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Trichuris spp. are nematode parasites infecting wild ruminants in zoological institutions worldwide. These helminths cause significant morbidity in giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and other hoofstock located in zoological institutions throughout the United States. Historically, studies and institutions have used a variety of nematode detection methods with various flotation solutions. Optimization of Trichuris egg detection is necessary for monitoring collections. Fecal and soil optimized protocols were generated in this study using samples containing Trichuris eggs from multiple semi free-ranging zoological institutions. First, Sheather's sugar (specific gravity (SG) 1.27), sucrose (SG 1.40), magnesium sulfate (SG 1.26), and zinc sulfate (SG 1.18) were compared as flotation solutions by quantitative eggs per gram using a modified Stoll method. Then a soil recovery method was optimized comparing Tween 20, sodium hydroxide, Dawn™ (Procter and Gamble) detergent, and sodium chloride as liberating solutions to free eggs from the soil. We found that Sheather's sugar and sucrose solutions were the most effective for Trichuris egg detection, and either sodium hydroxide or sodium chloride liberated eggs from soil., Graphical abstract Trichuris egg seen in fecal flotation of giraffe feces.Image 1, Highlights • Optimization of giraffe Trichuris egg detection. • Soil Trichuris recovery methods analysis. • Multi-institutional giraffe Trichuris evaluation.

In the wild, giraffes live complex social lives exhibiting fission-fusion social systems. They have sophisticated communication which likely forms a crucial component regulating subgroup dynamics. They spend a large part of their day browsing and traveling over large distances. In captivity, lack of continuous browsing opportunities and limited space can lead to various abnormal and stereotypic behaviours. These stereotypic behaviours can have cascading detrimental health consequences. A behavioural analysis of stereotypic behaviours in giraffes under human care was conducted to evaluate sources of variation within a population and provide management recommendations. The aim of this investigation was threefold: 1. to examine current behaviour of giraffes in Zoological Garden Alipore, Kolkata to advise on their enhanced management; 2. to highlight any behavioural abnormalities and recommend enrichment mechanisms; and 3. to compare the observed stereotypic behaviours with behaviour described in other zoological institutions and in the wild to provide a focal trajectory in the development of guidelines. Four individuals (two adult males, one adult female, and one male calf) were observed outdoors for seven days, three times a day for 30 minutes by instantaneous scan sampling method. During the observation period, the giraffe exhibited oral stereotypy more than any other behaviour recorded, though this was recorded disproportionally between individuals. The giraffe spent a larger amount of time exhibiting oral stereotypy compared to feeding/foraging activities. The study suggests incorporating diet and feeding strategies with provision of natural browse as well as offering enrichment methods to increase the foraging time using various time-engaged feeding devices to mitigate the observed abnormal stereotypic behaviour. Additionally, recommendations are made for expanding the size of the open enclosure to meet guidelines by the Central Zoo Authority, as a minimum.

Population numbers of Kordofan giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum) have declined throughout its range by more than 85% in the last three decades, including in the isolated easternmost population found in the Garamba National Park (NP) in the Democratic Republic of Congo.We provide new data on the conservation status and ecology of Kordofan giraffe in Garamba NP, specifically on the current population dynamics, distribution patterns, and spatial ecology for informed conservation management decisions.Data were gathered between September 26, 2016, and August 17, 2017, through direct observation and from eight GPS satellite collars deployed in early 2016. Movements, distribution patterns, and autocorrelated kernel density home ranges were estimated using the Continuous‐Time Movement Modeling (CTMM) framework. We then compared results with home ranges calculated using the kernel density estimation (95% KDE) method.The Garamba NP population was estimated to be 45 giraffe with a female‐dominated sex ratio (35% males; 65% females), and adult‐dominated age class ratio (11.2% juveniles; 17.7% subadults; 71.1% adults). The giraffe's distribution was limited to the south‐central sector of the Park, and giraffe were divided over different areas with some degree of connectivity. The average giraffe home range size was 934.3 km2 using AKDE and 268.8 km2 using KDE. Both methods have shown surprisingly large home ranges despite of the relatively high humidity of Garamba NP.Based on the outcomes of this research, urgent conservation action is needed to protect Garamba's remaining giraffe population., Presented manuscript highlights the outputs of extensive fieldwork in Garamba National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo, and brings the first results about the remaining spatially isolated population of the critically endangered Kordofan giraffe. The results of this study represent a solid baseline for conservation decision which will hopefully lead to the long‐term survival of this unique giraffe population.

Les animaux constituent la majeure partie des sujets gravés, relevés par la Petroglyph Unit du Dakhleh Oasis Project, dans l’oasis de Dakhla en Égypte. Cet article est l’occasion d’établir un tour d’horizon des espèces animales identifiables au sein du très riche corpus de figures zoomorphes, qui en compte 1429. Ces gravures sont étudiées ici principalement en termes de technique de production, caractéristiques formelles et chronologie. Leur signification potentielle est intentionnellement laissée de côté. Chaque catégorie de zoomorphe est étudiée individuellement, en commençant par les représentations les plus abondantes qui sont celles de girafes et d’oryx. En conclusion de l’article, la discussion finale permet de resituer l’art animalier de Dakhla dans un contexte plus vaste, et aborde la problématique des restes fauniques. Diverses questions concernant les matériaux analysés sont posées, questions qui sont également d’un intérêt plus large pour l’archéologie du Désert occidental égyptien. Animals constitute a vast share of petroglyphs recorded in Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt, during the past 30 years by the Petroglyph Unit of the Dakhleh Oasis Project. In this paper I provide a detailed overview of all the animal species which can be fairly certainly recognised among the rich zoomorphic corpus of figures, which counts 1429 figures. The animals are discussed mainly in terms of techniques of production, other formal traits, and chronology. Their potential significance is here intentionally left aside. Each category of zoomorphs is considered separately, beginning with the most abundant depictions of giraffes and oryxes. The final discussion, which concludes the paper, situates Dakhleh zoomorphic rock art in a broader context, as well as touches upon issues related to faunal remains. I pose various questions regarding the analysed material, which may have also some relevance for the entire Western Desert of Egypt.

