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A field survey involving 62 camel butchers from Souf region the Algerian northern Sahara was implemented in order to establish a typology of camel butcher and collect data on camel meat marketing, the diversity in marketing practices and camel meat marketplace. The collected data allowed to identify 4 homogeneous groups of butchers well distinguished between them after cluster analysis. (specialized young camel butchers, non-specialized rural butchers, traditional non-specialized urban butchers, modern and old urban specialized butchers). The present study confirmed the predominance of beef meat compared to camel meat among consumers, camel meat consumption being less successful in its environment. In-depth studies on camel meat sector are mandatory to identify the bottlenecks invalidating the promotion of the camel meat consumption.

International audience; Nowadays, livestock producers in Sahel have to deal not only with climate variability but also with changes in land use and policies that restrict access to pasture and increase their vulnerability. At the same time, the growth of urban livestock markets both nationwide and in neighbouring countries is creating opportunities for producers. However, few studies have examined the role of markets in the adaptive strategies of livestock producers in West Africa, the changes in strategies for capturing market opportunities and the social interactions that lead to changes in market access and functioning. This paper addresses the question of how livestock producers and traders have transformed their producing and marketing strategies in response to climate variability and land access constraints. Our proposed conceptual framework on markets, vulnerability and adaptation considers that adaptive strategies include the social construction of markets through which market access is based on social networks and follows the norms and rules embedded in the complexity of these networks. This proactive strategy of stakeholders, through a socially constructed market access, allows traders to harness opportunities and livestock producers to adapt to climatic and land access constraints. We apply the framework in a case study in the region of Niono and Segou in the Niger Inner delta in Mali. Results show that livestock producers and traders have changed their livestock-raising and marketing strategies in response to the challenges faced by livestock producers and the emerging market opportunities. This study highlights the importance of considering the social construction of livestock market systems and marketing behaviours as adaptive strategies of livestock producers to multiple changes. Although livestock markets can support the adaptive strategies of several types of producers, their functioning as institutions has been understudied and scantily addressed in policy.

Les dernières décennies ont été marquées par d’importantes évolutions au sein du secteur laitier au Sénégal. En effet, l’industrie et le commerce du lait se sont beaucoup développés, en raison de l’urbanisation et des changements des habitudes alimentaires des populations urbaines. Cette thèse s’interroge sur les effets de ces évolutions sur le développement de la chaîne laitière locale et sur l’état de vulnérabilité des populations d’éleveurs. En s’appuyant sur la théorie de la gouvernance des chaînes globales de valeur et sur l’économie des coûts de transaction, la thèse cherche à appréhender quels modes de gouvernance permettent la viabilité des chaînes laitières industrielles sénégalaises. Grâce à la collecte de données qualitatives auprès des acteurs de ces chaînes de valeur et à l’analyse approfondie de dix entre elles dans les régions de Dakar et Kolda, cette thèse met en évidence deux facteurs principaux à la base de la viabilité des chaînes laitières industrielles. Premièrement, des stratégies de qualité portant sur l’origine locale de la matière première sont gagnantes sur le marché, puisque les consommateurs leur attribuent une valeur particulière. En outre, les services offerts par les laiteries aux producteurs locaux dans le cadre de telles stratégies de qualité contribuent à réduire la vulnérabilité de ces derniers et consolident donc la viabilité des chaînes de valeur, notamment sur le plan social. Deuxièmement, l’adoption de formes plurielles de gouvernance, dans le cadre d’un approvisionnement mixte lait en poudre/lait local, permet aux laiteries d’être économiquement viables. Elles sont en effet en mesure d’exploiter pleinement leurs capacités de production, de maîtriser les coûts d’achat de la matière première et de répondre aux exigences des consommateurs., The Senegalese dairy sector has been marked by important changes in the last decades. Indeed, dairy industry and trade have been growing, because of urbanization and new dietary habits of urban populations. This thesis inquires into the effects of those changes on the development of the local dairy value chain and on the vulnerability of the local herder communities. Based on the theory of the governance of global value chains and on transaction cost economics, the thesis aims to understand which modes of governance enable the viability of the Senegalese industrial dairy chains. Through the collection of qualitative data from the actors of these value chains and through an in-depth analysis of ten of these chains in the regions of Dakar and Kolda, this thesis highlights two main factors underlying the viability of the industrial dairy chains. First, quality strategies focusing on the local origin of the raw material are successful on the market, since consumers attach to them a particular value. Moreover, the services that the dairy processors implementing those quality strategies offer to local producers contribute to reducing their vulnerability; hence, the social viability of the value chains is improved. Second, the adoption of plural forms of governance, within a mixed supply (milk powder/local milk), enables dairy processors to be economically viable. In fact, they are in a position to fully exploit their productive capacities, to control the cost of raw material purchases, and to meet consumer demands., Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales, info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

