performance group outscored the slowest group in "achieving personal goals" and "competing with other runners" in female participants, whereas an effect of performance on these two themes was shown in male participants as well ( p < 0.05). In summary, we partially confirmed that female and male marathon runners differ for their motivations. In addition, novel findings were the identification of age and performance level as correlates of motivations. The knowledge of these trends would be of great practical value for practitioners to optimize the motivation of their athletes.

Purpose: The purpose of this work is focused on the study of the effect that feedback has on competence valuation, perceived competence, autonomous motivation, vitality, and performance in a throwing task., Method: Thirty-five college students (26 men and 9 women), without previous experience in the task, participated in this study. The students were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions (positive, negative, and lack of feedback)., Results: The results of this study point out that only those who received positive feedback before the handball throwing task, in contrast to those who received negative feedback or did not receive any feedback, showed increased levels of competence valuation (p < .05, Cliff's delta effect size = -.30), perceived competence (p < .001, Cliff's delta effect size = -.77), and autonomous motivation (p < .05, Cliff's delta effect size = -.48). This group also presented higher levels of perceived competence (p < .001, Cliff's delta effect size = -.84) and subjective vitality (p < .001, Cliff's delta effect size = -.80) than the group who received negative feedback after the throwing task. Those who received positive feedback also showed a higher throwing speed at the end of task than those who received negative feedback (p < 0.001, Cliff's delta effect size = -.71) or than those who did not receive any feedback (p < .05, Cliff's delta effect size = -.56)., Conclusions: Competence valuation, perceived competence, autonomous motivation, subjective vitality, and throwing speed were favorably influenced by positive feedback. These results have important implications for the training style applied by coaches.

This study examined how goal-directed self-talk may help basketball players to self-regulate in stereotypical competitive situations: seconds before a challenging game, while clearly winning or clearly losing, and at the close of a tight game. Participants were recruited in groups of three to four, until preliminary inspection of the data indicated that data saturation was reached. In the end, 34 basketball players voluntarily took part in individual interviews, writing up to three self-instructions they had used in each of the four competitive situations to self-regulate. Content analyses revealed that self-talk in competitive basketball situations serves cognitive functions (e.g., regulating cognition and behaviour), motivational functions (e.g., promoting mastery goals) and emotion and activation-regulating functions (e.g., creating activated states). More specifically, the results also indicated that athletes' self-talk may serve functions specific to the psychological demands experienced in each situation. It is argued that knowing how athletes counsel themselves, could prove important for applied sport psychologists to design psychological skill training.

The present experiment examined the effects of listening to different types of music during warm-up on the diurnal variation of short-term maximal performance (STMP) in soccer players, using a 3 × 2 mixed design with factors "Condition" (warm-up with self-selected motivational-music (WUMM) vs. warm-up with neutral-music (WUNM) vs. warm-up without-music (WUWM) and "Time of Day" (07 h00 vs. 17 h00). In a random order, twelve male soccer players performed a 5-m shuttle run test after a 10 min of WUMM, a 10 min of WUNM and a 10 min WUWM at 07 h00 and 17 h00. The higher distance (HD) and total distance (TD) were measured during the test, and the rated perceived exertion (RPE) and the feelings states (FS) were obtained immediately after the warm-up and the test. The results revealed that HD and TD were higher at 17 h00 than 07 h00 in all conditions (p < .01). At 07 h00 and 17 h00, TD and HD were higher after WUMM and WUNM than WUWM and after WUMM than WUNM (p < .01). This improvement was greater at 07 h00 than 17 h00 (e.g., 6.97% vs. 5.26% for TD). Moreover, FS were more positive after WUNM than WUWM only at 07 h00, after WUMM than WUWM at the two time-of-day (p < .01), and after WUMM than WUNM at 17 h00 (p < .01). After the 5-m shuttle run test, FS were more negative and the RPE scores were higher with WUMM than WUWM at 07 h00 (p < .01). The findings suggested that STMP and feelings depend on types of music listened during a warm-up. A warm-up with self-selected motivational-music improves STMP and feelings at 07 h00 and 17 h00 with greater enhancement in the morning. However, a warm-up with neutral-music improves STMP and feelings only at 07 h00., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Recent theories suggest that negative effects of fatigue on performance are determined by perception of effort and motivation rather than being directly caused by reaching physiological limits. In the current experiment, the influence of motivation on fatigue-induced decrements in soccer performance was experimentally investigated. Sixty amateur soccer players performed a validated soccer-passing test before and after a fatigue protocol. Results showed that players' motivation and performance decreased after the fatigue protocol for players in the control group. In contrast, players in the motivation group (i.e., with motivation experimentally induced after the fatigue protocol) were able to uphold their motivation and increase their performance. These results indicate that motivation plays a crucial role in performance under fatigue, as fatigue-induced decrements in soccer passing performance can be counteracted by high levels of motivation. Future research may explore the limits of this counteracting effect and extend findings to other relevant performance aspects.

