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Abrupt and gradual dry-off strategies by reducing feeding level (normal vs. reduced energy density), reducing milking frequency (twice vs. once daily), and administration of a dopamine agonist after last milking (i.m. saline vs. cabergoline injection) were investigated (2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement) for their effects on feed intake, milk yield, energy balance, milk leakage, and clinical udder characteristics in 119 Holstein cows. In the last week before dry-off, cows were assigned to 1 of 4 combinations of feeding level and milking frequency. Within 3 h after last milking, cows were injected with either saline or a dopamine agonist (cabergoline; Velactis, Ceva Santé Animale; labeled for use only with abrupt dry-off, i.e., no preceding reduction in feeding level or milking frequency before last milking). After dry-off, all cows were fed the same diet for dry cows, and data collection continued for a week. Dry matter intake (DMI) was recorded in automated feed bins and milk yield in an automatic milking system where additional concentrate was fed. Clinical udder characteristics and milk leakage were scored 10 times during the week before and the week after dry-off. Before dry-off, total DMI decreased with reduced feeding level compared with normal feeding level, but did not differ between milking frequencies. The combined effect of reduced DMI and diet energy concentration resulted in a 47% lower net energy intake with reduced feeding level compared with normal feeding level during the week before dry-off. Milk yield was approximately 30% lower during the week before dry-off when either feeding level or milking frequency was reduced compared with no change in feeding level or milking frequency, whereas milk yield was 45% lower when both feeding level and milking frequency were reduced. The net energy balance during the week before dry-off was negative with reduced feeding level and more negative when combined with twice-daily milking. After dry-off, udder engorgement was reduced in the 3 gradual dry-off treatments compared with abrupt dry-off. Cabergoline injection after last milking resulted in least udder engorgement and signs of milk leakage for 48 h, but also resulted in abrupt reduction of DMI lasting approximately 24 h irrespective of treatment before dry-off. In conclusion, gradual cessation of lactation by reducing milking frequency to once daily without reducing the feeding level decreased milk yield before dry-off in high-yielding dairy cows and reduced udder engorgement after dry-off without inducing negative energy balance during the period of dry-off. In contrast, reduced feeding level induced negative energy balance, which may compromise welfare due to metabolic stress and hunger. No clear differences in risk of milk leakage after dry-off were observed between abrupt and gradual dry-off management strategies. Use of cabergoline led to fewer signs of milk leakage and reduced udder engorgement during the first days after dry-off, which may positively affect welfare at dry-off. However, the mechanism behind and the welfare consequences of the concomitant abrupt decrease in DMI lasting approximately 24 h needs further investigation to complete our understanding of dopamine agonist use for dry-off. ispartof: JOURNAL OF DAIRY SCIENCE vol:104 issue:10 pages:11108-11125 ispartof: location:United States status: published

We investigated the single and combined effects of 2 feeding levels (normal lactation diet vs. energy-reduced diet, both fed for ad libitum intake) and 2 daily milking frequencies (twice vs. once) during 1 wk before the dry-off day (d 0), as well as an intramuscular injection of either a dopamine agonist (cabergoline; Velactis, Ceva Sante Animale; labeled for use only with abrupt dry-off, e.g., no reduction in feeding level or milking frequency before the last milking) or saline after the last milking on d 0 on the feeding motivation of clinically healthy, loose-housed, pregnant, lactating Holstein cows. From d 0, all cows were fed the same dry-cow diet for ad libitum intake. Cows were subjected to 2 feed-thwarting tests, a test in the home pen using their diets (test A: d -6, -1, and 1; during 35 min when the feed bins were filled, but locked) and another test carried out in an adjacent pen in which access to concentrate provided in a familiar plastic box was blocked by a wire-mesh lid (test B: d -5 and 2). In test A, we recorded how often cows attempted to feed per 35 min, whether cows vocalized during the 35-min period, and latency to feed within 300 s after feed bins were unlocked. In test B, we recorded latency to approach either of 2 familiar boxes (the wire-mesh box and an identical open box with a small portion of concentrate) within 600 s and how often cows directed behaviors toward the wire-mesh box (number of occurences/5 min). On d -6 (test A), no clear differences in feeding motivation among treatments were found. On d -5 and -1, cows fed the energy-reduced diet displayed a higher probability of vocalizing (test A), were more than 50% quicker to feed (test A), were approximately 5× quicker to approach a box (test B), and directed 60% more behavior toward the wire-mesh box (test B) than cows fed the normal diet. Moreover, cows fed the energy-reduced diet attempted to feed approximately 75% more on d -1 compared with d -6 (test A). On d 2 (test B), cows previously fed the normal diet directed 40% more behavior toward the wire-mesh box than cows previously fed the energy-reduced diet. Reducing feeding level, either before or on the dry-off day, resulted in consistently increased feeding motivation, interpreted as a sign of hunger. No clear effects of change in milking frequency, singly or combined with reduced diet energy density, on feeding motivation were found before d 0. Whereas, on d 2, cows previously milked twice daily were quicker to approach a box than cows previously milked once daily. Cows injected with cabergoline attempted to feed more, but showed lower probability of vocalizing compared with saline-injected cows (d 1; test A), irrespective of treatment before d 0. The effects of cabergoline on feeding motivation are not easily interpreted and warrant further investigation. From a hunger perspective, reducing milking frequency rather than diet energy density seems to be a less negative management to reduce milk production before dry-off.

Recent data suggest that organic broilers often score worse on footpad lesions than conventional broilers but also that the current scoring of organic broiler feet may be misleading. In order to characterise footpad lesions in organic broilers, this study assessed and compared footpad lesions in a sample of 2987 conventional and 3578 organic broiler feet obtained from a large Danish abattoir during summer and winter. The feet were scored according to two scoring systems: the modified Danish surveillance scoring system and a histopathology-based new scoring system specifically developed to target the ability to differentiate between broiler feet with hyperkeratosis and ulcers. For both systems, all broiler feet with visible lesions were cross-sectionally incised. Significant differences between the two production systems were found for both scoring systems (χ2 = 710; P < 0.001 and χ2 = 247; P < 0.001 for the new and the surveillance systems, respectively), showing that a larger proportion of the organic feet compared to conventional feet - summer and winter - exhibited signs of hyperkeratosis. In addition, a smaller fraction of the organic feet than of the conventional feet were given the outermost scores, that is, normal or ulcerated; 13.4% v. 25.3% broiler feet were given score 0 for organic v. conventional production systems, respectively (χ2 = 152; P < 0.001), and 18.4% v. 23.8% feet were given score 4 for organic v. conventional production systems, respectively (χ2 = 308; P < 0.001). Thus, the results suggest that surveillance scoring systems such as the one used in Denmark are useful for the examination of footpad lesions in broilers from both types of production systems. However, the results have also raised attention to a typical characteristic of the feet of organic broilers, that is, profound hyperkeratosis, which may underlie potential misclassifications in surveillance scoring systems like the one used in Denmark. Among the possible solutions to this challenge to the correctness and fairness of the scoring system are improved procedures (such as mandatory incision), training of technicians and calibration of results (especially for the organic footpads).

