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Background and objectives The study presents a noninvasive, real-time monitoring technique for the cross-sectional imaging of the laser-tissue soldering process with a swept-source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) system. The study also aims at performing a comparative study of the laser-tissue soldering (LTS) process using optimized compositions of albumin as solder biomaterials. Study design/materials and methods The experimental study was conducted both ex vivo and in vivo to assess the superiority of the LTS process over conventional methods using a noninvasive imaging tool. In our attempt to combine the two techniques into one diagnostic tool, we have used the SSOCT system for a thoroughgoing investigation of the process in real-time. Laser-assisted tissue soldering was performed using a pulsed near-infrared (NIR) laser with a central wavelength of 980 nm, an output power of 5 W, and beam diameter (1/e 2 ) of 6 mm. Here, the SSOCT system has been utilized to observe and analyze the transitions taking place in real-time without disrupting the process. For the comparative study, we have used serum albumin in a 70% w/v concentration and albumin-PEG conjugate in a 6:1 ratio as soldering materials. Different stages of the laser interaction process were monitored with OCT B-scans of the incision area. Also, the basis of biomaterial-tissue interaction was studied with the help of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis of the soldering materials. Results FTIR spectrum alludes to the fact that the intertwining of the soldering biomaterial with tissue collagen creates adhesion. Biomaterial serum albumin with 70% w/v concentration as soldering material demonstrates complete sealing of tissue at the incision with 3 minutes of laser irradiation. SSOCT B-scans have been useful in imaging the incision noninvasively at different stages. Conclusion Both ex vivo and in vivo demonstration of the LTS process were presented with a clinical resemblance. OCT can be of great value to determine the wound contraction in case of incisional wounds or sealed wounds produced by the LTS procedure. Also, volumetric measurements of percentage reduction in wound area can be done with OCT. SSOCT system can be a potential imaging modality for real-time noninvasive imaging of surgical procedures like LTS. Lasers Surg. Med. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Swept-source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) is a noncontact, noninvasive bioimaging tool that uses various probes to obtain high contrast images. Rare-earth based upconversion particles (UCPs...

The aim of the current study is to demonstrate the potential of rare earth (RE) based upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) as molecular probing agents for non-invasive depth-resolved bioimaging technique, swept-source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT). The Na+ doped La2O3:Er3+/Yb3+ UCNPs were synthesized using a solution combustion route with characterization for emission spectra and morphological study. A custom made SSOCT system was also incorporated for tissue imaging with an A-scan rate of 100 kHz/s, the central wavelength of 1060 nm, an axial and lateral resolution of ~ 4.5 µm and ~ 13 µm in tissue, respectively. UCNPs are utilized as exogenous molecular probing agents to improve local scattering in inner tissue layers. In vitro imaging of chicken breast tissue is functioned with and without excited UCNPs. Time-dependent dynamic changes in scattering coefficients of local tissue and contrast to noise ratio (OCT B-scans) is presented with a new mathematical model. Substantial enhancement in OCT image contrast, local scattering coefficients, and depth range of OCT was observed. The penetration dynamics of excited and non-excited UCNPs with time is reported. Excitation of the UCNPs enhance the scattering coefficients which lead to high contrast OCT images. It also enables the tunable characteristics of UCNPs as targeted molecular probes.

Engineering of water-dispersible Gd3+ ions-decorated reduced graphene oxide (Gd-rGO) nanosheets (NSs) has been performed. The multifunctional capability of the sample was studied as a novel contrast agent for swept source optical coherence tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, and also as an efficient drug-delivery nanovehicle. The synthesized samples were fabricated in a chemically stable condition, and efforts have been put toward improving its biocompatibility by functionalizing with carbohydrates molecules. Gd incorporation in rGO matrix enhanced the fluorouracil (5-FU) drug loading capacity by 34%. The release of the drug was ∼92% within 72 h. Gd-rGO nanosheets showed significant contrast in comparison to optically responsive bare GO for swept source optical coherence tomography. The longitudinal relaxivity rate (r1) of 16.85 mM–1 s–1 for Gd-rGO was recorded, which was 4 times larger than that of the commercially used clinical contrast agent Magnevist (4 mM–1 s–1) at a magnetic field strength of 1.5 T.