Research has suggested the need to use a person-centred approach to examine multidimensionality of motivation. Guided by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), the primary aim of the present study was to examine the motivational profiles in table tennis players and their composition by gender, country, training status, and competition levels (from recreational to international). The secondary aim was to examine the differences in performance anxiety and subjective vitality across the motivational profiles. Participants were 281 table tennis players from multiple countries, mostly the U.S. and China. Hierarchical and nonhierarchical cluster analyses were conducted and showed three motivational profiles with distinct quantity and quality: "low", "controlled", and "self-determined". Chi-square tests of independence demonstrated significant differences in their cluster membership by country, formal training with a coach, and competition levels, but not gender. MANCOVA results indicated differences in performance anxiety and subjective vitality across the motivational profiles, in which the controlled profile had the greatest anxiety symptoms. These differences are attributed to the quality over quantity of motivation, which have meaningful implications for table tennis coaches and sport psychology consultants to diagnose and intervene with players in order to reduce their performance anxiety and improve their well-being.

Purpose: Grounded in the Cognitive Evaluation Theory, the present experiment aimed to compare the relative impact of competence support provided by coaches versus athlete leaders on players' competence satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, and performance., Methods: We recruited 18 existing competitive male basketball teams (ie, 126 players) to participate in the experiment. Each team was randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) the coach provided competence support (ie, by encouraging, providing positive feedback, and expressing team confidence); (b) the athlete leader provided competence support; or (c) neither the coach, nor the athlete leader provided competence support (ie, control condition)., Results: Teams in which the athlete leader provided competence support reported higher levels of competence satisfaction and intrinsic motivation than teams in the control condition, a difference that did not emerge when the coach provided competence support. Furthermore, teams in which either the coach or the athlete leader supported team members' competence performed better compared to teams in the control group., Conclusion: Our findings highlight the importance of providing competence support to enhance team performance. Given athlete leaders' unique impact on teammates' competence satisfaction and motivation, instructing athlete leaders how to provide competence support constitutes an important motivational pathway for coaches to optimize team functioning., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Sustained persistence in deliberate practice (DP) could be aided by engagement in adaptive motivational and metacognitive types of self-regulated learning (SRL) processes. We examined relationships between SRL and each of DP and physical preparation (PP; e.g., cross-training) in supervised, unsupervised, social and non-social practice contexts. 272 individual-sport athletes (from city to international level; M sport activity = 13.54 hrs/wk; 200 males, ages 18-35) completed the Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Report Scale and reported weekly DP and PP amounts. We found contrasting results depending on specific SRL processes. Self-monitoring was related to DP (total, supervised, social conditions) but inversely related to PP. Effort was inversely related to supervised DP but positively associated with PP. Planning was associated with DP, and reflection and self-efficacy related to PP. We discuss the contrast between DP and PP, highlighting differences in the nature of these practice activities, and self-monitoring as a key SRL process for DP.