Housing in hospital pens may be beneficial for lame cows due to soft flooring and less competition for resources. We compared recovery from lameness among dairy cows housed in designated hospital pens, with deep-litter straw, with recovery among cows housed together with the rest of the lactating cows in their home pens, with cubicles and slatted or solid concrete floors. Additionally, we compared lying behavior in the 2 groups of cows. A total of 168 lame dairy cows from 5 herds were included in the study. Each herd was visited once weekly, and lame cows (locomotion score 3 or 4 on a 5-point scale) were examined in a hoof-trimming chute, trimmed, and randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments: housing in a hospital pen (termed “treatment”; 72 cows) or housing under the herds’ standard conditions together with the rest of the lactating cows in the herd (termed “control”; 96 cows). Cows were locomotion scored weekly until they were no longer lame or until they had been part of the trial for 3 weeks (i.e., 2, 3, or 4 locomotion scorings per cow). We categorized cows to describe the progression of lameness over time: recovery (divided into fast, medium, or slow), improvement without recovery, constant lameness, or worsening of lameness. Lying behavior was recorded in a sample of 60 of the 168 cows for a period of 5 d. Overall, recovery from lameness was significantly different between treatment and control cows. The proportion of cows included in the study with locomotion score 4 and a subsequent improvement was significantly higher among treatment cows than among control cows. Among cows included with locomotion score 4, 40% of treatment cows also had a locomotion score 4 at the fourth locomotion scoring, 46% had improved to a score 3, and 14% were no longer lame. In comparison, 73% of control cows had a locomotion score 4 at the fourth locomotion scoring, 16% had improved to a score 3, and 11% were no longer lame. We found no differences between treatment and control cows for mean daily lying time, number of steps per day, number of daily lying bouts, or mean duration of lying bouts. Housing of lame dairy cows in a hospital pen with a soft surface, easier access to feed and water, a smaller group size, and reduced waiting time for milking may have positive effects on recovery from lameness. Typically, farmers have housed only severely lame cows in hospital pens. However, our results indicate that less severely lame cows may also benefit from a stay in a hospital pen.

BackgroundThe walking ability of many broilers is characterised by slight or definite defects categorised as gait scores (GS) 1 and 2. The present study aimed to examine potential relationships between GSs and indicators of body morphology, leg pathology, tibia strength and wooden breast in Ross 308 broilers assessed as GS ≤ 2.MethodsAt 38 days of age, GS and live body weight of 179 birds was recorded. Each bird was examined post-mortem for signs of wooden breast, contact dermatitis and a range of leg pathologies. Weights of different body parts and tibia strength were quantified.ResultsWithin sex, GS increased with increasing live body weight (p = 0.020). There was a tendency for an effect of GS on prevalence of footpad dermatitis (p = 0.086) and dislocated femoral joint cartilage (p = 0.059) where both pathologies increased in frequency with increasing GS. Greater load was required to fracture tibia from GS2 than GS0 birds (p = 0.040).ConclusionsWithin this relatively small data set, no strong relationships between GS ≤ 2 and indicators of body morphology, leg pathology, tibia strength and wooden breast in Ross 308 broilers were found, except for the live terminal body weight. Further studies, involving larger data sets are required for full clarification.

Gait defects, assessed as gait score (GS), is a common welfare problem in broiler chicken production. The aim of this study was to examine whether birds with GS2 experience pain and poor locomotor ability compared to birds of lower GS. From day 0–27 of age, 600 Ross 308 birds were housed in simulated commercial conditions (stocking density 40 kg/m2). On day 27, all birds were gait scored and 192 birds (4 blocks of 48 birds) were selected as experimental birds based on gait score (GS0 or GS2). On day 28, a runway test with and without obstacles was performed to examine the locomotor ability of the birds. Approximately 3 h before testing, the experimental birds were injected with the NSAID carprofen (25 mg/kg s.c.) or saline (equivalent volume). A Conditioned Place Preference (CPP) test was conducted on day 38, after 4 days of conditioning to a chamber (70 × 70 cm; painted either green with vertical stripes or orange with horizontal stripes) after injection with carprofen or saline. The broilers were expected to show a preference for the place in which they experienced a positive emotional state as induced by the mitigation of pain by carprofen. In the runway test, GS0 birds reached the end of the runway with obstacles faster compared to GS2 birds (P = 0.04) and tended to be faster than GS1 birds (P = 0.08). No effect of carprofen was found on the behaviour in the runway and no effect of GS on the behaviour in the runway without obstacles. In the CPP test, there was no effect of GS or carprofen on chamber preference (P > 0.05). The results showed clear differences between birds of GS2 and lower GSs in terms of locomotor response in the runway, indicating that locomotor ability was compromised with increased GS. The results could not confirm whether these differences in locomotor ability are related to or due to increased pain with increased GS.

We used spontaneous behaviours to assess response to dry-off involving abrupt dietary and milking frequency changes, followed by regrouping, after the last milking in 15 clinically healthy Holstein-Frisian cows kept outdoors. Moreover, we explored the potential of infrared thermography to detect eye temperature variations possibly induced by dry-off. On days − 1, 0, 1 and 2 relative to dry-off, we recorded whether cows vocalised during feed delivery; ate fresh feed within 5 min; and mean maximum eye temperature at approximately 1 h after feed delivery. On days 1 and 2, cows were more likely to eat fresh feed compared to days − 1 and 0. No difference in likelihood of vocalising was found. Compared to day − 1, eye temperature was substantially higher on days 0 and 2. Collectively, the results suggest that cows responded, both behaviourally and physiologically, to the abrupt dry-off management. The interpretation of the current findings deserves further investigation using larger sample sizes, more controlled environments and further behavioural, physiological, cognitive and clinical measures.

During their first days of postnatal life, piglets reared for meat production are often subjected to numerous husbandry practices that cause injury of sensitive tissues and hence are potential sources of pain. The intensity and duration of the pain engendered depend on the nature and magnitude of tissue damage. Each of these practices is carried out for specific reasons, such as preventing boar taint (castration), reducing the risk of tail biting (tail docking), limiting lesions on siblings and the sow's teats (tooth resection), improving health (injections) or identifying animals (ear tagging or notching). This chapter will discuss the rationale and methods used, the evidence of pain during and shortly after the procedure, the long-term pain consequences, the consequences for health and human-animal relationships, the current options for pain mitigation and the pros and cons of avoiding these practices completely. Solutions are emerging to minimise the industry's dependence on these practices and, when still considered necessary, to enable selection of the least painful option and best mitigate any residual pain. A better knowledge of the affective component of the pain involved in the practices as well as the establishment of standard and validated protocols of pain evaluation are needed in order to move forward and determine the best solutions from an animal welfare perspective and feasibility by farmers.

BackgroundThe efficacy of procaine as anaesthetic for disbudding of calves is largely unknown. Likewise, information about effect of interval from local anaesthesia to disbudding and the size of the hot iron used is missing.MethodsA total of 167 dairy calves were disbudded after cornual nerve block with procaine. Time from administration of anaesthetic to disbudding varied, and calves were disbudded using two different sizes of hot iron. The calves’ behavioural responses to disbudding were recorded based on (1) getting up, (2) kicking, and (3) lifting head. Using logistic regression, the associations between calves showing at least one of these three behaviours and interval from administration of anaesthetic to disbudding and size of the hot iron were evaluated.ResultsOverall, 42% of calves showed at least one of the three behaviours, even though they had received a cornual nerve block prior to disbudding. Using the large hot iron was associated with a 2.3 times higher odds of the calf reacting behaviourally compared to the small iron. Interval from administration of anaesthetic to disbudding was not significantly associated with the odds of behavioural responses.ConclusionApproximately 40% of calves disbudded after cornual nerve block with procaine showed signs of inadequate local anaesthesia. This was especially problematic when hot irons with larger tips were used.