The ruminant gut microbial community's importance has been widely acknowledged due to its positive roles in physiology, metabolism, and health maintenance. Diarrhea has been demonstrated to cause adverse effects on gastrointestinal health and intestinal microecosystem, but studies regarding diarrheal influence on gut microbiota in Giraffa camelopardalis have been insufficient to date. Here, this study was performed to investigate and compare gut microbial composition and variability between healthy and diarrheic G. camelopardalis. The results showed that the gut microbial community of diarrheal G. camelopardalis displayed a significant decrease in alpha diversity, accompanied by distinct alterations in taxonomic compositions. Bacterial taxonomic analysis indicated that the dominant bacterial phyla (Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes) and genera (Escherichia Shigella and Acinetobacter) of both groups were the same but different in relative abundance. Specifically, the proportion of Proteobacteria in the diarrheal G. camelopardalis was increased as compared with healthy populations, whereas Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Tenericutes, and Spirochaetes were significantly decreased. Moreover, the relative abundance of one bacterial genus (Comamonas) dramatically increased in diarrheic G. camelopardalis, whereas the relative richness of 18 bacterial genera decreased compared with healthy populations. Among them, two bacterial genera (Ruminiclostridium_5 and Blautia) cannot be detected in the gut bacterial community of diarrheal G. camelopardalis. In summary, this study demonstrated that diarrhea could significantly change the gut microbial composition and diversity in G. camelopardalis by increasing the proportion of pathogenic to beneficial bacteria. Moreover, this study first characterized the distribution of gut microbial communities in G. camelopardalis with different health states. It contributed to providing a theoretical basis for establishing a prevention and treatment system for G. camelopardalis diarrhea.

Background Brucellosis is a contagious zoonotic disease of great public health and economic significance especially in developing countries. The disease affects humans and several species of livestock and wildlife. Studies on Brucellosis in wildlife in Uganda have been limited to single populations particularly in Queen Elizabeth National Park. This study aimed at estimating the percentage of positive samples of Brucella spp. in wildlife in four major national parks of Uganda. This was a retrospective survey which utilized archived samples collected from wildlife during the annual disease surveillance activities between 2013 and 2017. Results A total of 241 samples from seven species namely African buffalo (Syncerus caffer, n = 109), African elephant (Loxodonta africana, n = 22), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi, n = 41), Uganda kob (Kobus kob thomasi, n = 36), lion (Panthera leo, n = 6), plain zebra (Equus quagga, n = 25), and bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus, n = 2), were tested for antibodies using the Rose Bengal Plate Test. The overall percentage of positive samples in the four national parks was 31.1% (75/241; 95% CI: 25.6–37.2). Kidepo Valley National Park had a significantly higher percentage of positive samples of 55.9% (19/34; 95% CI: 39.5–71.1) compared to other sampled national parks (p p Brucella spp. detected in African elephant and bushbuck. Conclusion This study shows variations in percentage of positive samples with Brucella spp. between species and across national parks and notably a high percentage with Brucella spp. in wildlife in Uganda than that recorded elsewhere in sub-Saharan region of Africa. Potential for transmission to other wildlife and spill over to livestock is high especially in national parks with high livestock-wildlife interaction.

Background Comparative cognition has historically focused on a few taxa such as primates, birds or rodents. However, a broader perspective is essential to understand how different selective pressures affect cognition in different taxa, as more recently shown in several studies. Here we present the same battery of cognitive tasks to two understudied ungulate species with different socio-ecological characteristics, European bison (Bison bonasus) and forest buffalos (Syncerus caffer nanus), and we compare their performance to previous findings in giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis). We presented subjects with an Object permanence task, Memory tasks with 30 and 60 s delays, two inference tasks based on acoustic cues (i.e. Acoustic inference tasks) and a control task to check for the use of olfactory cues (i.e. Olfactory task). Results Overall, giraffes outperformed bison and buffalos, and bison outperformed buffalos (that performed at chance level). All species performed better in the Object permanence task than in the Memory tasks and one of the Acoustic inference tasks (which they likely solved by relying on stimulus enhancement). Giraffes performed better than buffalos in the Shake full Acoustic inference task, but worse than bison and buffalos in the Shake empty Acoustic inference task. Conclusions In sum, our results are in line with the hypothesis that specific socio-ecological characteristics played a crucial role in the evolution of cognition, and that higher fission-fusion levels and larger dietary breadth are linked to higher cognitive skills. This study shows that ungulates may be an excellent model to test evolutionary hypotheses on the emergence of cognition.

Objective Skeletal dysplasias, cartilaginous or skeletal disorders that sometimes result in abnormal bone development, are seldom reported in free-ranging wild animals. Here, we use photogrammetry and comparative morphometric analyses to describe cases of abnormal appendicular skeletal proportions of free-ranging giraffe in two geographically distinct taxa: a Nubian giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda and an Angolan giraffe (Giraffa giraffa angolensis) on a private farm in central Namibia. Results These giraffe exhibited extremely shortened radius and metacarpal bones relative to other similarly aged giraffe. Both giraffe survived to at least subadult life stage. This report documents rare occurrences of these apparent skeletal dysplasias in free-ranging wild animals and the first records in giraffe.