Context: The motivational climate created by the athletic trainer in rehabilitation may be critical in influencing athletes' intrinsic motivation and other psychosocial outcomes in the rehabilitation and the recovery processes., Objective: To examine intercollege athletes' perceptions of the motivational climate in the rehabilitation setting. Specifically, examining if perceptions of the motivational climate can predict athletes' levels of intrinsic motivation with rehabilitation as well as the relationship between perceptions of the motivational climate and athlete demographics (gender, starter status, athletic trainer gender, etc)., Design: Cross-sectional, descriptive research., Setting: College sport team and athletic training center., Participants: National Collegiate Athletic Association Division II intercollege athletes from one institution (n = 187; 125 males and 62 females)., Main Outcome Measures: Paper-based survey measuring mastery and performance perceptions of the motivational climate in rehabilitation, athletes' goal orientation in sport, and athletes' levels of motivation in rehabilitation., Results: Perceptions of a performance climate were positively related to intrinsic motivation effort-improvement (effect size = 25.34%). Perceptions of a mastery climate were positively related to interest-enjoyment and perceived competence and negatively related to tension-pressure (effect size = 39.03%). In general, female athletes, as well as athletes with a female athletic trainer, had significantly higher perceptions of mastery motivational climate effort-improvement than male athletes and athletes with male athletic trainers. While male athletes and athletes with male athletic trainers had higher perceptions of intrateam member rivalry in rehabilitation., Conclusions: The athlete's gender and goal orientation, as well as the gender of the athletic trainer creating the motivational climate, can influence whether the environment is perceived as more mastery or performance. The recovering athletes' perceptions of the climate in rehabilitation can, in turn, affect their intrinsic motivation toward the therapeutic interventions.

The study aimed to investigate the effects of repeated sprint (RS) training on somatic anxiety (SA), cognitive anxiety (CA), self-confidence (SC), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and repeated sprint ability (RSA) indicators in elite young soccer players. Thirty elite soccer players in the first football league (age: 17.8±0.9years) volunteered to participate in this study. They were randomly assigned to one of two groups: a repeated sprint training group (RST-G; n=15) and a control group (CON-G; n=15). RST-G participated in 6weeks of intensive training based on RS (6×(20+20m) runs, with 20s passive recovery interval between sprints, 3 times/week). Before and after the 6-week intervention, all participants performed a RSA test and completed a Competitive Scale Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2) and the RPE. After training RST-G showed a very significant (p<0.000) increase in RSA total time performance relative to controls. Despite the faster sprint pace, the RPE also decreased significantly (p<0.005) in RST-G, and their self confidence was significantly greater (p<0.01), while the cognitive (p<0.01) and somatic (p<0.000) components of their anxiety state decreased. When practiced regularly, short bouts of sprint exercises improve anaerobic performance associated with a reduction in anxiety state and an increase in SC which may probably boost competitive performance., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of verbal encouragement on isometric force and associated electromyographic (EMG) parameters during a handgrip task., Methods: Twenty-three participants (12 women and 11 men) performed maximal voluntary isometric handgrip contractions following three conditions: 1) verbal encouragement (VE) condition: participants executed isometric contractions while being verbally encouraged; 2) non-verbal encouragement (nVE) condition: the same starting and stopping signal but without encouragement; 3) non-concentration and non-motivation (nCM) condition: self-initiated contractions without concentration and motivation. Start and stop of the contraction were self-initiated. The maximal voluntary force (MVF) and the maximal rate of force development (MRFD) were measured. Integrated EMG corresponding to MVF (iEMGMVF) and to MRFD (iEMGMRFD) were collected from flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) and extensor digitorum communis (EDC) muscles., Results: MVF was higher during VE compared with nVE (+11.7%; P<0.05) and nCM (+23.2%; P<0.05) conditions. Likewise, MRFD was significantly higher during VE, compared with nVE (+21.7%; P<0.05) and nCM (+55.4%; P<0.05) conditions. iEMGMVF increased for FDS and EDC during VE, compared to nVE (+26.19%, +20.5%) and nCM conditions (+68.85%, +48.91%), respectively. iEMGMRFD increased for FDS and EDC during VE, compared to nVE (+21.2%, +46.07%) and nCM conditions (+23.79%, +42.32%). Furthermore, the reproducibility of all these indices was higher with VE condition., Conclusions: Taken together, force production (MVF and MRFD) and EMG data supported the view that muscles activity is considerably influenced by the verbal encouragements during isometric force exercise.