In most European countries, data regarding movements of live animals are routinely collected and can greatly aid predictive epidemic modeling. However, the use of complete movements' dataset to conduct policy-relevant predictions has been so far limited by the massive amount of data that have to be processed (e.g., in intensive commercial systems) or the restricted availability of timely and updated records on animal movements (e.g., in areas where small-scale or extensive production is predominant). The aim of this study was to use exponential random graph models (ERGMs) to reproduce, understand, and predict pig trade networks in different European production systems. Three trade networks were built by aggregating movements of pig batches among premises (farms and trade operators) over 2011 in Bulgaria, Extremadura (Spain), and Cotes-d'Armor (France), where small-scale, extensive, and intensive pig production are predominant, respectively. Three ERGMs were fitted to each network with various demographic and geographic attributes of the nodes as well as six internal network configurations. Several statistical and graphical diagnostic methods were applied to assess the goodness of fit of the models. For all systems, both exogenous (attribute-based) and endogenous (network-based) processes appeared to govern the structure of pig trade network, and neither alone were capable of capturing all aspects of the network structure. Geographic mixing patterns strongly structured pig trade organization in the small-scale production system, whereas belonging to the same company or keeping pigs in the same housing system appeared to be key drivers of pig trade, in intensive and extensive production systems, respectively. Heterogeneous mixing between types of production also explained a part of network structure, whichever production system considered. Limited information is thus needed to capture most of the global structure of pig trade networks. Such findings will be useful to simplify trade networks analysis and better inform European policy makers on risk-based and more cost-effective prevention and control against swine diseases such as African swine fever, classical swine fever, or porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome.

La recherche de ressources fourragères et hydriques est souvent identifiée comme principal facteur de mobilité des pasteurs sahéliens. Ces déplacements stratégiques ne sont pas neutres pour d'autres acteurs cohabitant avec les producteurs sahéliens. Pour certains, ces déplacements constituent une stratégie adaptative face à un environnement incertain, alors que pour d'autres, ils sont source de problèmes de divers ordres (conflits, surpâturage, difficultés de ciblage pour les politiques publiques, etc.). Depuis sa création en 2006, la Laiterie du Berger (LDB), unique industrie de collecte et de commercialisation du lait pastoral, a fait le pari d'acheminer la nourriture vers les pasteurs, de leur garantir un débouché laitier, et incidemment, de réduire voire d'éliminer la transhumance pour sécuriser son système de collecte de lait. Ce travail montre la façon dont les marchés laitiers formalisés modifient et (re)structurent les différents régimes de mobilité des pasteurs du Ferlo, sans pour autant éliminer les mouvements qui relèvent d'une stratégie séculaire de gestion d'un environnement d'incertitudes et d'opportunités.

Très peu d'études jusqu'ici, ont été portées sur les filières camelines en Tunisie. Cette filière n'a que très peu intéressée les autorités publiques et les recherches en Tunisie. En effet, malgré une préoccupation forte de l'État pour les filières de viandes rouges, les études réalisées se sont plus focalisées sur la viande bovine et ovine. Les élevages camelins ont trois principales vocations : la viande, le lait et le tourisme. En Tunisie, on sait que la principale vocation commerciale de ces élevages est la production de viande qui constitue la filière traditionnelle et l'unique source monétaire pour l'élevage extensif sur les parcours. La production de viande cameline est donc une réalité au Sud de la Tunisie et particulièrement dans gouvernorat de Médenine, mais au final personne n'a une vision globale des mécanismes et des fonctionnements de cette filière. Dans ce travail, nous proposons d'appréhender l'étude de cette filière à travers l'acteur le plus structuré ; à savoir le boucher. Une enquête socio-économique a été menée auprès de 50 bouchers dans la zone dans le but de se renseigner sur les autres acteurs intervenant dans cette filière. Ainsi, l'étude proposée a pour ambition de délimiter la filière de viande cameline au Sud de la Tunisie et favoriser la promotion de l'élevage camelin dans le gouvernorat de Médenine qui constitue un gouvernorat producteur des viandes rouges. Les résultats de cette étude constitueront une base objective des stratégies éventuelles à envisager pour la promotion du secteur de l'élevage en général et des filières camelines en particulier.