The continuous development of microorganism colonies may lead to the development of biofilms. The ability to observe bacterial layers in real time using Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) can be beneficial for cross-sectional growth studies of bacterial biofilms. A new mathematical model has been developed and utilized to calculate the backscattering optical properties of sample and estimate the necessary parameters. The spectroscopic based analytical method has been successfully demonstrated for characterization of different bacterial colonies and biofilms. The results were verified with conventional ‘Gram staining’ method. The proposed analytical method has potential to monitor realtime growth kinetics of bacteria. The quantities observed were cross-sectional growth and scattering using optical properties for the different bacterial layers.

We demonstrate a photothermal optical coherence tomography (PTOCT) system, with upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) as a molecular probe. We synthesized hydrophilic, biocompatible upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) using hydrothermal synthesis. We developed the PTOCT system along with the signal processing tool and applied this technique on animal tissue phantom for targeted imaging. The ‘lock-in detection’ of the amplitude modulated photothermal beam (980 nm), which used to excite the UCNPs was the backbone of the signal processing algorithm. The signal processing was further established in different aspects. As an application part, the diffusion dynamics of the UCNPs was performed inside the tissue to study molecular movement and subsequent changes in tissue properties. A comparison of photothermal optical coherence tomography (PTOCT) with phase variance optical coherence tomography (PVOCT) for targeted molecular imaging also presented.

We present applicability of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnONPs) as a potential contrast agent for Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) imaging. A 1064 nm laser source was used in a swept source configuration capable of a scanning rate of 100 kHz (100,000 A-lines/s). Swept Source Optical Coherence Tomography (SSOCT) is a variation of OCT, offering greater scan rates, higher resolution and signal-to-noise ratios. To enhance the contrast of an OCT frame, ZnO nanoparticles were used as an exogeneous contrast agent, which were fabricated using zinc acetic acid derivation and oxalic acid via precipitation. The particles were characterized using UV–vis Spectroscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX). In-vitro imaging was performed on chicken breast tissue, with and without the application of ZnONPs. The contrast enhancements of the ZnONPs was determined at various time from the time of application, with calculation of the scattering coefficient and Contrast-to-Noise Ratio (CNR).

We present noninvasive depth-resolved imaging of human retinal and choroidal microcirculation with an ultrahigh-speed (1.7 MHz A-scans/s), Fourier-domain mode locked (FDML) swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) system having a central wavelength of 1065 nm. Three OCT angiography (OCTA) motion based contrast methods, namely phase variance (PV), amplitude decorrelation (AD) and Joint Spectral and Time domain OCT (STdOCT) were implemented. The OCTA imaging was performed with a field of view of 16° (5 mm × 5 mm) and 30° (9 mm × 9 mm), on the retina. A qualitative comparison of images obtained with all three OCTA methods is demonstrated using the same eye of a healthy volunteer. Different parameters, namely acquisition time, scanning area, and scanning density, are discussed. The phase-variance OCTA (PV-OCTA) method produced relatively better results than the other two. Different features regarding the retinal and choroidal vessels are described in different subjects.

We demonstrate the synthesis, characterization, and potential application of polymerically modified superparamagnetic nanoparticles over bare SPIONs, as a multi-model molecular probe for functionalized optical coherence tomography (fOCT). The synthesized magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) also have the ability of photo thermionic excitation under near-infrared irradiation (980 nm). By having dual excitation properties, the SPIONs are used as exogenous contrast agents for magnetomotive optical coherence tomography (MMOCT) as well as photothermal optical coherence tomography (PTOCT). We developed a functionalized OCT system and signal processing algorithms for MMOCT and PTOCT. Further, non-invasive in-vivo imaging was performed on swiss-albino mice to demonstrate the potential application of polymerically modified SPIONs. A diffusion dynamics study and contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) study of the dispersed synthesized SPIONs inside skin tissue of mice as a function of time and depth is also reported. We found that PEG-SPIONs are excellent candidate for molecular contrast agent of functional OCT.

In-vitro imaging by swept-source optical coherence tomography (OCT) represents a class of advanced tomography that provides comprehensive and accurate clinical diagnostics. Here colloidal NaGdF4:Er3+/Yb3+ particles having an average size of 32 nm were successfully synthesized by a facial thermal decomposition method and then used as a contrast agent in OCT imaging. Prepared phosphor has shown bright green upconversion emission under 976 nm diode laser. The phosphor particles had increased the scattering of OCT scanning radiation, and thus higher image contrast was observed. The results indicate that upconversion phosphors may work as suitable contrast agents for OCT imaging.

Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) are widely recognized exogenous contrast agents for bioimaging. Swept source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) is a non-invasive imaging tool commissioned for cross-sectional imaging of the biological sample. We present polymerically modified UCNPs as a potential contrast agent for SSOCT. In this communication, functionalized NaYF4: Ho3+/Yb3+ UCNPs were synthesized for more bioavailability with a coating of two different polymers namely, polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Time-dependent diffusion dynamics of functionalized UCNPs were performed in-vivo with a mice model. Imaging was performed with both inactive and excited UCNPs. A separate optical system was developed with an amplitude modulated 980 nm laser source to excite UCNPs. UCNPs with PVP coating shows better results compared to others in terms of increase of scattering coefficients and contrast-to-noise ratio. The complete system is designed with purpose to enhance imaging contrast of tissue at molecular level with further possible extension as a theranostics system for tumor imaging during photodynamic therapy.

We present a spectroscopic OCT (sOCT) system to extract spectroscopic properties of turbid liquid media using principle component analysis (PCA) and swept source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT). Extracted results are well comparable with the standard photo spectrometer technique. This system has potential for real time measurement of blood oxygen saturation and monitoring of relative concentration for other metabolic compounds inside human body. Liquid media was prepared with ethanol (10% v/v), citric acid (5% v/v) and water. A linear mathematical model for depth resolved diffuse reflectance was build from sOCT signal. Then PCA was applied on resultant model to extract absorption coefficients of different constituents of the media. Extracted information is well comparable with the standard photo spectrometer technique. This system has potential to monitor relative concentration change of metabolic compounds inside any system.

Ex vivo tissue imaging was performed by swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) using titanium dioxide (TiO2) and Fe content TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs). The comparative effects of TiO2 and Fe content TiO2 NPs in terms of contrast enhancement, penetration, scattering, and accumulation in the chicken breast tissue have been monitored at different exposure times. Powder NP samples were synthesized using the sol–gel method, and characterization was carried out via transmission electron microscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy techniques. Fe incorporation in the TiO2 matrix reduces its toxic effect on tissue skin and produces a safe exogenous contrast agent, which is analyzed by SS-OCT. The scattering coefficients and contrast to noise ratio of the tissues with and without NPs were determined to study the imaging efficacy. The improvement in the coefficient was observed with an increase in the exposure time of NPs. Nano-TiO2 has shown the ability to penetrate within the tissue layer up to 780 µm while Fe content TiO2 NPs samples showed the lowest rate of penetration up to 210 µm after a 30 min time interval.

Magnetomotive optical coherence tomography (MMOCT) is a functional modification of conventional optical coherence tomography (OCT). It utilizes the nano-scale displacement embedded magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and subsequent amplitude and phase changes in OCT interferogram scattered from samples. We report a new robust method for ‘phase-lock-in’ detection of MMOCT signals and subsequent imaging. We validated this method utilizing iron-gold (Fe-Au) composite nanoparticles as an exogenous contrast agent for MMOCT. High contrast and specific background-subtracted images was generated for Fe-Au MNPs targeted samples. MMOCT with MNPs imaging systems was corroborated with tissue phantoms and in-vivo swiss albino mice model with modulating external magnetic field (resonant frequency of 30 Hz). A time-dependent dynamics study of diffusion for MNPs inside the tissue of mice as a function of time and depth is also reported.

We present monitoring of nitrilase enzyme assay in real-time by means of Spectroscopic Optical Coherence Tomography (sOCT). Combination of principal component analysis (PCA) algorithm with Swept Source Optical Coherence Tomography (SSOCT), to extract the absorption spectra of the sample, termed as sOCT. Spectroscopic information of nitrilase enzyme obtained from sOCT is used to investigate dynamic enzyme kinetic reactions. Different principle components give complete information regarding the composition of the samples. Further, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis has been also performed to validate the PCA absorption spectra. Samples were prepared in controlled condition and evaluated at a regular time interval of the incubation period. The developed algorithm and system are combinedly capable of in-vitro real-time, study of enzyme kinetics with respect to time as biosensor.