The provision of straw to pigs kept in conventional pens with concrete floor improves animal welfare, but the effects of straw on pigs' performance are unclear. In two steps, we investigated the relationship between amount of straw provided to pigs and measures of performance in a set-up maintaining constant space allowance and controlled room temperature. From approximately 30- to 85-kg BW, pigs were housed in groups of 18 in pens (5.48 m × 2.48 m) with concrete floor (1/3 solid, 1/3 drained and 1/3 slatted). The pens were cleaned manually twice a week, and the designated amount of fresh uncut wheat straw was provided daily onto the solid part of the floor. In the first step, 48 pens were assigned to 10-, 500- or 1000-g straw per pig per day, while in the second step, 90 pens were assigned to 10-, 80-, 150-, 220-, 290-, 360-, 430- or 500-g straw per pig per day. Pigs were weighed at the start of the experimental period at approximately 30 kg and again at approximately 85-kg BW. The average daily gain increased 8.1 g (SEM 17) for every extra 100-g straw added daily (P < 0.001) resulting in 40 g higher average daily gain with 500 compared to 10-g straw per pig per day. The feed conversion ratio was not affected by the amount of straw provided, as the feed intake tended to be higher with increasing amounts of straw. Thus, between 10 and 500 g, the more straw provided, the higher the daily weight gain. As the nutritional value of straw is considered minimal, this result is likely due to improved gut health from the increasing amounts of straw ingested and increased feed intake due to increased stimulation of exploratory behaviour with increasing amounts of straw available, or a combination of these. The observed tendency for a higher feed intake supports this suggestion, but studies are needed to establish the impact of these two contributing factors.

In dairy production, mastitis is a major problem affecting animal welfare, productivity, and economy. Hospital pens are typically not used for cows with mastitis, except for severe cases involving recumbency. This field trial included 47 cows from three Danish herds followed for 8 d, of which days 1–5 involved the experimental housing. After day 5, all cows were kept with the lactating group. We examined lying behavior in dairy cows with naturally occurring, mild-moderate mastitis in hospital pens [single or group (depending on conditions on the farm), all with deep straw bedding] vs. sick cows kept in the group of healthy herd mates. Within a herd, every other cow fulfilling the inclusion criteria regarding mastitis was allocated to each of the two experimental treatments. Clinical data from involved cases were collected. No significant differences between housing treatments were found in the clinical variables or the daily lying time. During the period of experimental housing, cows kept in hospital pens showed a higher frequency of lying bouts compared with control cows. This difference did not persist after reintroduction to the lactating herd mates. These results suggest that aspects of lying behavior of dairy cows with mastitis are sensitive to the environment as the frequency of lying bouts differed between cows kept in hospital pens and cows kept in control treatment. More controlled studies are needed to examine underlying motivations and evaluate consequences in terms of animal welfare. For such studies, the inclusion of healthy cows for comparison will be valuable.

Despite its high relevance for fitness for transport, the clinical condition of cull dairy cows before they are sent to slaughter has received very little scientific attention. Here, we report descriptive clinical data from cull Danish dairy cows, examined on-farm in the hours before transport to slaughter. A total of 411 cows, with a median parity of 3 (range: 1–10), from 20 Danish dairy herds, and slaughtered over a 1 year period, were included in the study. Almost 75% of the cows deviated from normal in at least one clinical measure, 31% were lame, 20% showed signs of mastitis and 22% had wounds, of which none were considered severe. Only few of the cows showed signs leading to direct decision of being unfit for transport, but many of them could be considered ‘slightly ill or injured’ as defined in the European Regulation, thus raising concern for the thresholds for fitness for transport in these animals.

Each year 500.000 sows, equal to 50% of Danish sows, are culled and transported to slaughter. However, the clinical condition, behavior, and welfare of cull sows have received almost no scientific attention. The aim of the current observational study was to describe the clinical condition of cull sows on the day of transportation to slaughter, including examination of possible differences between lactating and nonlactating sows. On the day of transportation, the participating farms were visited by trained technicians who conducted a thorough clinical examination of all sows selected by the farmer for slaughter. Four sows could not be transported because they were unfit according to the European Council Regulation regarding fitness for transportation, and they were not included in the present data. A total of 522 sows, with a median parity of 5 (range: 1–11), from 12 Danish farms were included in the study. Approximately, 10% showed signs of changed gait, and 0.8% were obvious lame. Wounds were observed in 54.6% of the sows, and 11% had decubital shoulder ulcers. Almost 40% of the cull sows were lactating. At culling, the lactating sows were of higher parity than the nonlactating sows, and lactating sows were at higher risk of having deviations from normal on clinical variables related to examination of the udder, such as udder swellings and inflammations. Nonlactating sows had 3.5 times more superficial skin lesions than lactating sows. Our findings warrant for further studies exploring different aspects of the life of cull sows in what is here defined as the The Cull Period, which is the interval from the culling decision is made until the sows are slaughtered

In modern pig production up to 50% of the sows are slaughtered each year. Typically, the period from the decision to cull and until a sow is slaughtered consists of a stay in an on-farm pick-up pen (hours to weeks), transport (eventually passing buying stations or similar) and lairage. However, even though cull sows are often mentioned as vulnerable toward challenges such as transport, the behaviour and welfare of these animals have received very limited scientific attention. The aim of this study was to examine clinical and behavioural consequences of keeping cull sows in on-farm pick-up pens before transport to slaughter. The observational study took place in a private Danish sow herd with loose-housed gestating and lactating sows. The study included 103 sows with a mean parity of 5 (range 1–9) and a BCS of 3 (range 2–3). On the day of weaning, the sows were examined clinically, and walked to pick-up pens in another part of the same building, each pen holding 3–4 sows. In the pens, the sows had free access to water from a water cup and were fed on the floor twice a day with a total 2.5 FU per sow. The mean room temperature was 21.0 °C (range 18–25.6 °C). After 24 h in the pick-up pens, the clinical condition of the sows showed signs of deterioration, as judged by an increased number of superficial skin lesions (median 0 (range 0−22) v. a median of 9 (range 0−75); P < 0.001) and increased gait score (median 0 (range 0−1) v. a median of 0 (range 0−2); P < 0.001). The median occurrence of aggressive interactions per pen during the initial 6 h post-mixing was 33, ranging from 11−55. Overall, the results suggest that a 24 h stay in a pick-up pen may be a challenge to the welfare of cull sows. Further studies are needed in order to understand effects of a stay in a pick-up pen, as well as other phases of the pre-slaughter logistic chain, on welfare during this period of the production cycle and to understand possible links to fitness for transport.

Drying-off is one important management step in commercial dairy farms and consists of ceasing milk production artificially at a specific point in time, generally 2 months before the next calving. Drying-off typically comprises dietary changes as well as gradual or abrupt changes in daily milking frequency, which may challenge the welfare of high-yielding cows. This study investigated the isolated and combined effects of different feed energy densities (normal lactation diet versus energy-reduced diet, both offered ad libitum) and daily milking frequencies (twice versus once) on the feeding motivation of dairy cows on two separate days prior to dry-off (i.e. the day of last milking) using a push-gate feeder. During both days, cows on the energy-reduced diet pushed more than five times more weight to earn the final feed reward and were nearly ten times faster to feed on the first reward than cows on the normal lactation diet. Illustrating the importance of developing more animal welfare-friendly dry-off management, these results illustrate that cows show signs of hunger prior to dry-off when provided a diet with reduced energy density, although offered for ad libitum intake.

Impaired walking ability in terms of slight or definite defects is more common in broiler production than lameness that obviously hinders movement, but it has received limited scientific attention. This study aimed to compare behavior of conventional broilers with impaired walking ability (assessed as gait score (GS) 2) with those walking normally (GS0) and those with only a slight gait defect (GS1). Behavior in the home environment was registered, and an analgesic intervention to quantify changes in time budgets indicating pain relief was applied. The study included 192 Ross 308 broilers. On day 27 of age, the birds were distributed as evenly as possible into birds of GS0 and GS2 of each sex based on obtained gait score. Following this, each experimental bird was housed with 3 companion birds. On days 30 and 32 of age, the behavior in the home pens was recorded. All experimental birds were injected with the NSAID carprofen on one of the 2 d and saline on the other. The statistical analyses used the GS scored on the day of recording as explanatory factor. Compared to GS0 birds, GS2 birds tended to be more inactive (mean (CI): 4,193 (3,971–4416) vs. 4,005 (3,753–4,257) s; P = 0.074), spent more time sitting while feeding (306 (266–353) vs. 213 (180–251) s; P = 0.026), were less likely to perch (probability: 0.78 (0.69–0.85) vs. 0.91 (0.85–0.95); P = 0.012), and spent less time performing comfort behavior (749 (689–814) s vs. 875 (792–967) s; P = 0.043). Compared to GS1 birds, GS2 birds spent more time inactive (GS1: 4,022 (3,818–4225) s; P = 0.027), less time foraging (289 (253–329) vs. 347 (309–388) s; P = 0.047), and were less likely to perch (GS1: 0.90 (0.86–0.93); P = 0.001). For some of these behavioral variables, administration of carprofen led to behavioral changes across the GSs, which may suggest that the behavioral expression of the broilers was limited by pain. These findings are of relevance to animal welfare, but the underlying causes are still not fully clarified.