While swine production is rapidly growing in South-East Asia, the structure of the swine industry and the dynamic of pig movements have not been well-studied. However, this knowledge is a prerequisite for understanding the dynamic of disease transmission in swine populations and designing cost-effective surveillance strategies for infectious diseases. In this study, we assessed the farming and trading practices in the Vietnamese swine familial farming sector, which accounts for most pigs in Vietnam, and for which disease surveillance is a major challenge. Farmers from two communes of a Red River Delta Province (northern Vietnam) were interviewed, along with traders involved in pig transactions. Major differences in the trade structure were observed between the two communes. One commune had mainly transversal trades, that is between farms of equivalent sizes, whereas the other had pyramidal trades, that is from larger to smaller farms. Companies and large familial farrow-to-finish farms were likely to act as major sources of disease spread through pig sales, demonstrating their importance for disease control. Familial fattening farms with high pig purchases were at greater risk of disease introduction and should be targeted for disease detection as part of a risk-based surveillance. In contrast, many other familial farms were isolated or weakly connected to the swine trade network limiting their relevance for surveillance activities. However, some of these farms used boar hiring for breeding, increasing the risk of disease spread. Most familial farms were slaughtering pigs at the farm or in small local slaughterhouses, making the surveillance at the slaughterhouse inefficient. In terms of spatial distribution of the trades, the results suggested that northern provinces were highly connected and showed some connection with central and southern provinces. These results are useful to develop risk-based surveillance protocols for disease detection in the swine familial sector and to make recommendations for disease control.

The aim of this study was to apply SWOT analysis on traditional skimmed milk chain around Greater Cairo which considered as one of the main dairy markets in Egypt. This study was carried out in El-Reka village located in south of Greater Cairo, (Giza governorate), nearby Beni Suef governorate. SWOT analysis was applied including food safety aspect and value chain analysis to raise the major advantages and constraints of the traditional sector. This study was based on regular field visits, interviews, and analysis of milk samples. Main stakeholders of the chain were farmers, owners of milk collection points, owners of milk collection centers, and owners of dairy processing units. SWOT analysis allowed highlighting the major role of the social network to explain the flexibility and adaptability of this sector to the major constraints in link with international competitiveness and national constraints, mainly on the limitation of land access. Other weaknesses concerned high feedstuffs prices on markets, and lack of public services, in terms of milk quality control and herd management at farm level. The high dynamic of the traditional sector was identified, particularly at milk collection points in terms of quantity of collected milk and milk price. However, the social network opens interesting opportunities to develop efficient and flexible services.These elements could help decision makers and developers to prioritize sustainable development activities in link with global agenda of the agricultural sector and increasing demand for dairy products in Egypt. Selling skimmed milk is the most attractive scenario for small farmers that led to a fast growing of skimmed milk collection compared with whole milk. The traditional skimmed milk chain showed high ability to adopt quality control protocols based on market signals and milk processing units' standards.Governmental and non-governmental activities could propose new policies to protect the traditional actors along the chain. Specific dairy quality control programs should be developed along the chain. Therefore, dairy sector regulations and rules should be reviewed to make balance along the chain and to set fair pricing system and guarantee food safety for all consumers in local villages and cities markets.

L'etude de la filiere viande cameline dans le Sahara septentrional algerien a montre une legere augmentation de sa consommation durant ces dernieres annees, malgre la dominance des autres especes (ovin et bovin), due notamment aux habitudes alimentaires de la societe algerienne, en particulier non autochtone. L'analyse des donnees des ventes des animaux dans les marches d'Oued-Souf, d'Ouargla et de Ghardaia a mis en evidence une nette superiorite de la demande pour la population cameline Sahraoui dans les trois marches, et particulierement celui de Oued Souf. Par ailleurs, l'analyse des donnees des abattoirs au cours des dernieres annees a permis de noter une nette augmentation des abattages de dromadaires a Oued Souf et une regression a Ghardaia et Ouargla. Concernant les circuits de commercialisation dans la filiere viande cameline, quatre types de circuits ont ete mis en evidence. Toutefois, la contribution de la viande cameline a l'approvisionnement des principales villes du Sahara septentrional algerien (Ghardaia, Ouargla et Oued Souf) demeure jusqu'a maintenant limite. (Resume d'auteur)