The interaction of multiple influences on the path to sport success is not yet fully understood by sport scientists. In this study, we examined variation in body size, functional capacities and motivation for achievement, competitiveness and deliberate practice of youth basketball players associated with differences in biological maturity status, chronological age and years of training experience. Reflecting the importance of interactive effects, we examined the relationships between the psychological variables and functional capacities. Fifty-eight male basketball players aged 9.5 to 15.5 years were considered. Variables included chronological age, estimated age at peak height velocity, stature, body mass and sitting height by anthropometry; the Work and Family Orientation and Deliberate Practice Motivation Questionnaires were also used. Finally, the Line Drill test and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1) tests were used as functional capacities indicators for basketball. Variance components models derived from series of multilevel linear regression models revealed a substantial variation by maturity status for body size, functional capacities indicators, mastery and will to excel. The influence of estimated maturity status on mastery and will to excel was independent of age and years of experience. In contrast, no relationships were observed between psychological variables and functional capacities indicators. We conclude that growth-related changes are relevant to understanding players´ motivations for achievement, competitiveness and deliberate practice. This should be of interest to those involved in the selection and development of youth basketball players.

This study is based on Regulatory Focus Theory and investigates the links between the subjects' motivational orientations for promotion or prevention and their performance in handball penalty throws. In a real-world setting with high stakes, we analyzed 327 penalties taken from 68 closed games. The results of the 7-meter throws constitute the dependent variable (Goal vs Miss). The independent variables are the situational focus ([critical moment (ie, final minute) = pressure] vs [non-critical moment = no pressure]), the reward structure (ie, [thrower's team is behind = losses reward structure] vs [thrower's team is ahead or teams are tied = gains reward structure), and the game location (home vs away). Using logistic regression analysis, the results show that when there is a fit between the situational focus and the reward structure, the thrower's performance is higher than when there is a mismatch (OR = 2.21; P = .004). In the same way, the thrower's performance is higher when there is high fit between the situational focus and the reward structure (OR = 1.78), than when there is a high mismatch (OR = 0.54). These results globally support the Regulatory Fit Theory in an ecological context., (© 2017 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Grounded in the Cognitive Evaluation Theory, a mini-theory of Self-Determination Theory, this experimental field study sought to examine the impact of competence support of both coaches and athlete leaders on athletes' competence satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, and subjective as well as objective performance. Male basketball players (N = 120) were allocated to groups of 5 players. These groups were then randomly assigned to a control group or to 1 of 3 experimental conditions. In these experimental conditions, either the coach, the athlete leader, or both provided motivational feedback to their team. The provision of motivational feedback by either the coach or the athlete leader was sufficient to increase athletes' competence satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, and objective performance (i.e., enhanced execution time without a decrease in scoring percentage) relative to the control group. Interestingly, when both the coach and the athlete leader provided competence support, a surplus effect was observed on objective performance compared with when only the coach provided competence support. Furthermore, structural equation modeling revealed that players' competence satisfaction mediated the relationship between the provided competence support and players' intrinsic motivation, while a direct effect was observed on objective performance. In conclusion, the study findings indicate that also athlete leaders can adopt a motivating role, and that by doing so, their impact is as strong as the impact of the coach. Both coaches and athlete leaders can thus boost athletes' objective performance and foster competence satisfaction, with the latter resulting in increased intrinsic motivation., (© 2017 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: The goal was to compare the achievement goal profile and the motivational regulations of one world-class and two high-level athletes during their preparation for the Rio Olympic Games., Method: Three kayakers from the Spanish Olympic team participated. One (P1) and two (P2) were high-level athletes: finalists at the World and European championships, and several national championships. Participant three (P3) was a world-class athlete: 2 Olympic medals, 7 World championship medals, 4 European championship medals, and several national championships. Before and after three training sessions and 4 international competitions (including World and European championships) all participants completed a questionnaire to assess their achievement goal orientation, dominance and pursuit, as well as their motivational regulation. Generalized estimated equations (GEE) analysis was used to assess significant differences between subjects., Results: P3 had lower performance-approach goal orientation, stronger mastery-approach goal dominance, lower performance-approach and performance-avoidance goal pursuit, higher mastery-avoidance goal pursuit and lower controlled motivation than the other two participants., Conclusion: Our world-class athlete has a strong mastery-approach achievement goal dominant profile, and a low performance-oriented profile (both approach and avoidance) and controlled motivation. This profile should be confirmed in similar athletes to help coaches and their young athletes make appropriate decisions.