Cull sows may be more vulnerable to transportation compared to other swine categories, as they are typically culled after several production cycles, and hence may be injured or weak. Until now, transportation of sows has received very little scientific attention. We aimed to investigate whether the clinical condition of the sows changed during transportation from commercial Danish farms to slaughter plants, and to initiate identification of potential risk factors for such deterioration. This observational study included 522 sows in 47 batches from 12 farms, varying according to transportation time from farm to slaughter plant. Standardized clinical examinations were conducted on-farm and on the slaughter plant. In addition, data on transportation duration, number and duration of stops, temperature during driving, and during waiting before unloading were collected. The sows' median parity was five (range 1–11) and close to 40% were lactating at the day of transportation. The mean duration of transportation was 232 ± 113 min, and the mean temperature in the trucks was 14.1 ± 5.3°C. Half of the clinical variables recorded before and after transportation changed significantly. Among these were injuries (e.g., superficial skin lesions, totally, P < 0.000; front, P < 0.001; wounds, P < 0.001; gait score, P < 0.001), and measures possibly related to heat stress (e.g. skin elasticity, P < 0.001). Three sows arrived in a condition as legally unfit for transport. The deterioration of the sows' condition was mainly related to transportation factors, such as temperature and duration—often in interaction—as well as duration of stops during the journey and while waiting before unloading. The changes in clinical condition were less dependent on the pre-transportation clinical condition of the sows, such as parity, body condition score and gait score. The results show that the clinical condition of the cull sows deteriorated from farm to slaughter plant, thereby adding data to the debate on fitness for transport of cull sows. The main risk factors were not related to characteristics of the sows, but of the journeys. Future studies should focus on identifying and distinguishing between risk factors in order to develop procedures that allow transportation of cull sows to slaughter without jeopardizing their welfare.

Across the international dairy industry, the vast majority of dairy herds have dehorned cows. Farmers choose to dehorn calves for different reasons such as easier handling of non-horned cattle and reduced risk of injuries in animals and staff. This review focuses on disbudding by use of hot-iron cautery as is practiced by dairy farmers in calves < 3 months of age. We examine welfare effects of the use of NSAIDs in combination with a local anesthetic including indicators relevant for the three major welfare concerns-affective states, basic health, and functioning as well as the possibility to behave naturally. Across indicators of animal welfare, the majority of available evidence suggest that the use of NSAIDs in combination with a local anesthetic is advantageous in terms of animal welfare, and no studies suggest that NSAIDs are a disadvantage to animal welfare. However, irrespective of the welfare concern, use of NSAIDs combined with a local anesthetic does not fully eliminate the welfare challenges from disbudding. Further research is needed in order to fully understand the effects of this medication protocol on calf welfare, including knowledge about the duration of healing and the presence of long-term pain. At present, this lack of knowledge challenges the precise formulation of adequate pain management-in terms of medication protocol, duration, dosage, and type of administration.

Cull dairy cows are typically transported to slaughter by road. Across different types of cattle, road transport is recognized as stressful. Cull dairy cows may have different injuries or weaknesses and may thus be more vulnerable to transport stress than other types of cattle. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the clinical condition of cull dairy cows deteriorates during transport ( < 8 h), and to evaluate risk factors for potential deterioration of the clinical condition. A total of 411 dairy cows were clinically examined on farm before loading and again after unloading at the slaughter plant. The clinical examination included locomotion, presence of wounds, milk leakage, and general condition. One-fifth of the cows either became lame or more lame during transport, and there was a significant increase in the proportion of lame cows after transport (41% after vs. 31% before, P < 0.0001). A significant increase in the proportion of cows with milk leakage (17% vs. 1%, P < 0.0001) and wounds (34% after vs. 22% before, P < 0.0001) after transport were also found. Low body condition score (BCS) ( < 2.75) (P = 0.001), early or late lactation [ < 100 days in milk (DIM) or > 300 DIM] (P = 0.01), digital dermatitis in the hind feet (P = 0.01), and pelvic asymmetry (P = 0.001) were identified as risk factors for the deterioration in lameness during transport. Early lactation ( < 100 DIM) (P = 0.04) and transport distance ( > 100 km) (P = 0.006) were identified as risk factors for milk leakage. For wounds, no significant risk factors were found. The results demonstrate that cull dairy cows are vulnerable to the strains of transport, even journeys shorter than 8 h, to the extent that the occurrence of clinical findings were increased after transport in cows legally considered fit for transport. These results call for further research into the animal welfare implications and optimization of cattle transport.

Cull dairy cows are transported to slaughter, but may be more vulnerable to transport stress than younger livestock. In order to ensure the welfare of cull cows during transport their fitness for transport must be assessed before transport. Lameness is a common reason for culling dairy cows, and assessing fitness for transport in lame dairy cows is a frequent task for farmers, veterinarians and livestock drivers. The aim of this study was to evaluate the agreement within and between these three groups of professionals in relation to lameness scoring and assessment of fitness for transport. The study used an online questionnaire consisting of 30 video recordings of walking cows. Participants were asked to score lameness for each cow and assess if the cow was fit for transport or not. Weighted and unweighted kappa were used as a measure of interrater agreement within and between groups. The levels of agreement within and between the three professional groups were at best moderate. Farmers agreed less than moderate within their own group as well as compared to veterinarians and livestock drivers when assessing fitness for transport. In general, it raises concern that the level of agreement on fitness for transport was moderate or even lower. These results call for more focus on the assessment of fitness for transport, including research and possibly training of the different professional groups in order to ensure good animal welfare during transport.

The aim of the present study was to examine behavioural and clinical consequences of the presence of umbilical outpouchings (UOs) in pigs during the day of slaughter, in order to establish new knowledge of relevance for the assessment of fitness for transport of these animals. Based on the Danish national guidelines involving the diameter of the UOs, considerable attention was paid to this measure.A total of 29 pairs of pigs from seven different commercial herds with standard pig housing, involving pens of partially slatted flooring, were included in this observational study. Focal animals were selected in the home pen on the day before transport to the abattoir and subjected to a clinical evaluation involving scores of skin lesions in healthy control animals and pigs with UOs. On the day of slaughter, video recordings were conducted during unloading at the abattoir and in the race to the stunner.For both pigs with UOs and control pigs, the skin lesion score increased over the day of slaughter. No significant differences between pigs with UOs and controls were found for any of the measures considered relevant for the fitness for transport.