African swine fever was reported in domestic pigs in 26 African countries during the period 2009–2011. The virus exists in an ancient sylvatic cycle between warthogs ( Phacochoerus africanus ) and argasid ticks of the Ornithodoros moubata complex in many of the countries reporting outbreaks and in two further countries in the region. Eradication of the virus from the countries in eastern and southern Africa where the classic sylvatic cycle occurs is clearly not an option. However, the virus has become endemic in domestic pigs in 20 countries and the great majority of outbreaks in recent decades, even in some countries where the sylvatic cycle occurs, have been associated with movement of infected pigs and pig meat. Pig production and marketing and ASF control in Africa have been examined in order to identify risk factors for the maintenance and spread of ASF. These include large pig populations, traditional free-range husbandry systems, lack of biosecurity in semi-intensive and intensive husbandry systems, lack of organisation in both pig production and pig marketing that results in lack of incentives for investment in pig farming, and ineffective management of ASF. Most of these factors are linked to poverty, yet pigs are recognised as a livestock species that can be used to improve livelihoods and contribute significantly to food security. The changes needed and how they might be implemented in order to reduce the risk of ASF to pig producers in Africa and to the rest of the world are explored.

This thesis includes four parts to characterize Buffalo milk and veal chains at different chain levels, the objectives of the first part were to identify the diversity of different chains and more deeply to determine main actors along the milk value chains in three villages to understand how these chains work. Also, milk analysis was applied to study the effect of location on milk composition, milk urea nitrogen (MUN) and somatic cell count (SCC). Field visits and interview are used to collect data. Milk samples were collected from farmers through 2013/14. Results indicated that there were a short chain and a long chain. Short chain achieved higher profit for farmers and reasonable price for consumers compared to long chain. While long chain provide s a lot of jobs. MUN, SCC and milk composition could be used as diagnostic tools for different regions to identify the most priority services and extension needs at village level. The aim of the 2nd part was to suggest a methodology to characterize the diversity of dairy farming systems in Egypt to understand the traditional dairy sector. Data were collected from 65 farmers in three villages through three consecutive seasons. Based on multiple factorial and cluster analyses, six farmer s' group were identified. Milk production was a major activity in very small land farms, the sustainability of this sector facing the lack of technical support and lack of pricing system for milk and feedstuffs, more governmental and NGOs projects needed to supply farmers with high quality forage seeds, high producing animals and veterinary services. So, considering the diversity of farming systems, one agricultural policy will not fit all farmers' categories taking into account the region and the season. The objective of the 3rd part was to apply a SWOT analysis on a traditional milk chain, particularly buffalo skimmed milk chain around greater Cairo, which considered as one of the main dairy markets in Egypt. Main stakeholders of the chain were farmers, milk collection points, milk collection center, and dairy processing units. SWOT analysis allowed highlighting the major role of social network to explain the flexibility and adaptation of this sector to the major constraints in linked with international competitiveness and national constraints, mainly on land access. These elements could help decision makers and developers to prioritize sustainable development activities in link with agriculture global agenda. The aim of fourth part was to characterize the veal supply chain using survey analysis for different actors along the chain and to understand the preference of some meat consumers to veal meat through comparing meat quality parameters of buffalo meat categories in Egyptian market including meat quality analysis of veal, fattening males and culled females. Survey analysis results indicated that 65 % of Egyptian farmers sold veal as early as possible. About 61 % of these farmers sold their animals for economic reasons, 14 % for technical reasons and 25 % for both reasons. Fat content and cholesterol levels were lower in veal meat compared with fattening calves or culled females; the same trend was observed for shear force value s and cooking loss percentage. These results explained why the veal meat is regularly consumed by elders, sick peoples and employees with limited physic al activities, veal showed high tenderness and more attractive color, in contrast veal contained lower fat and cholesterol levels.

The aim of this study was to suggest a methodology to characterize the diversity of dairy farming systems in Nile valley lands (NVLs) and newly reclaimed lands (NRLs) in Egypt to understand the traditional dairy sector. Data were collected from 65 farmers in three villages through three consecutive seasons. Interviews and field visits were done at farm level. Based on multiple factorial and cluster analyses, six farmer groups were identified according to land and livestock assets, milk production and selling. Milk marketing was influenced by season, farmers' traditions, and market access. Structure highlights the dominance of small scale crop-livestock system, farm family depends on milk as a source of protein and fat for family food and as a main source of income especially in old lands, while in NRLs, there was a higher crop-livestock integration and complementarity to cover family and farm expenses, so paid services strategy could fit dairy sector in new land. Milk production constitutes a major activity in very small land farms, the sustainability of this sector facing the lack of technical support and lack of pricing system for milk and feedstuffs, where more governmental and non-governmental projects needed to supply farmers with high quality forage seeds, high producing animals and veterinary services. So, considering the diversity of farming systems, one agricultural policy will not fit all farmers' categories. Also, governmental and non-governmental services should be reasoned according to the region and the season.