Biodiversity conservation depends on influencing human behaviors, but when activities are illegal or otherwise sensitive, e.g. because the behavior in question is taboo to a particular society, actors can be hesitant to admit engagement with illicit behaviors. We applied Specialized Questioning Techniques (SQT) to estimate and compare the behavioral prevalence of giraffe meat consumption from 2017 to 2019 in northern Kenya, Laikipia and Samburu County, between direct questioning and two SQTs: Randomized Response Technique (RRT) and Unmatched Count Technique (UCT). Comparisons between the two samples (2017 and 2019) yielded significant differences across all three methods, with confidence intervals distinctly divergent between years. The significant disparity between the two samples for all three methods suggests that there was a true reduction in giraffe meat usage in our study area, from 2017 to 2019. A key change in the study area between the two time periods was the introduction of a community-based program for giraffe conservation. Primary program activities, including ecological monitoring, community outreach and education, and collaboration with wildlife security teams, align with other conservation programs that have demonstrated reduced poaching pressures. This study demonstrates an application of SQTs to detect a decline of giraffe meat consumption, providing an alternative to self-reported data for monitoring sensitive behaviors related to direct exploitation and illegal uses of wildlife.

Partial migration is a common movement phenomenon in ungulates, wherein part of the population remains resident while another portion of the population transitions to spatially or ecologically distinct seasonal ranges. Although widely documented, the causes of variation in movement strategies and their potential demographic consequences are not well-understood. Here, we used GPS telemetry data and individual-based photographic surveys to describe evidence for the partial migration of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) in the tropical savanna habitat of Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda. Seasonal movements in giraffe have been described but have not been systematically investigated within the framework of partial migration. We characterized movement behaviors of eight female GPS tracked giraffe across one full year using a model-driven approach of net-squared displacement metrics. To further evaluate these space use patterns at the population-level, we used closed robust design multi-state capture recapture models derived from individually based photographic surveys collected seasonally over three years. We also characterized environmental conditions associated with seasonal space use by conducting ground-based vegetation surveys and analyzing remotely sensed phenology data. Our results from both individually based telemetry models and population-level multi-state models suggest intra-population variation in seasonal space use strategies with three dominant movement classes: (1) Residents in deciduous savanna characterized by Acacia sieberiana, Acacia senegal, Harrisonia abyssinica, and Crateva adansonii in the far western end of the park. (2) Residents in the broadleaf savannas characterized by Pseudocedrela kotschyi, Stereospermum kunthianum, Termalia spp., and Combretum spp. in the central sector of the park (3) Male-biased migrants that transitioned seasonally between the acacia savanna in the wet seasons and the broadleaf savanna in the dry seasons. Our results offer insights into how giraffe navigate spatiotemporally dynamic environments at both individual and population levels, providing ecological mechanisms for the emergent population dynamics of these large-bodied topical browsers.

Urinalysis is widely recognized to be a useful tool in routine health investigations, since it can diagnose numerous pathologies. Considering the paucity of knowledge concerning giraffes, urine from 44 giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) (18 males and 26 females, from 3 months of age to 21 years of age) underwent routine urinalysis, 1D-electrophoresis, and protein identification using mass spectrometry, with the aim of identifying the urinary reference values and the urine proteome. The urine specific gravity (USG), urine total proteins (uTP), urine creatinine (uCr), and urine protein:creatinine ratio (UPC) reference values, reported as the median, and lower limit (LL) and upper limit (UL), were 1.030 (1006&ndash, 1.049), 17.58 (4.54&ndash, 35.31) mg/dL, 154.62 (39.59&ndash, 357.95) mg/dL, and 0.11 (0.07&ndash, 0.16), respectively. Mass spectrometry, together with electrophoresis, revealed a pattern of common urinary proteins, albumin, lysozyme C, and ubiquitin were the most represented proteins in the giraffe urine. It has been hypothesized that these proteins could act as a defense against microbes. Moreover, in giraffes, urinalysis could be a valid tool for gauging renal function and physiological status changes.

Mammalian milk/colostrum usually contains oligosaccharides along with the predominant disaccharide lactose. It has been found that the number and identity of these milk oligosaccharides varies among mammalian species. Oligosaccharides predominate over lactose in the milk/colostrum of Arctoidea species (Carnivora), whereas lactose predominates over milk oligosaccharides in Artiodactyla including cow, sheep, goat, camel, reindeer and pig. To clarify whether heterogeneity of a variety of milk oligosaccharides is found within other species of Artiodactyla, they were studied in the milk of giraffe, sitatunga, deer and water buffalo. The following oligosaccharides were found: Neu5Ac(α2-3)[GalNAc(β1-4)]Gal(β1-4)Glc (GM2 tetrasaccharide), and Gal(α1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (isoglobotriose) in giraffe milk; Neu5Ac(α2-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (3'-SL), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(β1-4)Glc (6'-SL), Gal(α1-4)Gal(β1-4)Glc (globotriose) and isoglobotriose in sitatunga colostrum; Gal(β1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (3'-GL), Gal(β1-6)Gal(β1-4)Glc (6'-GL), isoglobotriose, Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc(β1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (lacto-N-neotetraose, LNnT), Gal(β1-4)Glc-3'-O-SO3 (3'-O-lactose sulphate) in deer milk; 3'-GL, isoglobotriose and Gal(β1-3)Gal(β1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (3',3″-digalactosyllactose, DGL) in water buffalo colostrum. Thus it was shown that the milk oligosaccharides are heterogeneous among these Artiodactyla species.