Pain is a perceptional phenomenon built from information gathered by specialised sensory receptors for tissue damage, modified by ascending and descending spinal and supraspinal mechanisms, and integrated into a discrete sensory experience with a negative emotional valence in the brain. Based on knowledge about porcine neuroanatomy, physiology and studies focusing on pig behaviour and pathology, as well as biomedical studies of humans and rodent models, this chapter reviews evidence for causes of pain in pigs and the possibility for quantification of indicators of pain states. The list of suggested porcine indicators of pain is split according to: (1) model studies, where tissue damage is induced experimentally; (2) pain evoked by tissue damaging procedures common to modern pig production; or (3) naturally occurring diseases or injuries. Knowing that throughout the world, human consumption of pork exceeds all other meat products, combined with the fact that the pig is considered an advantageous animal model for various human conditions, and is used extensively in biomedical research, the current low level of knowledge about porcine pain may seem paradoxical and calls for future, targeted research effort in order to be able to protect pigs from the detrimental welfare consequences of this negative affective state.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the use of handheld methodology to assess mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) on cows kept loose-housed.STUDY DESIGN: Prospective randomized partial cross-over experimental study. A one-factor (test day) design was used to evaluate MNT over time.ANIMALS: One hundred and fifteen healthy, loose-housed Danish Holstein cattle.METHODS: We evaluated intra-individual variation, inter-observer agreement and variation over time of MNT using two handheld devices and two stimulation sites. Mechanical, ramped stimulations were performed with an algometer (6.5 mm diameter steel probe, 0-10.0 kgf) or an electronic von Frey device (plastic tip with diameter 0.8 mm, 0-1000 gf). Each cow received 5-6 consecutive stimulations within a 2 × 5 cm skin area on the dorsal or lateral aspect of the left third metatarsus until an avoidance reaction occurred. We investigated the difference in precision [expressed as coefficient of variation (CV)] between the combinations of devices and stimulation sites. The inter-observer agreement and the difference in MNT between test day 1, 3, 7, 10 and 24 were investigated for selected combinations. Data were analysed in mixed models and Bland-Altman as relevant.RESULTS: The CVs did not differ [range 0.34-0.52 (p = 0.1)]. Difference between observers (95% limits) was 0.2 kgf (2.8) and 4 gf (369) for the algometer and von Frey device, respectively. Mechanical nociceptive threshold increased from 361 on test day one to 495 gf on test day 24 (p < 0.01).CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: All methods showed a high degree of intra-individual variation, and no combination of device and stimulation site showed superior precision. Mean difference between observers was low, and MNT was not consistent over time. Further development of the methods is required before they can be used in research to investigate possible relations between claw lesions and hyperalgesia.

Topical capsaicin is a well-established model of experimental hyperalgesia. Its application to the study of animals has been limited to few species. The effect of topical capsaicin on hyperalgesia in porcine skin was evaluated as part of a study of inflammatory pain in the pig. Two experiments were carried out on pigs of 27 ± 5 kg (n = 8) and 57 ± 3 kg (n = 16). Thermal and mechanical noxious stimuli were provided (CO2 laser and Pressure Application Measurement device) to assess avoidance behaviours. Capsaicin induced significant thermal hyperalgesia in the smaller pigs (P

Shoulder ulcerations are common in breeding sows in production systems but the consequences for the animals in terms of pain or discomfort are not well-described. This study presents data from a histopathological examination of shoulders of sows, specially focusing on the peripheral nerves in the region and the behavioural responses towards palpation of animals with traumatic neuromas but without ulcers. The study included 155 sows from seven Danish herds initially screened and stratified according to absence/presence and size of shoulder ulcers 3-4 weeks post-partum, out of which 71 were free of ulcerations and 84 had different stages of ulceration. Before collection, sows were subjected to shoulder palpation and behavioural responses were registered. From the consecutive pattern of development of ulcerations it is evident that shoulder ulcerations develop from top-to-bottom.A high frequency of traumatic neuromas was found in both healed and unhealed lesions. The observation of viable nerve-ends in shoulder ulcerations makes it likely that ulcerations are associated with pain. Moreover, the presence of traumatic neuromas in healed ulcerations indicates that there is discomfort even after the lesions have healed. This is further supported by the behavioural finding that rubbing behaviour in response to palpation was increased on the day of sample collection of the shoulders in sows with traumatic neuromas but without shoulder ulcers (P=0.053). Further studies are needed for final confirmation but these results suggest that shoulder ulcers may be associated with pain even after healing.

Background Among the current translational inflammatory pain models, the ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is of rapidly growing interest. The development of primary thermal and mechanical hyperalgesia has been observed in humans and rodents. The pig as a translational animal model might be advantageous due to its great homology with humans. Methods The skin in the flank of awake pigs was irradiated by a UV-B light source (1 J/cm2) and changes in thermal and mechanical sensitivity 24 and 48 h following irradiation were measured via assessment of nociceptive behaviours. Results Thermal sensitivity increased significantly within the inflamed site 24 h after irradiation as indicated by the reduction of latency to respond to thermal stimulation from baseline to 24 h (P

A calving cow and her newborn calf appear to have an attracting effect on periparturient cows, which may potentially influence the functionality of future motivation-based calving pen designs. In this pilot study we examined whether calving site selection of group-housed Holstein dairy cows was affected by the site of a previous calving. Ten multiparous cows moved to 1 of 2 group pens 11 (range = 4-27) d before calving were included. Each pen consisted of an open area (9 × 9 m) connected to 6 secluded areas (4.5 × 3 m each), where cows could move freely between all areas. Time of calving, location of the breaking of the amniotic sac, as well as the place of birth were recorded. In all but 1 case cows calved within a distance of 1 cow length from where the previous calving took place, suggesting that the cows did not select calving site at random. These preliminary observations indicate that choice of calving site may be affected by the site of a previous calving, potentially explained by the presence of amniotic fluids.

The aim of the present study was (1) to determine the dose-response relationship between the amount of straw provided on the floor and oesophageal ulceration in pigs kept under typical Danish production conditions (18 pigs/pen, 0.7 m2/pig, partly slatted floor, ad libitum access to feed), (2) to reveal whether straw ingestion explains the effect of straw provision on the stomach health and (3) to elucidate the effect of straw ingestion on the stomach conditions. Data were collected at slaughter (approximately 100 kg body weight) on pigs provided with straw amounts in the range 10 g to 500 g wheat straw/pig/day from 30 kg body weight and fed a wheat-based pelleted feed added 15% non-heated and non-pelleted rolled barley. Aims (1) and (2) included 712 pigs kept in 42 pens, whereas (3) was studied on a subset of 37 pigs with either none or obvious amounts of straw in the stomach. The amount of straw provided affected stomach health in a curvilinear manner. Provision of up to approximately 300 g straw/pig/day progressively decreased the risk of oesophageal ulceration and scarring. At larger amounts of straw the ulceroprotective effect of straw was reduced which requires further investigation. Straw ingestion appeared to be an essential intermediary factor for the improvement of stomach health. The number of pigs without straw in the stomach decreased linearly with the logarithm of the amount of straw provided, which explained the effect of straw provision on stomach health and increased the structure of the stomach contents as revealed by the increased weight and dry matter content and decreased sedimentation of the digesta. Provision of approximately 300 g straw/pig/day on the floor may be a potential strategy to reduce, but not inevitably eliminate, oesophageal ulceration in pigs in commercial pig production.

In many countries, piglets are tail docked to prevent tail biting. The aim of this study was 1) to evaluate the efficacy of a local anaesthetic and/or NSAID to reduce pain caused by tail docking; and 2) to examine interactions with docking length. This was examined in 295 piglets docked by hot iron cautery 2–4 days after birth and based on behaviour during docking as well as the following 5 h. The study involved three main factors: local anaesthetic (Lidocain), NSAID (Meloxicam) and docking length. Either 100%, 75%, 50% or 25% of the tails were left on the body of the piglets. Irrespective of the tail length, tail docking led to signs of procedural pain, which could be reduced by administration of Lidocain. Preemptive use of Meloxicam did not affect the signs of procedural pain. The results show that tail docking led to behavioural changes throughout the 5 h observation period indicating that effects of this management routine are more persistent than earlier suggested, and suggesting that docking length may influence the post-surgical behaviour of piglets. By use of the present sites of injection and dosages, neither local anaesthetic nor NSAID had marked effects on post-surgical behavioural changes induced by tail docking. Hence, if tail docking is to be performed, more research is needed in order to develop practical methods for on-farm piglet pain relief.