16 goat farms located in Tizi-Ouzou mountainous area have been followed for one year. Our research question concerns the assessment of production performance and analysis of marketing farms products es- pecially a milk. The results show that farms are constituted of a small number of goats indicating low produc- tion performance: 1.1 kg / goat / day of 61-622 liters / goat / year. More than 90% of the milk produced is sold. The milk is collected by 7 collectors who transport it to only 2 units and a dairy cheese processing plant. The subsidy to milk production encourages farmers to increase their production, but this will is held back by the weak- ness of the collection and transformation circuit., Notre question de recherche porte sur l’appréciation des performances de production et l’analyse de la « faible » commercialisation des produits de l’exploitation caprine (en particulier le lait). Seize exploitations caprines situées en zone montagneuse de Tizi-Ouzou ont été suivies pendant l’année 2012-2013. Les résul- tats montrent que les élevages sont constitués d’un faible effectif de chèvres indiquant de faibles performances de production (1,1 kg/chèvre/jour). La production de lait varie de 61 à 622 litres/chèvre/an. Plus de 90 % du lait produit est vendu. Le lait est collecté par 7 collecteurs qui le transportent vers seulement 2 unités laitières et une unité de transformation (en fromage). La subvention à la production de lait incite les éleveurs à augmenter leur production, mais cette volonté est freinée par la faiblesse du circuit de collecte et de transformation.

We aimed at characterizing commercial and traditional village poultry farming in Mali, with a focus on practices influencing the risk of transmission of avian influenza and Newcastle disease. Surveys were conducted in 2009–2011 in a study area covering approximately 98% of the Malian poultry population. Among the 282 commercial farms investigated, of which 64 had not been known by the government authorities, 83% were located within a 50 km radius from the capitals of the country and regions and 54% had low biosecurity standard. Among the 152 randomly selected village household flocks investigated, characteristics were overall similar to those in other African countries but some differences were notable including a large flock size (median 44 poultry), a low presence of ducks and geese (11% and 1.1% of flocks, respectively), vaccination against Newcastle disease being common (49% of flocks), a low proportion of households selling sick and dead birds (0.7% and 0%, respectively) and limited cohabitation between poultry and humans at night. Our recommendations to limit the risk of disease transmission include (1) for commercial farms, to introduce compulsory farm registration and accreditation, to increase technical proficiency and access to credit for farms with low biosecurity, and to support poultry producer associations; (2) for village poultry, to promote better quarantine and management of sick and dead birds. Such detailed knowledge of country-specific characteristics of poultry production systems is essential to be able to develop more efficient disease risk management policies.

Le Lac constitue un pôle d'attraction majeur pour une grande diversité d'éleveurs sahéliens des quarre pays riverains. La biomasse animale globale est estimée entre 2 à 3 millions d'UBT (Unité de bétail tropical), dont deux tiers à trois quarts de bovins. L'attractivité du lac tient à la disponibilité de l'eau ainsi qu'à la diversité et à l'abondance des ressources fourragères dont les herbes vivaces des zones de décrue et des îles sont les plus spécifiques. Avec l'accroissement des cultures, les pailles de céréales et d'autres sous-produits diversifient les systèmes fourragers. L'augmentation parallèle des surfaces cultivées et des troupeaux a été permise par des complémentarités techniques et une intégration spatiale toujours plus poussées entre l'agriculture et l'élevage, en particulier par l'exploitation des pâturages marécageux. L'élevage reste très majoritairement le fait des pasteurs nomades et des agro-pasteurs transhumants. De nombreux agro-pêcheurs installés au Lac ainsi que les élites urbaines des grandes villes proches acquièrent du bétail confié aux éleveurs mobiles. La diversité générique reflète le contexte du Lac : malgré les brassages de populations, le côtoiement des cheptels et les stratégies de croisement, chaque race animale demeure bien identifiable. Parmi les bovins, la race Kouri est la plus emblématique du lac Tchad par son phénotype, mais est menacée de dilution. La commercialisation du bétail sur pied, aujourd'hui largement tournée vers les marchés du sud du Nigeria, constitue une opportunité de développement pour le lac Tchad. Quel que soit le système d'élevage, il est nécessaire d'améliorer l'encadrement sanitaire et les conditions de circulation du bétail (transport, sécurité, douane).