Introduction Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an infectious disease that occurs in many species of both domestic and free-ranging animals, as well as animals kept in zoos. According to the Polish regulations, cattle tuberculosis are slaughtered and microbiological examinations are performed, the rest of animal species can be treated and laboratory diagnostics are not obligatory. Case report The presented case concerns two male giraffes which were purchased by the zoo and united with a third male. After a year, the oldest male died. Post mortem examinations confirmed generalized tuberculosis. After a further six months, the second male was euthanized after suffering great pain. The material for the study of drug resistance was a swab from the nose, obtained ante mortem from the third male. Attempted treatments did not produce the expected results. Genotyping allowed the exclusion of a common source of transmission. Conclusions The final effect of the anti-tuberculosis therapy in the male giraffe raises the question whether the research team should have undertaken the treatment of the animal with active tuberculosis.

Various body measurements and commercial carcass yields of relatively young (2½–6 yrs old) giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis) were investigated to quantify the effect of sex there upon. Eight male and eight female giraffe were culled by standard practice in Namibia, where body and horn measurements were taken, before the carcasses were dressed. There were no significant differences between the mean dead weights of the two sexes (bulls = 691.1 kg, cows = 636.5 kg, p = 0.096), the only body measurements found to differ significantly were those of the forelegs, with the shoulder to hoof (p = 0.046) and the knee to hoof (p = 0.025) both being significantly longer in the bulls. The horn measurements were all found to be significantly larger in the bulls than the cows even at this young age. The neck weight as a percentage of the carcass weight was found to be significantly heavier for the bulls compared to the cows, however, the back percentage values were significantly heavier in the cows than the bulls. There was a strong positive correlation between the body weight and most of the body lengths, as well as between most of the individual body measurements. The giraffe used had an average age of 3.7 years old, and had therefore not yet reached their growth plateau, which may be why sex had no influence on most of the body measurements recorded.

This study evaluated the accuracy of pulse oximetry, capnography, and oscillometric blood pressure during general anesthesia in giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis). Thirty-two giraffes anesthetized for physiologic experiments were instrumented with a pulse oximeter transmittance probe positioned on the tongue and a capnograph sampling line placed at the oral end of the endotracheal tube. A human size 10 blood pressure cuff was placed around the base of the tail, and an indwelling arterial catheter in the auricular artery continuously measured blood pressure. Giraffes were intermittently ventilated using a Hudson demand valve throughout the procedures. Arterial blood for blood gas analysis was collected at multiple time points. Relationships between oxygen saturation as determined by pulse oximetry and arterial oxygen saturation, between arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure and end-tidal carbon dioxide, and between oscillometric pressure and invasive arterial blood pressure were assessed, and the accuracy of pulse oximetry, capnography, and oscillometric blood pressure monitoring evaluated using Bland-Altman analysis. All three noninvasive methods provided relatively poor estimates of the reference values. Receiver operating characteristic curve fitting was used to determine cut-off values for hypoxia, hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and hypotension for dichotomous decision-making. Applying these cut-off values, there was reasonable sensitivity for detection of hypocapnia, hypercapnia, and hypotension, but not for hypoxemia. Noninvasive anesthetic monitoring should be interpreted with caution in giraffes and, ideally, invasive monitoring should be employed.

In inclement weather, northern zoos are required to provide animals from warmer climates with indoor exhibits. These indoor exhibits are typically smaller, lack natural substrate, and have lower levels of stimulation for the animals. The purpose of this study was to examine the welfare of four reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) exhibited at the Chicago Zoological Society - Brookfield Zoo - during the summer in an outdoor enclosure compared to the winter in an indoor enclosure. A combination of direct behavioral observations, percentage of time spent recumbent, and adrenal hormone monitoring through fecal samples were utilized for a more comprehensive look at welfare. Individual variation was observed between the giraffe. An adult female giraffe engaged in Active Forage behavior significantly more in the winter compared to summer (mean difference = 0.23, p = 0.049). An adult female and a juvenile male displayed significantly more Active Non-Forage behavior in the summer than in the winter (mean difference = 0.32, p = 0.048; mean difference = 0.31, p = 0.048). The predominant behavior in the summer for the group as a whole was Active Non-Forage (59%), whereas Active Forage was most prevalent in the winter (60%). There was also a significant positive correlation between time spent recumbent per hour for each 24-hour day measured in the summer and winter (r = 0.51, p = 0.010). Although no significant differences were found for individual FGM concentrations between the seasons, average FGM concentrations for the group were 2306.67 ng/g in the summer and 4261.64 ng/g in the winter. Information gained from this study can help aid animal managers to make informed decisions to ensure each individual giraffe is thriving year-round. In addition, we hope this study can serve as a model to examine the seasonal welfare of other animals in zoological institutions with similar conditions.

International audience; The chapter on giraffe given by Conrad Gessner in his Historia animalium is an important step in the long-term history of this animal, from antiquity to pre-modern times. The aim of this paper is not to give an in-depth review of Gessner’s chapter on the giraffe, but it will stress three topics: the specific problem of the presence of the giraffe in the Bible; some aspects of Gessner’s textual sources, with a special focus on medieval authors, and the illustrations of the giraffe in the printed editions of Gessner’s Historia animalium.