In cattle, percutaneous needle liver biopsy is used for scientific examination of liver metabolism. The impact of the biopsy procedure is, however, poorly investigated. Our aim was to examine the behaviour of dairy cows during and after liver biopsy. Data were collected from 18 dry cows. Percutaneous needle liver biopsies (after administration of local anaesthesia (2% Procaine)) and blood samples were taken during restraining. During the control treatment, animals were restrained and blood sampled. During the biopsy procedure, cows showed increased restlessness (P = 0.008), frequency of head shaking (P = 0.016), and decreased rumination (P = 0.064). After biopsies, tail pressing (P = 0.016) and time spent perching (P = 0.058) increased. Time spent upright (P = 0.10) and number of leg movements (P = 0.033) increased during the night as compared to controls. Thus, liver biopsy induced behavioural changes for up to 19 h – and particularly for behaviour previously associated with pain. Even though the exact welfare impact of percutaneous needle liver biopsies in cows is not known, and the magnitude of the behavioural changes was limited, pain always has negative effects on animal welfare. Therefore, if the present biopsy procedure – involving several biopsy passes – is to be used, improvement of the anaesthetic protocol as well as the inclusion of analgesics should be considered. In cattle, percutaneous needle liver biopsy is used for scientific examination of liver metabolism. The impact of the biopsy procedure is, however, poorly investigated. Our aim was to examine the behaviour of dairy cows during and after liver biopsy.Data were collected from 18 dry cows. Percutaneous needle liver biopsies (after administration of local anaesthesia (2% Procaine)) and blood samples were taken during restraining. During the control treatment, animals were restrained and blood sampled.During the biopsy procedure, cows showed increased restlessness (P = 0.008), frequency of head shaking (P = 0.016), and decreased rumination (P = 0.064). After biopsies, tail pressing (P = 0.016) and time spent perching (P = 0.058) increased. Time spent upright (P = 0.10) and number of leg movements (P = 0.033) increased during the night as compared to controls. Thus, liver biopsy induced behavioural changes for up to 19 h – and particularly for behaviour previously associated with pain.Even though the exact welfare impact of percutaneous needle liver biopsies in cows is not known, and the magnitude of the behavioural changes was limited, pain always has negative effects on animal welfare. Therefore, if the present biopsy procedure – involving several biopsy passes – is to be used, improvement of the anaesthetic protocol as well as the inclusion of analgesics should be considered.

Background Porcine skin exhibits a high degree of homology to human skin, and the pig has recently been used as a cutaneous pain model. However, before the full potential of this novel in vivo cutaneous pain model can be achieved, several methodological aspects related to the management of awake animal studies in a large species require further examination. This manuscript describes the initial development of a porcine model of cutaneous nociception and focuses on interactions between the sensory modality, body size and the anatomical location of the stimulation site. Methods Pigs of different body sizes (30 and 60 kg) were exposed to thermal (CO2 laser) and mechanical (pressure application measurement device) stimulations to the flank and the hind legs in a balanced order. The median response latency and the type of behavioural response were recorded. Results Small pigs exhibited significantly lower pain thresholds (shorter latency to response) than large pigs to thermal and mechanical stimulations. Stimulations at the two anatomical locations elicited very distinct sets of behavioural responses, with different levels of sensitivity between the flank and the hind legs. Furthermore, small animals exhibited lower levels of individual variability between single stimulations. Conclusions Our data indicate that this experimental approach may be valuable for use in studies that focus on porcine cutaneous nociception.

Attitudes towards pain and the use of analgesics in dairy cows were evaluated based on a questionnaire answered by 137 Danish veterinarians and 189 Danish dairy farmers. Respondents were asked to score the perceived pain associated with a number of diseases in dairy cows on a scale from 1 (no pain) to 10 (very painful) assuming that no analgesics were used. Additionally, they were asked whether they agreed or disagreed with a number of statements regarding pain and use of analgesics in cows. A large variability in pain scores for individual diseases was found among both farmers and veterinarians. The same disease was scored as ‘very painful’ by some respondents and as ‘not painful’ by others; however, farmers and veterinarians generally agreed which diseases were painful and which were not. Farmers considered most of the disease conditions to be slightly more painful than veterinarians but were less likely to use analgesics.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disabling, fatal disease, where animal models potentially can enable investigation of aetiology and treatment. The first litter of Göttingen minipigs carrying a mutation for human AD was born in 2007, showing transgene expression. In human AD patients, memory impairment is the most striking and consistent feature. The aim of the present study was to examine effects of the APPsw transgene on memory of AD minipigs compared with non-transgenic controls at two ages (1-2 years) using the spontaneous object recognition test (SORT), which is based on behavioural discrimination of familiar and novel objects. No significant difference between AD minipigs and controls was found when comparing object recognition as a measure of memory. The minipigs did explore the novel object significantly more than the familiar, indicating the expected recognition of the familiar object. Two different inter-phase intervals were used (IPI: 10-40 min). For both ages, object recognition was evident using 10 min IPI. When using 40 min IPI, object recognition was evident only at age 1 year. Comparing memory of a relatively small group of AD minipigs and controls at two rather young ages using the SORT, we were not able to show memory impairment in APPsw carrying minipigs. Being an age-dependent disease, the transgene is expected to cause AD-like symptoms in this porcine model, and the SORT should be repeated at older ages.

On the day of slaughter, stressors associated with the handling, transport and lairage of pigs may have a significant impact on animal welfare. A welfare assessment based on the Welfare Quality® (WQ®) principles involving 480 pigs from 12 different commercial herds and including behavioural, clinical and physiological measures was carried out from farm to slaughter with the aim of investigating the relationship between selected post-mortem physiological measures and an aggregated animal welfare index (AWI). Blood temperature was quantified at exsanguination, and a blood sample collected at exsanguination was analysed for plasma concentration of glucose, lactate, albumin, total protein and creatine kinase activity. pH was measured 45 min after sticking in the m. longissimus dorsi (LD). All welfare measures were categorised on a three-point scale (mild level: 0, moderate level: 1, severe level: 2) and aggregated into an AWI using a weighted (based on expert opinion of 38 experts) linear sum of prevalence on animal level. An overall AWI (AWI Overall ) and an AWI per stage (AWI Stage ) were calculated. For AWI Unloading , significant relationships with the plasma concentration of glucose (positive), creatine kinase activity (positive) and total protein (negative) content of the blood were found. Furthermore, significant positive relationships between AWI Race and the plasma concentration of lactate and albumin were found. Based on the current data, we suggest one method to identify AWIs above vs. below a certain threshold using the post-mortem measures with AWI Race and lactate as an example. In conclusion, physiological post-mortem measures may, after the development of technological solutions for implementation at abattoirs, be used in daily operations as on-site tools for systematic monitoring of welfare of finishing pigs in order to document the level of welfare.

According to Danish legislation, sick or injured pigs must be housed in hospital pens with specific requirements. During recent years the majority of cases of non-compliance with legislation have been related to management of these animals. Hence, we hypothesized that 1) pig farmers generally find a requirement for hospital pens reasonable, but do not know the specific requirements; 2) pig farmers do not find the specific requirements for hospital pens meaningful compared with their perception of what sick pigs need; and 3) pig farmers often omit to move sick pigs to hospital pens due to lack of time or labour. An on-line questionnaire regarding farmers' attitudes towards and knowledge about legal requirements for hospital pens was constructed and e-mailed to 2348 pig farmers. In total, 508 farmers answered the questionnaire. Overall, 66% of the respondents found that the requirements for hospital pens made good sense, and more than 90% found that it made at least partial sense. Even though almost all respondents thought they knew the legal requirements for specific facilities in hospital pens, in fact 20% of them did not. The majority of respondents found all specific requirements in accordance with the needs of sick pigs, with the exception of cooling (only 17% agreed that cooling was needed). Unexpectedly, lack of time or labour wasn't reported to be a major obstacle to the use of hospital pens. Possibly, different thresholds for defining a pig as 'sick enough' to need housing in a hospital pen may exist between farmers and authorities.