Optical coherence tomography is non-invasive diagnostic technique for performing high resolution (~µm) cross sectional imaging. In this article, we demonstrate characterization and oxygen saturation studies of human retinal blood vessels with Principal Component Analysis (PCA) based Spectroscopic Optical Coherence Tomography-based Angiography. A Fourier Domain Mode-Locked laser having an axial imaging resolution of ~7.5 µm, with an A-scan sweep rate of 1.7 MHz and centre wavelength of 1060 nm, was utilized as an OCT source. PCA has been used in conjunction with a scanning Short Time Fourier Transform, procedure to isolate the probable amount of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin and extract the information from individual OCT frames, without any external fitting model. This technique could provide useful insight into an effective blind source data extraction technique for medical image analysis. The technique proposed in this article, has a significant advantage in requiring no additional filtering or noise reduction technique in order to accurately extract the required information. It can also be used for ophthalmological research to determine the oxygen saturation of human retinal blood circulation, which may be helpful for identification of abnormalities related to human eye.

A complex conjugate resolved, extended depth range, high speed 1 μm swept-source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) provides a dense three-dimensional (3-D) imaging of the entire anterior segment of eye. SSOCT system utilizes “coherence revival” characteristics of the light source (external cavity tunable laser, ECTL), which is automatically phase modulated. We describe implementation of this with a common swept laser with built-in k-clock to allow imaging in high depth range, 10.5 mm in air, without any external MZI clock. The system is capable of generating long depth range without any modulators or frequency shifter. Most of the commercially available OCT systems are limited with this type of application due to low acquisition speed, resolution, and axial imaging range. The sensitivity fall-off profiles for extended imaging depth range were also presented with matched and mismatched interferometer optical path delays. The imaging feasibility of this system is demonstrated by in vitro 3D imaging of the full anterior segment of lamb eye.

We demonstrate OCT angiography (OCTA) and Doppler OCT imaging of the choroid in the eyes of two healthy volunteers and in a geographic atrophy case. We show that visualization of specific choroidal layers requires selection of appropriate OCTA methods. We investigate how imaging speed, B-scan averaging and scanning density influence visualization of various choroidal vessels. We introduce spatial power spectrum analysis of OCT en face angiographic projections as a method of quantitative analysis of choroicapillaris morphology. We explore the possibility of Doppler OCT imaging to provide information about directionality of blood flow in choroidal vessels. To achieve these goals, we have developed OCT systems utilizing an FDML laser operating at 1.7 MHz sweep rate, at 1060 nm center wavelength, and with 7.5 μm axial imaging resolution. A correlation mapping OCA method was implemented for visualization of the vessels. Joint Spectral and Time domain OCT (STdOCT) technique was used for Doppler OCT imaging.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a rapidly evolving, robust technology that has profoundly changed the practice of medical imaging. Swept source OCT (SSOCT) combines the standard time domain and the spatially encoded frequency domain OCT. We have employed a high-speed SSOCT system that utilizes a swept source laser with an A-scan rate of 100 kHz and a central wavelength of 1060 nm for the imaging of the tissue. SSOCT at 1060 nm allows for high penetration in the tissue. TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) are mostly used for various experimental purposes as an exogenous imaging contrast agent. The in vitro imaging of chicken breast tissue is performed with and without the application of TiO2 NPs for exogenous contrast. Characterization of the chemically synthesized TiO2 NPs was done with dynamic light scattering and a scanning electron microscope method. The effect of TiO2 is studied at different exposure times. A significant improvement in the contrast to noise ratio has been observed through the in vitro imaging of a TiO2 treated tissue.

We demonstrate a noninvasive, three-dimensional, depth-resolved imaging of stratified media with a swept source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) system at 1064 nm centre wavelength. A swept source laser is used to enable imaging rate of 100 kHz (100,000 A-scans/s). A comparison between SS-OCT and other imaging modalities is also presented. Brief theory, detail instrumentation of the system and signal processing method are described. The system has axial and transverse resolution of 5 and 14 μm in air respectively. The potential and performance of the system was tested, and two- and three-dimensional imaging of different objects like human skin, infrared detection card, leaf, etc. has been presented.