BackgroundThe Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) is the largest-bodied giraffe and the world's tallest terrestrial animal. With its extreme size and height, the giraffe's unique anatomical and physiological adaptations have long been of interest to diverse research fields. Giraffes are also critical to ecosystems of sub-Saharan Africa, with their long neck serving as a conduit to food sources not shared by other herbivores. Although the genome of a Masai giraffe has been sequenced, the assembly was highly fragmented and suboptimal for genome analysis. Herein we report an improved giraffe genome assembly to facilitate evolutionary analysis of the giraffe and other ruminant genomes.FindingsUsing SOAPdenovo2 and 170 Gbp of Illumina paired-end and mate-pair reads, we generated a 2.6-Gbp male Masai giraffe genome assembly, with a scaffold N50 of 3 Mbp. The incorporation of 114.6 Gbp of Chicago library sequencing data resulted in a HiRise SOAPdenovo + Chicago assembly with an N50 of 48 Mbp and containing 95% of expected genes according to BUSCO analysis. Using the Reference-Assisted Chromosome Assembly tool, we were able to order and orient scaffolds into 42 predicted chromosome fragments (PCFs). Using fluorescence in situ hybridization, we placed 153 cattle bacterial artificial chromosomes onto giraffe metaphase spreads to assess and assign the PCFs on 14 giraffe autosomes and the X chromosome resulting in the final assembly with an N50 of 177.94 Mbp. In this assembly, 21,621 protein-coding genes were identified using both de novo and homology-based predictions.ConclusionsWe have produced the first chromosome-scale genome assembly for a Giraffidae species. This assembly provides a valuable resource for the study of artiodactyl evolution and for understanding the molecular basis of the unique adaptive traits of giraffes. In addition, the assembly will provide a powerful resource to assist conservation efforts of Masai giraffe, whose population size has declined by 52% in recent years.

In recent years, awareness of the controversial aspects connected with wild animal-visitor interactions (AVIs) in zoos and other facilities has increased due to cultural changes. Therefore, the need to apply transparent procedures to evaluate AVIs programs in zoos and similar facilities has also increased. This study presents results of animal welfare&rsquo, s assessment of a pilot test of a protocol based on six steps that aim to explore and assess the overall value of AVIs considering the impact both on animals and visitors. In the present paper, we discuss the multifaceted approach to animal welfare assessment during animal-visitor interactions, combining quantitative behavioural observations/analysis and a welfare risk-assessment procedure, which forms the basis of the six-step protocol. Pilot testing of said approach to animal welfare assessment involved giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) in an Italian zoo. No change in behaviour, suggestive of an increased welfare risk to the animals, was found. The risk analysis reported overall low risks for welfare, whereas enclosure analysis highlighted that the enclosure was suitable for allowing interactions without jeopardising animal welfare, mainly because it allowed animals to choose whether to interact or withdraw from interactions without decreasing the space available to them.

Objectives Vocalization as part of vigilance behaviour is widespread across animal taxa, including ruminants. Calls of wild-living giraffes have never been recorded and spectrographically investigated. This study reports the acoustic structure of vigilance-related hiss and snort calls of wild-living giraffes Giraffa camelopardalis. Results The hiss and snort calls were emitted during five recording sessions produced by nine individual giraffes (8 adults and 1 subadult) in their natural environment in Namibia (3 individuals) and Kenya (6 individuals). These calls attended vigilance behaviour toward humans in hides or in vehicles and cheetahs as natural predators of giraffe young. This study provides spectrographic analyses of 22 hiss and 20 snort calls. The giraffe hisses were broadband vocalizations of an average duration of 0.72 s (from 0.24 to 1.04 s) and a peak frequency of 0.69 kHz. The giraffe snorts were broadband pulsed calls of an average duration of 0.28 s (from 0.13 to 0.55 s), a peak frequency at 0.20 kHz and comprised a prominent low-frequency pulsation of 23.7 pulses/s. The acoustic structure of giraffe hisses is reminiscent of vigilance-related hisses of musk deer Moschus moschiferus. Giraffe snorts differ from snorts of other ruminants by their prominent pulsed pattern. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-017-3103-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In anticipation of a major construction project in an urban New Zealand zoo, a study was initiated to assess the response to construction noise of selected animal species (elephant, giraffe, emu and alligator) previously observed to be sensitive to this kind of noise. The overall aim was to detect any signs of aversive responses to this noise to enable keepers to recognize these and take any necessary mitigating actions during the construction period. The experimental approach involved the creation of acoustic maps of each focal animal enclosure, a series of 90-min video recordings of the animals&rsquo, behavior in response to ambient noise (control) and amplified broadcast of pre-recorded continuous and intermittent construction noise. Concentration of fecal corticosterone metabolites was also measured for the emus. Key findings were that giraffes, elephants and emus appeared to show an increase in behaviors that could indicate stress or agitation including vigilance and locomotion and may prefer quieter regions of their enclosure during sound exposure. Giraffes also increased close contact with conspecifics when exposed to construction noise. While alligators did not show clear evidence of noise-related stress, our findings indicated that all focal species showed some behavioral responses to recorded construction noise.