This study focused on behavioural and clinical effects of umbilical outpouchings (UOs) in pigs. Matched pairs of pigs with UOs (diameter 12cm; range 4-20; diagnosed p.m. as hernia or non-hernia) and controls (N=28) were compared during a 6-h stay in a pick-up facility. Overall, skin lesion scores were increased after the 6-h stay. Behaviour of the UO-pigs differed from the controls (a shorter latency to lie down (P

This study examined effects of the amount of straw offered on occurrence and severity of gastric lesions in pigs kept in pens (18 pigs, 0.7 m2/pig) with partly slatted flooring and 10, 500 or 1000 g straw/pig/day from 30 kg live weight. The pigs had ad libitum access to dry feed. Forty-five pigs were used, three from each of 15 pens. After euthanization, the dimension of the non-glandular region of the stomach was measured. Lesions were characterized and scored. Irrespective of straw provided, 67% of the pigs showed signs of gastric pathology. Pigs provided with 500 or 1000 g straw were pooled as ‘permanent access’. The proportion of pigs with ulcerations was reduced by permanent access to straw (7 vs. 33%; P < 0.05), suggesting that permanent access to straw may improve animal health, and be considered as one possible strategy to limit gastric ulceration in pigs.

Dairy cows exhibit classic signs of sickness behavior during mastitis. However, knowledge about the consequences of naturally occurring mastitis in freestall-housed dairy cows, milked in automatic milking systems, is lacking. The aim of the present study was to describe the behavior of dairy cows after diagnosis and antibiotic treatment of mastitis. In the days before and after antibiotic treatment, the milking behavior, feeding, and activity were examined in 30 mastitic and 30 control Danish Holstein-Friesian cows kept in freestalls and milked by an automatic milking system. Sickness behavior was evident in the mastitic dairy cows and local clinical signs in the udder as well as behavioral changes persisted beyond the 3 d of antibiotic treatment. In the days before diagnosis and treatment, feed intake was reduced compared with the control animals. Although reduced by the antibiotic treatment, this difference persisted until at least 10 d after diagnosis. Sick cows spent less time lying in the initial days after treatment, reversing to the level of the control cows within the 10 d posttreatment period. In the 48 h before antibiotic treatment, the mastitic cows showed increased restlessness during milking, as seen by a higher frequency of tripping and kicking. Mastitic cows continued to show increased kicking during milking even after the antibiotic treatment period. These results show that the behavioral changes induced by naturally occurring mastitis persisted beyond the days of antibiotic treatment, thereby calling for further investigation into management of mastitic dairy cows to optimize recovery and ensure animal welfare during the recovery period after clinical mastitis.

Effects of acute stressors on behavioral, adrenocortical and nociceptive responses were examined in 24 dairy cows kept in tie stalls, using 15 min of social isolation in novel surroundings (ISOL), fixation by the head in the home stall (FIX) and the provision of novel neighbors/stall (NEIGH) as acute stressors as well as a control treatment (CON). Each cow was exposed to one treatment daily in a balanced order. All stressors led to signs of hypoalgesia as indicated by slower (P=0.01) and reduced responses (P0.10) toward nociceptive laser stimulation after exposure to the acute stressors. ISOL, however, had stronger effects than FIX or NEIGH. ISOL or FIX led to increased plasma concentration of cortisol (P0.001), whereas NEIGH or CON did not. The behavioral responses were affected by treatments as well, as shown by decreased rumination for all stressors (P0.001) and a gradual increase in active avoidance from CON to NEIGH to FIX (P0.001). Furthermore, exposure to NEIGH led to increased exploration (P0.001), aggression (P0.10) and self-grooming behavior (P0.10) compared with the CON treatment. The results suggest that nociceptive changes are part of responses toward acute stress in dairy cows. The nociceptive changes, however, were not direct reflections of the adrenocortical or behavioral responses toward the acute stressors. Therefore, quantification of nociceptive changes, in combination with behavioral and physiological registrations, can be one way to broaden the range of biological systems, considered for the study of animals under stress, and thereby extend the understanding of responses toward acute stress in dairy cows.

Shoulder ulcers are common in lactating sows. This case-control study compared behaviour of sows with shoulder ulcers (U-sows; N = 19) versus controls (C-sows; N = 19) and involved multiparous LxY sows, 14.7 ± 0.3 days post partum, kept in farrowing crates in a Danish herd. U-sows had at least one shoulder ulcer. Behavioural data were based on video recordings during a 24h period. U-sows spent less time lying (P = 0.04), tended to perform more postural changes (P = 0.096), spent more time standing still (P = 0.02), showed increased shoulder rubbing (P = 0.03) and reduced nursing frequency (P = 0.03) compared to the controls. These results show that the behaviour of sows with shoulder ulcers differ from healthy sows, suggesting that U-sows experienced discomfort or pain, and indicating that maternal behaviour can be sensitive to the presence of shoulder ulcers. Further studies – focussing on temporal development of shoulder ulcers combined with behaviour of sows and piglets – are needed to clarify animal welfare impact.

ObjectiveTo investigate the effects of habituation and isolation on mechanical nociceptive thresholds in pigs at the pelvic limbs and at the tail.Study designProspective randomized multifactorial study.AnimalsThirty-two healthy castrated male (experiment 1), and 12 castrated male and 12 female (experiment 2) Danish Landrace × Yorkshire pigs, weighing 63.5 ± 0.8 kg and 55.4 ± 0.6 kg (the mean ± SD, experiment 1 and 2, respectively).MethodsMechanical nociceptive thresholds were quantified with a von Frey anesthesiometer applied to two distinct anatomical regions (tail and pelvic limbs). Pigs receiving the mechanical challenge in the pelvic limbs were tested inside a cage, whereas pigs exposed to stimuli at the tail region were tested in an open arena. For both experiments, the effect of familiarity to the procedure was evaluated by comparing thresholds of nociception in habituated versus naïve pigs. The presence of a companion animal was also evaluated in pigs receiving stimuli at the pelvic limbs.ResultsPigs tested inside the cage were affected by the habituation to the procedure as indicated by the increase in willingness and time spent by the animals in the test cage. This effect was reflected in the lower mechanical nociceptive thresholds (medians with 25–75 percentiles) recorded for familiar pigs compared with naïve animals [495 g (302–675) versus 745 g (479–1000), respectively; p = 0.026]. Mechanical nociceptive thresholds measured at the tail of the pigs in the open arena were not affected by the familiarity of the animals with the experimental procedure.Conclusions and clinical relevanceThe current results reiterate the value of habituation in research involving animal behaviour. Further characterization of the methodology is needed to allow its application in the evaluation of clinical conditions in pigs.