While people's willingness to work hard can be reduced in teams (i.e., effort losses in teams as compared with individual work), it is less recognized that teamwork can also stimulate additional efforts (i.e., effort gains). Building on and extending existing theory, we (a) suggest an integration of these two research streams, and (b) provide evidence for team-related effort gains in action teams. In a first study, we tested our predictions by reanalyzing a field data set of 302,576 swimming performances in individual and relay races (Neugart & Richiardi, 2013). Consistent with our hypotheses, we observed a linear increase in effort across the relay. The first relay swimmers showed effort losses in the relay as compared with the individual competition whereas the remaining relay swimmers showed effort gains. However, this was only evident (a) when team members could realistically expect meaningful team outcomes in return for their performance, and (b) when the valence of these outcomes was equivalent to individual competitions. If such favorable conditions were not given, we found effort losses in team as compared with individual competitions at all relay positions. Results of a second study (N = 228) showed that the linear increase in effort across the relay was indeed attributable to the team members' serial position and not to their relative strength. Together, the studies demonstrate the motivating potential of teamwork even in the high performance contexts of action teams, such as competitive sports relays, where athletes are already highly motivated in their individual competitions. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).)

This study examined the relationships between perceptions of the motivational climate, motivation regulations, and the intensity and functionality levels of athletes' pleasant and unpleasant emotional states. Specifically, we examined the hypothesised mediational role of motivation regulations in the climate-emotion relationship. We also tested a sequence in which emotions were assumed to be predicted by the motivational climate dimensions and then served as antecedents to variability in motivation regulations. Participants (N = 494) completed a multi-section questionnaire assessing targeted variables. Structural equation modelling (SEM) revealed that a perceived task-involving climate was a positive predictor of autonomous motivation and of the impact of functional anger, and a negative predictor of the intensity of anxiety and dysfunctional anger. Autonomous motivation was a partial mediator of perceptions of a task-involving climate and the impact of functional anger. An ego-involving climate was a positive predictor of controlled motivation, and of the intensity and impact of functional anger and the intensity of dysfunctional anger. Controlled motivation partially mediated the relationship between an ego-involving climate and the intensity of dysfunctional anger. Good fit to the data also emerged for the motivational climate, emotional states, and motivation regulations sequence. Findings provide support for the consideration of hedonic tone and functionality distinctions in the assessment of athletes' emotional states.

Grounded in self-determination theory, this experimental study examined whether the valence (i.e., positive vs. negative) and style (i.e., autonomy-supportive vs. controlling) of normative feedback impact the self-talk, motivational experiences (i.e., psychological need satisfaction and enjoyment), and behavioral functioning (i.e., perseverance and performance) of tennis players (N = 120; M age  = 24.50 ± 9.86 years). Positive feedback and an autonomy-supportive style positively influenced players' enjoyment and perseverance, with psychological need satisfaction and self-talk playing an intervening role. While positive feedback yielded its beneficial effect via greater competence satisfaction and decreased negative self-talk, the beneficial impact of an autonomy-supportive communication style was explained via greater autonomy satisfaction.