South African giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa ) have been introduced as an extralimital species to private farms in the Little Karoo on the basis of economic sustainability, and the need to create a competitive tourism product. However, little is known about the medium- to long-term impacts and ecological sustainability of such introductions. The diet of a population of giraffe on Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, near the town of Ladismith, was assessed via direct observations between January and October 2014, in order to determine their potential impact on the world’s most species-rich semi-desert, the Succulent Karoo. Unlike giraffe in their native range, the Sanbona population showed seasonal preference for browse species. Acacia karroo (sweet thorn) appears to be the preferred browse species during autumn and spring, with Schotia afra being the preferred species in winter, and no significant preference being shown in summer. Giraffe also appeared to seasonally move between catchments where tree species other than A. karroo occurs, especially during winter and spring when the tributaries of the Brak River, containing mixed Acacia with S. afra (karoo boer-bean) and Euclea undulata (small-leaved guarri), were visited with increasing frequency. These results largely confirm the importance of A. karroo as the main browse species in this environment but also suggest that other species may be important components of the diet of extralimital giraffe in the Little Karoo. On farms where A. karroo is dominant, supplementary feed may be needed when A. karroo browse is unavailable due to leaf drop. Conservation implications: Acacia karroo was the main browse species of extralimital G. c. giraffa at Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, but it switched to S. afra during winter. This suggests that an assessment of alternative food species forms part of suitability assessments for the introduction of extralimital G. c. giraffa for areas similar to Sanbona.

Medieval diplomacy often implied the exchange of gifts between rulers or two delegations. It was customary to give expensive cloth, jewellery, weapons, everyday objects made of precious metals, richly decorated manuscripts, and relics. Often, the gifts were animals - those used in hunting or warfare (such as horses, dogs or falcons), as well as rare and exotic animals (elephants, giraffes, tigers). The value and preciousness of these "living gifts" was measured through the strength, symbolic value or rarity of the animals which were a key part of diplomatic gift giving. The presence of animals in court ceremonies, royal processions, and later in ruler insignia through different heraldic markings, was, from ancient times, a key part of the manifestations of power and standing of rulers. The inclusion of animals in diplomatic protocol gained a certain political and cultural dimension of mediation between different states and cultures.

La jirafa (Giraffa camelopardalis) es a la vez el rumiante mas grande que existe y un ramoneador estricto. Nosotros disecamos y describimos la anatomia macroscopica de la boca de la jirafa. En este estudio se utilizaron las cabezas de dos jirafas adultas y de un feto. Los labios estaban bien desarrollados, el superior era el predominante y estaba aplastado dorsalmente cerca de las narinas. La lengua tenia una protuberancia o Torus lingual y rostralmente a el una depresion en forma de surco o Fossa linguae. No habia cuerpo adiposo de la mejilla (Corpus adiposum buccae). El paladar duro en la jirafa tenia 18 rugae palatinae. Las rugosidades finales alcanzaban el borde caudal del premolar 3. Las crestas caudales no tenian papilas. La glandula parotida era pequena y consistia de dos lobulos, uno rostral y otro caudal que se separaban dorsalmente para acomodar al nodulo linfatico parotideo. El conducto parotideo seguia el mismo trayecto que en la vaca, terminando frente al segundo diente premolar superior en la papila parotidea (no evidente en la superficie de la mucosa). La glandula mandibular estaba dividida en dos lobulos, el rostral se colocaba en el espacio intermandibular y el caudal estaba oculto por la glandula parotida. Las jirafas tenian glandulas sublinguales monostomatica y polistomatica. La glandula sublingual monostomatica estaba localizada rostralmente y se unia a la monostomatica del otro lado en el muy estrecho espacio intermandibular. La glandula sublingual polistomatica estaba localizada caudalmente y alcanzaba el nivel del tercer molar en un plano mas profundo que la monostomatica. Las jirafas estudiadas tenian glandulas salivares bucales dorsales, ventrales e intermedias. Dejando de lado las diferencias causadas por las diferentes dimensiones, la boca de la jirafa tenia en general una disposicion anatomica similar a la de la vaca.

Skin lesions associated with papillomaviruses have been reported in many animal species and man. Bovine papillomavirus (BVP) affects mainly the epidermis, but also the dermis in several species including bovine, the best-known example being equine sarcoid, which is associated with BVP types 1 and 2. This publication describes and illustrates the macroscopic and histological appearance of BPV-associated papillomatous, fibropapillomatous or sarcoid-like lesions in Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) from the Gariep Dam Nature Reserve, 2 giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) from the Kruger National Park, and a sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) from the Kimberley area of South Africa. An African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) cow from Kruger National Park also had papillomatous lesions but molecular characterisation of lesional virus was not done. Immunohistochemical staining using polyclonal rabbit antiserum to chemically disrupted BPV-1, which cross-reacts with the L1 capsid of most known papillomaviruses, was positive in cells of the stratum granulosum of lesions in Giraffe 1, the sable and the buffalo and negative in those of the zebra and Giraffe 2. Fibropapillomatous and sarcoid-like lesions from an adult bovine were used as positive control for the immunohistochemistry and are described and the immunohistochemistry illustrated for comparison. Macroscopically, both adult female giraffe had severely thickened multifocal to coalescing nodular and occasionally ulcerated lesions of the head, neck and trunk with local poorly-circumscribed invasion into the subcutis. Necropsy performed on the 2nd giraffe revealed neither internal metastases nor serious underlying disease. Giraffe 1 had scattered, and Giraffe 2 numerous, large, anaplastic, at times indistinctly multinucleated dermal fibroblasts with bizarre nuclei within the sarcoid-like lesions, which were BPV-1 positive in Giraffe 1 and BPV-1 and -2 positive in Giraffe 2 by RT-PCR. The sable antelope presented with a solitary large lesion just proximal to the right hind hoof, which recurred after excision, and was BPV-1 positive by RT-PCR. Other wart-like growths were present elsewhere on the body. The Cape mountain zebra either succumbed from their massive lesions or were euthanased or removed from the herd because of them. The lesions wereBPV-1 and/or -2 positive byRT-PCR. The buffalo lesions were wart-like papillomatous projections in the inguinal and udder region. Stratum granulosum cells that stained immunohistochemically positive in the various species appeared koilocyte-like, as described in human papillomaviral lesions.