Postpartum behaviour the first 24 h after farrowing (day 0 pp) and on day 10 pp of 40 Landrace/Yorkshire sows was studied in their first and second parity in a crossover experiment regarding farrowing environment (crate vs. get-away-pen (GAP)). The behaviour was compared with the performance of the same individuals during nest building and farrowing, and with their performance in prepubertal tests of behavioural reactivity (open field test and human test) as well as reactivity in the HPA-axis during the open field test. In the first parity, the duration of activity during farrowing correlated positively to the frequency and duration of activity on day 0 pp ( r s =0.54; P N=33 and r s =0.47; P N=33 , respectively). Being behaviourally active in the prepubertal open field test correlated positively to the number of observations in lateral recumbency on day 10 pp (r s =0.60; P N=32) and negatively to the percentage of sow terminated nursings (r s =−0.46; P N=32) , both in the first parity. On day 0 pp, the sows in the GAPs, in both parities, had a longer duration of activity, as compared to crated sows ( F 1,28 =8.26; P and F 1,28 =11.01; P , respectively). Furthermore, the second parity sows were more active than the gilts, e.g. made more postural changes (F 1,23 =5.62; P . The duration of lateral recumbency on day 0 pp was longer in the crates in both parities ( F 1,30 =7.51; P=0.01 and F 1,30 =5.73; P , respectively), and the piglets were making more unsynchronised behaviour in the crates ( F 1,30 =15.83; P and F 1,30 =2.53; P , respectively). On day 10 pp, exposure of the udder by means of the sow being in lateral recumbency was longer in the second parity (F 1,17 =6.28; P and in both parities longer in the crates ( F 1,17 =7.48; P=0.01 and F 1,17 =15.83; P , respectively). The proportion of nursings terminated by the sow was significantly higher in the second parity (F 1,17 =10.81; P and in the first parity the gilts in GAPs ended more nursings (F 1,17 =6.37; P . The latency to the first reaction in the “screaming piglet test” was shorter for gilts in GAPs as compared to gilts in crates (median: 29 s vs. 0 s; χ 2 =11.00; P ), as was the latency to an effective reaction in the second parity sows housed in GAPs compared to crates (120 s vs. 44 s; χ 2 =6.88; P ). In conclusion, activity during farrowing correlated to activity on day 0 pp, whereas activity in prepubertal tests correlated to the sow having less control of the nursing behaviour on day 10 pp. However, maternal behaviour developed over at least two parities, and a stimulating farrowing environment apparently improved the maternal behaviour, probably due more relevant environmental feedback. This was manifested in a progressively earlier development of cyclic nursing on day 0 pp and a better control of the nursing behaviour on day 10 pp by parity and by housing in an enriched environment. These results are promising for the future investigation of consistent individual differences in pigs, including the maternal behaviour.

In pig production, piglets are tail docked at birth in order to prevent tail biting later in life. In order to examine the effects of tail docking and docking length on the formation of neuromas, we used 65 pigs and the following four treatments: intact tails (n=18); leaving 75% (n=17); leaving 50% (n=19); or leaving 25% (n=11) of the tail length on the pigs. The piglets were docked between day 2 and 4 after birth using a gas-heated apparatus, and were kept under conventional conditions until slaughter at 22 weeks of age, where tails were removed and examined macroscopically and histologically. The tail lengths and diameters differed at slaughter (lengths: 30.6±0.6; 24.9±0.4; 19.8±0.6; 8.7±0.6 cm; P

Individual drinking patterns are a potential tool for disease monitoring in pigs. However, to date, individual pig drinking behaviour has not been described, and effects of external factors have not been examined. The aim of this study was to perform detailed quantification of drinking behaviour of growing pigs and to examine effects of period of day and effects of competition for access to the drinking nipple on the drinking behaviour, amount of water used and water wastage. In all, 52 cross-bred castrated male pigs (live weight 20.5±1.7 kg; mean±s.d.) maintained as either 3 (N3) or 10 (N10) pigs per pen and water nipple (four groups/treatment) were used. All pigs were fitted with a transponder ear tag. A radio frequency identification reader recorded and time stamped visits at the nipple. In each pen, water flow was logged every second. The drinking behaviour was recorded for 4 consecutive days and analysed using a linear mixed model. Overall, the pigs spent 594 s at the nipple during 24 h distributed among 44 visits. During this period, 5 l of water were used, of which >30% was wasted. Social competition did not affect the drinking behaviour over 24 h, except for the proportion of interrupted visits where pigs, kept with recommended nipple availability (N10), showed an increased proportion of interrupted drinking bouts compared with pigs kept at very low level of competition (N3) (0.18±0.01 v. 0.11±0.01; P

Mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) testing has been used to investigate aspects of painful states in bovine claws. We investigated a handheld tool, where the applied stimulation force was monitored continuously relative to a pre-encoded based target force. The effect on MNT of two pre-testing habituation procedures was performed in two different experiments comprising a total of 88 sound Holsteins dairy cows kept either inside or outside their home environment. MNT testing was performed using five consecutive mechanical nociceptive stimulations per cow per test at a fixed pre-encoded target rate of 2.1 N/s. The habituation procedure performed in dairy cows kept in their home environment led to lowered intra-individual coefficient of variation of MNT (P < 0.001), increased MNT (P < 0.001) and decreased the discrepancy between applied and target force during stimulations (P < 0.001). Pre-test habituation improved the reliability of the handheld tool when used in dairy cows kept in their home environment.

Shoulder ulcerations can be graded postmortem from 0 to 4 on a pathoanatomical scale. However, veterinarians and farmers express difficulties evaluating the grade of the lesions antemortem. Accurate grading is needed in order to comply with veterinary instruction in relation to the Danish legislation, stating that sows with shoulder ulcers grade 3 or 4 must be kept loose and have access to soft bedding. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate if biopsies from the center of a shoulder ulcer can be used to point out animals for which an intervention must be initiated. Postmortem, a punch biopsy was sampled from the center of the ulceration or from the tissue overlaying the tuber spina scapula. Afterward, the shoulders were cross-sectioned and evaluated grossly and histologically (“gold standard”). In total, 121 shoulders were included in the study, and the diagnostic value of a punch biopsy in grading shoulder ulcerations was evaluated. The results showed a sensitivity of 0.78, a specificity of 0.98, a positive likelihood ratio of 38.36, and a negative likelihood ratio of 0.22. The agreement between the cross-section evaluation and the punch biopsy was found to be 0.90 by calculating the Cohen kappa value. In conclusion, a single punch biopsy from the center of an ulcer is useful for determining the grade of a shoulder ulcer and can be used to facilitate the identification of sows with ulcers requiring an intervention.

In order to elucidate whether consistency exists in the reactions of gilts to various challenging situations, 56 prepubertal crossbred Landrace/Yorkshire gilts were subjected to a Food Competition Test, an Open Field Test, a Human Test and a Social Test. The undisturbed behaviour was video recorded in the home pen before the tests were performed. Factor analysis on open field data revealed five factors, selected by the criterium of the eigenvalue being bigger than one: (1) immobility, (2) exploratory locomotion, (3) non-exploratory locomotion, (4) object exploration, and (5) central position in the test arena. Factor analysis on Human Test data resulted in five factors: (1) exploration, (2) inactivity, (3) vocalisation, (4) immobility, and (5) escape. Significant correlations were found between the Open Field Test and the Human Test, between the Human Test and the Social Test and between the Food Competition Test and the Human Test. Only a tendency to a correlation was found between the Open Field Test and the Social Test. In conclusion in this investigation the gilts showed a general reactivity which was consistent across non-social situations and also tended to be so in a social situation with an unknown pig. Future investigations of relations between social and non-social situation, should focus on social contexts where the individuality of the animal can be tested, to prevent interference form group dynamics, and compare this measure with reactivity in non-social situations.

Influence of timidity (timid when approached by an unknown human vs. control) and social environment during lactation (single vs. group farrowing paddock) on maternal reactivity of outdoor sows was examined in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment with nine replicates of four sows. Selection for timidity was carried out by a human approach test in the gestation paddock three weeks prepartum. During week 1 postpartum the maternal reactivity was tested once in each of three different setups mimicking potential situations of danger to the piglets: the play back of a piglet distress call (SP), disturbance of nursing (DN) and introduction of a human dummy (DT). Generally, timid sows were more reactive than controls; they had a higher first reaction type in DT (P < 0.05) and DN (P