We consider the data reported in the target article with respect to key motivational frameworks and characteristics, including grit and self-determined forms of motivation. Empirical data are reviewed that highlight the relationships between these concepts and practice and success. We highlight the concept of grit as a defining characteristic of the super-elite athletes, in reference to both their continued perseverance in the face of obstacles, as well as the increased motivation seemingly caused by such obstacles or setbacks. We discuss the dynamic nature of motivation with respect to cross-sectional and longitudinal age-related comparisons in athletes. Such research is necessary to better understand the characteristics that are potentially transitory or that are a consequence of success, rather than being causal in nature. In the final section, we provide evidence consistent with a profile of a super-elite athlete that is best defined with respect to coexisting types of motivations that have traditionally been considered both positive and negative with respect to their outcomes. The between group comparisons of highly successful athletes in the target article, is unusual yet important if we are to better understand the psychosocial profiles necessary to succeed, that are unbiased by age, practice, and competition experience., (© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Hardy et al. (2017) reported the findings of a large-scale, multisource, qualitative study that examined the commonalities of, and discriminators between, a group of super-elite (SE) and a group of elite (E) athletes who were matched on gender, sport, discipline, and era. Fifteen research teams who are actively engaged in research in the domain then provided critical commentaries on the target paper. In our response to these commentaries, we briefly remind the reader of the primary findings of the original paper and then deal with the commentaries under the subheadings: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Elite Performance; Mediating and Moderating Variables; Methodological Issues; Omissions; and Alternative Approaches. Finally, we discuss the very small number of disagreements that we have with any of the commentaries., (© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A culture of striving was notable in the developmental background of many of the elite and super elite athletes in the Hardy et al., Study: Critically, a culture of striving was credited with a positive influence on a range of issues relevant to elite sports performance, including performance under pressure. Of the six athletes who did not reveal a culture of striving, five reported the greatest difficulty performing in high-pressure situations. We suspect that a culture of striving facilitates the development of attention control ability, which subsequently assists performance under pressure. We discuss attention control from the perspective of working memory and hypothesize that a culture of striving trains individuals to maximize their working memory capacity., (© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Soccer players are required to have well-developed physical, technical and cognitive abilities. The present systematic review, adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines, examined the effects of cognitive training strategies on motor and positive psychological skills development in soccer performance and identified the potential moderators of the "cognitive training-soccer performance" relationship. Thirteen databases were systematically searched using keywords related to psychological or cognitive training in soccer players. The review is based on 18 studies, employing 584 soccer players aged 7-39 years. Cognitive strategies, particularly imagery, appear to improve sports performance in soccer players. Regarding imagery, the combination of two different types of cognitive imagery training (i.e., cognitive general and cognitive specific) has a positive influence on soccer performance during training, whereas motivational imagery (i.e., motivational general-arousal, motivational general-mastery and motivational specific) enhance competition performance. Younger soccer players employ cognitive general and cognitive specific imagery techniques to a greater extent than older soccer players. Combined cognitive training strategies were more beneficial than a single cognitive strategy relative to motor skills enhancement in elite (particularly midfielders) and amateur (i.e., when practising complex and specific soccer skills in precompetitive period) soccer players. In conclusion, it appears that there are differences in cognitive/psychological training interventions, and their efficacy, according to whether they are directed towards training or competition, and the age, standard and playing position of the players.