Captive giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) mostly do not attain the longevity possible for this species and frequently have problems associated with low energy intake and fat storage mobilization. Abnormal tooth wear has been among the causes suggested as an underlying problem. This study utilizes a tooth wear scoring method ("mesowear") primarily used in paleobiology. This scoring method was applied to museum specimens of free-ranging (n=20) and captive (n=41) giraffes. The scoring system allows for the differentiation between attrition--(typical for browsers, as browse contains little abrasive silica) and abrasion--(typical for grazers, as grass contains abrasive silica) dominated tooth wear. The dental wear pattern of the free-ranging population is dominated by attrition, resembles that previously published for free-ranging giraffe, and clusters within browsing herbivores in comparative analysis. In contrast, the wear pattern of the captive population is dominated by abrasion and clusters among grazing herbivores in comparative analyses. A potential explanation for this difference in tooth wear is likely related to the content of abrasive elements in zoo diets. Silica content (measured as acid insoluble ash) is low in browse and alfalfa. However, grass hay and the majority of pelleted compound feeds contain higher amounts of silica. It can be speculated that the abnormal wear pattern in captivity compromises tooth function in captive giraffe, with deleterious long-term consequences.

Recent studies have shown that wild ruminants are sources of previously undescribed microorganisms, knowledge of which can improve our understanding of the complex microbial interactions in the foregut. Here, we investigated the microbial community of seven wild-caught giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis), three of which were fed natural browse and four were fed Boskos pellets, leafy alfalfa hay, and cut savanna browse, by characterizing the 16S rRNA gene diversity using 454 FLX high-throughput sequencing. The microbial community composition varied according to diet, but differed little between the ruminal fluid and solid fraction. The giraffe rumen contained large levels of the phyla of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes independent of diet, while Prevotella, Succinclasticium, and Methanobrevibacter accounted for the largest abundant taxonomic assigned genera. However, up to 21% of the generated sequences could not been assigned to any known bacterial phyla, and c. 70% not to genus, revealing that the giraffe rumen hosts a variety of previously undescribed bacteria.

Movements and group structure of giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis were studied in Lake Manyara National Park, northern Tanzania. The giraffe population in Manyara had increased from 60 to 85 individuals between the early 1980s and 1991. This increase may have been the result of an increase in browse availability as a result of a dramatic decline in elephant numbers, and bush encroachment following a series of anthrax epidemics that killed impala. Giraffe densities in Manyara are high compared to other areas within the Masai ecosystem, and Manyara probably serves as a dry season refuge. Females were found in small, yet unstable groups, while males associated randomly with each other. Neither males nor females were confined to single localities, although home ranges were small compared with studies in areas with low giraffe densities. In one area within the park a more stable group was found, and resident males who were probably defending a temporary harem, engaged in necking contests with immigrant males. A comparison with other studies showed that giraffe density, home-range size, mobility and group stability differ across different habitats. The tendency that more stable groups are found in high density areas might be taken as evidence for the occurrence of resource defence polygyny in such areas.

The social organization of giraffes ( Giraffa camelopardalis ) imposes a high-cost reproductive strategy on bulls, which adopt a ‘roving male’ tactic. Our observations on wild giraffes confirm that bulls indeed have unsynchronized rut-like periods, not unlike another tropical megaherbivore, the elephant, but on a much shorter timescale. We found profound changes in male sexual and social activities at the scale of about two weeks. This so far undescribed rutting behaviour is closely correlated with changes in androgen concentrations and appears to be driven by them. The short time scale of the changes in sexual and social activity may explain why dominance and reproductive status in male giraffe in the field seem to be unstable.

http://rursus.revues.org/1016; International audience; Timotheus of Gaza's panthers in the zoological encyclopaedia of Constantine VII This paper deals with the transmission of the lost zoological work of Timotheus of Gaza (end of the 5th century, beginning of the 6th century AD), of which some passages have been preserved in a zoological Byzantine compilation, the Sylloge Constantini, dating from the 10th century, and of which we study the paragraphs 260-282. These extracts describe several species of panthers (pardalis, leopardos, panther) and the giraffe (kamelopardalis), in a context of hybridization between different species, producing crossbreed mixture animals. This paper attempts to identify lost Timotheus' excerpts, relying on their compilation by the Arabic author Marwazī (12th century), which gives, about the giraffe, further information missing in the Sylloge and in the Byzantine Timotheus' epitome written in the 11th century. Throughout the study of these different extracts, the paper investigates the mediaeval reception of the presumed hybridity of some exotic species and the identification and the distinctness between cheetah, panther and leopard in the Greek world.; L'article traite de la transmission de l'œuvre zoologique perdue de Timothée de Gaza (fin ve-début viesiècle après J.-C.) dont des passages ont été restitués dans la compilation byzantine d'histoire naturelle, le Sylloge Constantini daté du xesiècle, et dont nous étudions les paragraphes 260-282. Ces extraits décrivent plusieurs sortes de panthères (pardalis, leopardos, panthêr) et la girafe (kamelopardalis), dans un contexte évoquant l'hybridation entre races différentes, produisant des animaux à la nature mixte. Il s'agit d'essayer de reconstituer les passages perdus de Timothée à propos de ces animaux, en s'appuyant également sur leur compilation par un auteur arabe du xiie siècle, Marwazī, qui donne notamment pour la girafe des informations absentes dans la Syllogé et dans l'épitomé byzantin de Timothée rédigé au xiesiècle. À travers l'étude de ces différents extraits, l'article évoque la réception médiévale de l'hybridité supposée de certaines espèces exotiques et l'identification et la différenciation entre guépard, panthère et léopard dans le monde grec.