Les theories de l'apprentissage n'ont que peu etudie une possible differenciation des competences liees aux modalites de participation de membres de groupes restreints menant une action collectivement. De meme, les etudes sur la participation dans des organisations ont identifie differentes trajectoires possibles d'evolution des modalites de participation au sein de ces organisations, mais n'ont que peu pris en compte le role et l'evolution des competences des membres dans ces trajectoires. La presente etude porte sur cette interaction entre les modalites de participation et l'amelioration des competences dans deux cooperatives feminines au Maroc. Dans une des deux cooperatives, les tâches sont nettement separees entre les membres de base et la presidente, qui s'occupe seule de la gestion du groupe et ameliore seule les competences concernant cette gestion. En revanche, dans la seconde cooperative, les membres s'investissent dans la gestion du groupe et ameliorent leurs capacites d'action collective. Dans les deux cas, l'amelioration des competences des membres contribue a une stabilisation des modalites de participation au sein du groupe, que ce soit dans le sens d'une delegation a un leader ou bien d'une implication de l'ensemble des membres dans la gestion du groupe. (Resume d'auteur)

L'accroissement démographique rapide des villes au sud de la méditerranée s'est accompagné d'une urbanisation consommatrice de terres fertiles. Toutefois des espaces interstitiels difficilement constructibles, entre les espaces construits, hébergent encore des exploitations agricoles. C'est le cas notamment des 3 vallées traversant l'agglomération de Meknès, au Maroc. Sur la base d'enquêtes auprès de 80 agriculteurs et 42 consommateurs et d'entretiens avec des décideurs et commerçants de cette ville, nous avons montré la diversité des systèmes de production présents dans la ville (maraîchage et élevage laitier et à viande principalement). Malgré la proximité de la ville, peu de produits sont vendus directement aux consommateurs. Dans le cas du maraîchage, une action urgente est à engager pour fournir de l'eau d'irrigation de qualité aux agriculteurs de ces vallées afin qu'ils renoncent au détournement des eaux usées produites par la ville. Les meilleurs atouts de l'agriculture dans les villes au sud de la Méditerranée sont d'une part de rendre possible l'existence de paysages verdoyants et ouverts permettant d'améliorer le bien-être des citadins et l'attractivité touristique de ces villes et d'autre part l'intérêt récent de citadins pour des produits de qualité vendus en circuit court.

Face to the global changes and new climatic constraints, the camel farming is confronted to new challenges, first to contribute to the “livestock revolution” (for reaching the requirements of a growing human population), especially in remote places of arid and mountainous areas, and in the same time to satisfy the necessity of sustainable development for the future generation. The current trends of the camelid farming systems in the world (settlement, intensification, market integration, territorial expanding, emerging diseases) question the scientists and the developers on the right ways for a sustainable development. Several aspects are discussed in the present paper: (i) the assessment of the contribution of camelids in the greenhouse gas emission, in relationships with the camel demography, (ii) the assessment and preservation of the camelid biodiversity, (ii) the assessment of the changes in the animal metabolism and in the environment management face to the intensification process, (iv) the control of the transboundary diseases in a population marked by mobility, and (v) the future of the social role of camelid in the more and more urbanized world.

Facing to the mutations related to climate change and globalization of the economy, Sahelian pastoralists are not necessarily located on the margins of development, as evidenced by the emergence of peri-urban production systems. The example of the camel dairy farmers on the outskirts of Agadez (Niger) is an emblematic example. The commodification of camel milk accompanying the high dynamic urbanization of the region, the evolutions of farming systems marked by a restriction of mobility, the spatial differentiation of the camel herds and the ambivalent role for women are some of the elements showing the adaptation of the production systems for answering to the new challenges. The dynamics of these systems are analyzed by using the analytical framework of Sustainable Rural Livelihood (SRL) based on the assessment of natural, financial and social capital. Three trends could be observed: (i) a tendency towards partial settlement of the herd and the families, (ii) an amplification of the commodification of milk, and (iii) a significant change in social relations within the family. In this context, the market integration of camel milk as part of household cash plays a key role in securing the smallholders.

Unlike other dairy products, camel cheese processing is recent. Thanks to recombinant camel chymosin, camel cheese making is easier. In Saudi Arabia, camel cheese making was developed for last 4 years in the Camel project (FAO project). Our cheeses are made with fresh milk strictly controlled for their microbiological quality (coliform, total flora). The milk composition is known, all samples being analyzed with Milkoscan-FOSS FT1 ©. Different starters are used from Coquard © (France) according to the type of cheese expected. All along the process, the pH is checked (draining, moulding, pressing, salting). The composition of the whey is also determined. At the end of the process, after salting, dry matter and final pH are measured as well as the total yield. Cheese of Haloumi type are pasteurized in their whey and packaged under vacuum. Some cheeses are ripening in special cave for few weeks (Mozzarella, Feta) or months (Camembert, Saint- Paulin). The cheese yield is depending of the cheese type but occurs between 8 and 12%. Sensory tests are performed. These cheeses are available on the market. Different experiments are performed in order to test the effect of different starters.