We present noninvasive three-dimensional depth-resolved imaging of animal tissue with a swept-source optical coherence tomography system at 1064 nm center wavelength and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as a potential contrast agent. A swept-source laser light source is used to enable an imaging rate of 100 kHz (100 000 A-scans s−1). Swept-source optical coherence tomography is a new variant of the optical coherence tomography (OCT) technique, offering unique advantages in terms of sensitivity, reduction of motion artifacts, etc. To enhance the contrast of an OCT image, AgNPs are utilized as an exogeneous contrast agent. AgNPs are synthesized using a modified Tollens method and characterization is done by UV–vis spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. In vitro imaging of chicken breast tissue, with and without the application of AgNPs, is performed. The effect of AgNPs is studied with different exposure times. A mathematical model is also built to calculate changes in the local scattering coefficient of tissue from OCT images. A quantitative estimation of scattering coefficient and contrast is performed for tissues with and without application of AgNPs. Significant improvement in contrast and increase in scattering coefficient with time is observed.

We demonstrate the feasibility of our newly developed phase stabilized high-speed (100 kHz A-scans/s) 1 μm sweptsource optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) system with the phase-variance based motion contrast method for visualization of human chorioretinal complex microcirculation. Compared to our previously reported spectral domain (spectrometer based) phase-variance (pv)-SDOCT system it has advantages of higher sensitivity, reduced fringe washout for high blood flow speeds and deeper penetration in choroid. High phase stability SSOCT imaging was achieved by using a computationally efficient phase stabilization approach. This process does not require additional calibration hardware and complex numerical procedures. Our phase stabilization method is simple and can be employed in a variety of SS-OCT systems. Examples of vasculature in the chorioretinal complex imaged by pv-SSOCT is presented and compared to retinal images of the same volunteers acquired with fluorescein angiography (FA) and indocyanine green angiography (ICGA).

© OSA 2014. We illustrate a high-speed (100 kHz) high penetration phase stabilized swept source optical coherence angiography (SSOCA) system for in vivo volumetric depth-resolved vasculature imaging of anterior and posterior segment of human eye.

We present a method to extract spectroscopic properties of turbid media using principle component analysis (PCA) method and swept source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT). These results are well comparable with the standard photo spectrometer technique.

A high-speed (100 kHz A-scans/s) complex conjugate resolved 1 μ swept source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) system using coherence revival of the light source is suitable for dense three-dimensional (3-D) imaging of the anterior segment. The short acquisition time helps to minimize the influence of motion artifacts. The extended depth range of the SS-OCT system allows topographic analysis of clinically relevant images of the entire depth of the anterior segment of the eye. Patients with the type 1 Boston Keratoprosthesis (KPro) require evaluation of the full anterior segment depth. Current commercially available OCT systems are not suitable for this application due to limited acquisition speed, resolution, and axial imaging range. Moreover, most commonly used research grade and some clinical OCT systems implement a commercially available SS (Axsun) that offers only 3.7 mm imaging range (in air) in its standard configuration. We describe implementation of a common swept laser with built-in k-clock to allow phase stable imaging in both low range and high range, 3.7 and 11.5 mm in air, respectively, without the need to build an external MZI k-clock. As a result, 3-D morphology of the KPro position with respect to the surrounding tissue could be investigated in vivo both at high resolution and with large depth range to achieve noninvasive and precise evaluation of success of the surgical procedure. © The Authors.

© The Authors. We present a noninvasive phase-variance (pv)-based motion contrast method for depth-resolved imaging of the human chorioretinal complex microcirculation with a newly developed phase-stabilized high speed (100-kHz A-scans/s) 1-μm swept-source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) system. Compared to our previous spectral-domain (spectrometer based) pv-spectral domain OCT (SDOCT) system, this system has the advantages of higher sensitivity, reduced fringe wash-out for high blood flow speeds and deeper penetration in choroid. High phase stability SSOCT imaging was achieved by using a computationally efficient phase stabilization approach. This process does not require additional calibration hardware and complex numerical procedures. Our phase stabilization method is simple and can be employed in a variety of SSOCT systems. Examples of vasculature in the chorioretinal complex imaged by pv-SSOCT from normal as well as diseased eyes are presented and compared to retinal images of the same subjects acquired with fluorescein angiography and indocyanine green angiography. Observations of morphology of vascular perfusion in chorioretinal complex visualized by our method are listed.