Papillomavirus was detected electron microscopically in cutaneous fibropapillomas of a giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and a sable antelope (Hippotragus niger). The virus particles measured 45 nm in diameter. Histopathologically, the lesions showed histopathological features similar to those of equine sarcoid as well as positive immunoperoxidase-staining of tissue sections for papillomavirus antigen. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detected bovine papillomavirus (BPV) DNA. Bovine papillomavirus-1 was characterised by real-time PCR in the sable and giraffe, and cloning and sequencing of the PCR product revealed a similarity to BPV-1. As in the 1st giraffe, the lesions from a 2nd giraffe revealed locally malignant pleomorphism, possibly indicating the lesional end-point of papilloma infection. Neither virus particles nor positively staining papillomavirus antigen could be demonstrated in the 2nd giraffe but papillomavirus DNA was detected by real-time PCR which corresponded with BPV-1 and BPV-2.

The daily requirement for calcium and phosphorus by giraffes to sustain the growth and maintenance of their skeletons is large. The source of sufficient calcium is browse. The source of necessary phosphorus is obscure, but it could be osteophagia, a frequently observed behaviour in giraffes. We have assessed whether bone ingested as a result of osteophagia can be digested in the rumen. Bone samples from cancellous (cervical vertebrae) and dense bones (metacarpal shaft) were immersed in the rumens of five sheep, for a period of up to 30 days, and the effect compared to immersion in distilled water and in artificial saliva for 30 days. Distilled water had no effect on the bones. Dense bone samples were softened by exposure to the saliva and rumen fluid, but did not lose either calcium or phosphorus. In saliva and rumen fluid the cancellous bone samples also softened, and their mass and volume decreased as a result of exposure to saliva, but in neither fluid did they lose significant amounts of calcium and phosphorus. We conclude that although saliva and rumen fluid can soften ingested bones, there is an insignificant digestion of bones in the rumen.

A 15-year old female Rothschild Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi) weighing approximately 800kg, at the African Fund for Endangered Wildlife (AFEW), Giraffe Center, Langata, Nairobi, Kenya was presented with dystocia in June 2010. This giraffe named Laura, had a protracted labor and was regularly monitored by sanctuary education staff. Dystocia was relieved on the 3rd day at this wildlife sanctuary. The giraffe was chemically immobilized by using 7mg of Etorphine Hcl (0.98%) (M99®) (Norvatis South Africa (Pty) Limited) and 50mg of Azaperone(10%) (Kyron Laboratories (Pty) Limited, South Africa) in a Dan-Inject dart (Dan-inject APS, Sellerup Skowej, Denmark). On obstetrical examination of the giraffe, a fetal malposition type of dystocia had occurred. The fetus was positioned at posterior presentation extended posture with tail butting on the maternal pelvis, which is abnormal in giraffes. The fetus was manually extracted by using both alternate and simultaneous limb traction. The dam survived the procedure and later was reported to be in a good reproductive condition but the male fetus was a stillbirth. The fetus had died due to stress of prolonged labour. Relief of dystocia in giraffes is a difficult obstetrical procedure because obstetrical examination and relief requires chemical immobilization plus physical restrain with ropes by trained staff. Anesthesia or immobilization of giraffes remains a challenge because of the giraffe's unique anatomy and physiology. Giraffes are large animals which limits physical control and manipulation at critical times during induction and recovery of anesthesia. Giraffe's long neck if not pinned to the ground will act as a lever causing fatal injuries to self and support staff. Giraffes develop elevated systolic blood pressure; have a small respiratory tidal volume with a large dead space and relatively small cardiac output during anesthesia, which compromises safe levels of anesthesia. [Vet. World 2011; 4(12.000): 565-568]

Background Recent research reveals that giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis sp.) exhibit a socially structured, fission–fusion system. In other species possessing this kind of society, information exchange is important and vocal communication is usually well developed. But is this true for giraffes? Giraffes are known to produce sounds, but there is no evidence that they use vocalizations for communication. Reports on giraffe vocalizations are mainly anecdotal and the missing acoustic descriptions make it difficult to establish a call nomenclature. Despite inconclusive evidence to date, it is widely assumed that giraffes produce infrasonic vocalizations similar to elephants. In order to initiate a more detailed investigation of the vocal communication in giraffes, we collected data of captive individuals during day and night. We particularly focussed on detecting tonal, infrasonic or sustained vocalizations. Findings We collected over 947 h of audio material in three European zoos and quantified the spectral and temporal components of acoustic signals to obtain an accurate set of acoustic parameters. Besides the known burst, snorts and grunts, we detected harmonic, sustained and frequency-modulated “humming” vocalizations during night recordings. None of the recorded vocalizations were within the infrasonic range. Conclusions These results show that giraffes do produce vocalizations, which, based on their acoustic structure, might have the potential to function as communicative signals to convey information about the physical and motivational attributes of the caller. The data further reveal that the assumption of infrasonic communication in giraffes needs to be considered with caution and requires further investigations in future studies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13104-015-1394-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.