Dans un contexte d’augmentation mondiale de la demande en produits avicoles et de fluctuation des prix de matières premières, il est intéressant de comprendre les dynamiques de structuration d’une filière avicole tropicale et les stratégies mises en place par les acteurs pour sécuriser leurs approvisionnements et leurs marchés. Cette étude présente le cas de la filière oeufs béninoise. Des entretiens semi-dirigés ont été réalisés auprès d’éleveurs de poules pondeuses et d’acteurs de l’amont, de l’aval et des structures d’appui et de régulation de la filière. Ces entretiens ont permis de mieux comprendre son organisation et son fonction­nement. Les résultats ont montré qu’en amont la production d’oeufs au Bénin est dépendante des fluctuations de prix et de la faible disponibilité des matières premières sur les marchés domestiques pour l’alimentation des animaux. En aval, les éleveurs et commerçants sont confrontés à une irrégularité des besoins des consommateurs déconnectée des cycles de production. Plusieurs stratégies ont été adoptées par les différents acteurs en termes d’approvisionnement en animaux vivants et d’écoulement des oeufs via des circuits parallèles ou infor­mels. Toutefois l’amélioration de la productivité ne peut être garantie que si les débouchés sont maîtrisés. La création d’une centrale d’achat et de distribution des oeufs pourrait favoriser un approvisionnement continu et équilibré des mar­chés, mais les mécanismes sous-jacents sont à déterminer. Les résultats de cette étude soulignent l’intérêt des systèmes d’alimentation alternatifs offrant plus de souplesse dans les types d’exploitations identifiés.

The camel productions are involved in local, regional or international economy. If the market of live animals, linked mainly to the meat market, is well developed in the Horn of Africa and Middle-east, the milk market knows a recent development in spite of the wide part still under informal sector. The wool presents a high adding value for the producers because the high quality of the fiber is appreciated by Western consumers.

Le présent ouvrage présente un diagnostic des minilaiteries dans quatre pays de la zone : le Burkina Faso, le Mali, le Niger et le Sénégal. Il analyse les forces et les faiblesses de ces entreprises qui ont mis au point des procédés de transformation originaux et créé de nouvelles filières commerciales.

La dépendance alimentaire de l'Algérie a obligé l'État dès les années 1970, à mettre en oeuvre une série de politiques d'amélioration de la production laitière. Cependant ces politiques ont souvent été peu efficaces. Le secteur informel représente un défi majeur pour l'Etat car il semble insensible aux politiques publiques dédiées à la structuration de la filière lait tant à l'échelle régionale que nationale. Et pourtant les pratiques informelles présentent un ancrage socioculturel et régional qui leur permet de fonctionner activement et efficacement. La présente thèse a comme principal objectif de comprendre les logiques formelles et informelles, et leur articulation, à l'oeuvre dans le bassin laitier de Souk Ahras situé au nord-est de l'Algérie, où le secteur informel canalise plus de 60 % des quantités de lait mises en marché. Ces logiques sont appréhendées sous l'angle de deux théories néo-institutionnelles complémentaires : la théorie des coûts de transaction et la théorie des institutions de North. Un important travail de collecte et d'analyse de données a été réalisé sur l'ensemble de maillons de la filière lait à Souk Ahras, de la production jusqu'à la consommation. Nos résultats montrent la pertinence d'appréhender les notions de formel et d'informel par les pratiques plus ou moins respectueuses des normes et des règles publiques, plutôt que par les acteurs ou les circuits. Cette thèse met en évidence deux grands ensembles de facteurs explicatifs du comportement des acteurs: les facteurs endogènes (recherche d'efficience économique en termes de coûts de production et de transaction) et les facteurs exogènes (la saisonnalité et les incitations du marché et de l'environnement institutionnel). L'incapacité des acteurs à mettre en place certains investissements nécessaires à l'enforcement des règles formelles (coûts de production et de transaction élevés), leur conduit à des pratiques informelles. La saisonnalité est une source d'incertitude qui réduit la crédibilité des engagements des acteurs et limite par conséquent leur capacité d'investissement et d'enforcement des règles formelles. Le marché favorise certaines pratiques informelles via un système de prix plus rémunérateurs pour les produits issus de ces activités. Bien qu'il incite à l'adoption de certaines règles formelles, l'environnement institutionnel reste défaillant vu l'inefficacité de ses institutions et de son système d'incitation. Les résultats émis dans cette thèse permettent des recommandations pour les politiques publiques dédiées à la structuration et au développement de la filière lait local.