This research applied insights from terror management theory (TMT; Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986) to the world of sport. According to TMT, self-esteem buffers against the potential for death anxiety. Because sport allows people to attain self-esteem, reminders of death may improve performance in sport. In Study 1, a mortality salience induction led to improved performance in a "one-on-one" basketball game. In Study 2, a subtle death prime led to higher scores on a basketball shooting task, which was associated with increased task-related self-esteem. These results may promote our understanding of sport and provide a novel potential way to improve athletic performance.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine if mental toughness moderated the occurrence of social loafing in cycle time-trial performance., Method: Twenty-seven men (Mage = 17.7 years, SD = 0.6) completed the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire prior to completing a 1-min cycling trial under 2 conditions: once with individual performance identified, and once in a group with individual performance not identified. Using a median split of the mental toughness index, participants were divided into high and low mental toughness groups. Cycling distance was compared using a 2 (trial) × 2 (high-low mental toughness) analysis of variance. We hypothesized that mentally tough participants would perform equally well under both conditions (i.e., no indication of social loafing) compared with low mentally tough participants, who would perform less well when their individual performance was not identifiable (i.e., demonstrating the anticipated social loafing effect)., Results: The high mental toughness group demonstrated consistent performance across both conditions, while the low mental toughness group reduced their effort in the non-individually identifiable team condition., Conclusions: The results confirm that (a) clearly identifying individual effort/performance is an important situational variable that may impact team performance and (b) higher perceived mental toughness has the ability to negate the tendency to loaf.

Sprint interval training (SIT) can elicit improvements in aerobic and anaerobic capacity. While variations in SIT protocols have been investigated, the influence of social processes cannot be overlooked. As research supports the use of groups to influence individual cognitions and behaviours, the current project assessed the effectiveness of a group-based intervention with participants conducting SIT. Specifically, 53 amateur athletes (age, 21.9 ± 2.9 years; 53% females) took part in a 4-week training program (3 sessions per week, 30-s "all-out" efforts with 4 min active recovery, repeated 4-6 times per session), and were assigned to "true group", aggregate, or individual conditions. Results indicated no significant differences between groups for the physiological measures. With regards to training improvements from baseline for all participants- regardless of condition - significant main effects for time were identified for maximal oxygen uptake (2.5-2.8 mL·kg(-1)·min(-1), p < 0.001, η(2) = 0.03), time-trial performance (14-32 s, p < 0.001, η(2) = 0.37), and anaerobic power (1.1-1.7 k·h(-1), p < 0.001, η(2) = 0.66). With regards to the psychological measures, significant main effects between groups were found for motivation (p = 0.033, η(2) = 0.13), task self-efficacy (p = 0.018, η(2) = 0.15), and scheduling self-efficacy (p = 0.003, η(2) = 0.22). The true group experienced greater improvements in motivation than the individual condition, but the aggregate and individual conditions demonstrated greater increases in task and scheduling self-efficacy. Though the SIT paradigm employed induced training improvements similar to previous work, the group intervention was not able to further these improvements.

Objective: Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use has been robustly associated with negative body image, and eating- and muscularity-oriented psychopathology. However, with AAS being increasingly utilized for both appearance and athletic performance-related purposes, we investigated whether comorbid body image psychopathology varies as a function of motivation for usage., Method: Self-reported motivation for current and initial AAS use was recorded amongst 122 AAS using males, alongside measures of current disordered eating and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology., Results: Those reporting AAS for appearance purposes reported greater overall eating disorder psychopathology, F(2, 118)=7.45, p=0.001, ηp(2)=0.11, and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology, F(2, 118)=7.22, p<0.001, ηp(2)=0.11, than those using AAS primarily for performance purposes. Additionally, greater dietary restraint, F(2, 116)=3.61, p=0.030, ηp(2)=0.06, functional impairment, F(2, 118)=3.26, p=0.042, ηp(2)=0.05, and drive for size, F(2, 118)=10.76, p<0.001, ηp(2)=0.15, was demonstrated in those using ASS for appearance purposes., Discussion: Motivation for AAS use may be important in accounting for differential profiles of body image psychopathology amongst users. Men whose AAS use is driven primarily by appearance-related concerns may be a particularly dysfunctional subgroup., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)