In central Africa, commercial hunting strongly contributes to the protein supply of rural and urban households. It is accused of wildlife resources overexploitation, with very negative impacts on animal biodiversity and forest regeneration and with important risks of emergent diseases development. From the Central African Republic case, we want to show that: commercial hunting has a long history, which begins with European colonization and goes on until today, without breaking, but with different actors ; takings mainly focuse small and medium wildlife which naturally has very strong dynamics of reproduction and which supports high pressures of hunting; Bushmeat, especially smoked meat, plays an important part for food safety of rural and urban poorest; distribution of this food products involves various actors of informal economy; this sector is illegal, but never criminal; bushmeat is not in open access, but the network is strongly controlled by social, economic, geographical and technical constraints. From these reports, we propose a new policy approach to wildlife management in central Africa, favoring an adaptive management of common fauna based on village territory, focusing State on its kingly functions to organize proteinic food safety for all people and orientating research towards small fauna biology and local communities technical support., En Afrique centrale, la chasse commerciale contribue fortement au ravitaillement en protéines des ménages en milieu villageois comme en milieu urbain. Elle est accusée de surexploiter la ressource faune, d’avoir un impact très négatif sur la biodiversité animale et sur la régénération forestière et de faire naître des risques importants de développement de maladies émergentes. A partir du cas centrafricain, nous voulons montrer que : la chasse commerciale s’inscrit dans une histoire longue, qui débute avec la colonisation européenne et se poursuit sans rupture, mais avec des acteurs différents, jusqu’à nos jours ; les prélèvements portent principalement sur la faune petite et moyenne qui présente une dynamique naturelle de reproduction très forte et qui supporte bien des pressions de chasse élevées ; la venaison, surtout la viande boucanée, joue un rôle important pour la sécurité alimentaire des ruraux et des urbains les plus pauvres ; la distribution de ce produit vivrier fait intervenir différents acteurs de l’économie informelle ; la filière est illégale, mais jamais criminelle ; la viande de chasse n’est pas en accès libre, mais la filière est fortement régulée par des contraintes sociales, économiques, géographiques et techniques. A partir de ces constats, nous proposons une nouvelle approche politique de la gestion de la faune en Afrique centrale, privilégiant une gestion adaptative de la faune commune sur la base des territoires villageois, recentrant l’Etat sur ses fonctions régaliennes d’organisation de la sécurité alimentaire globale de la population et réorientant la recherche vers la biologie de la petite faune et l’appui technique aux collectivités locales.

The main objective of the study was to identify the main driving factors of marketing strategies of farmers in link with the observations of change in the sheep and goat sector. A field survey on marketing strategies of small ruminants in Egypt was conducted in 2009 and 2010 at markets and farms’ levels in different agro-ecological zones. The field data showed that breeders’ market strategies had experienced important changes during the last decades due to different driving forces such as change in socioeconomic conditions of the producers and noticeable changes of consumption patterns. Sheep and goat activities are more and more considered as income diversification activities in the irrigated areas due to land fragmentation to face family needs. In the rainfed area, the marketing strategy of young males respond both at the increase of feed costs and the new demand from upper social class in the large towns and touristic areas. Unlike North African countries, Ramadan and Qurban Aid periods might not constitute the main marketing period for small ruminants. Key words: Small ruminant, marketing strategies, farming system, Egypt.

Proximity and affiliation to the local market appear to be two of the most relevant factors to explain farmer's choices to select a particular trading point. Physical barriers may limit the options , especially in developing countries. A network of villages linked by traders/farmer-traders sharing livestock markets was built with field data collected in 75 villages from 8 kebelles in the Wassona Werna wereda of the Ethiopian Highlands. Two exponential random graph models were fitted with various geographical and demographic attributes of the nodes (dyadic independent model) and three internal network structures (dyadic dependent model). Several diagnostic methods were applied to assess the goodness of fit of the models. The odds of an edge where the distance to the main market Debre Behran and the difference in altitude between two connected villages are both large increases significantly so that villages far away from the main market and at different altitude are more likely to be linked in the network than randomly. The odds of forming an edge between two villages in Abamote or Gudoberet kebelles are approximately 75% lower than an edge between villages in any other kebelles (p,0.05). The conditional log-odds of two villages forming a tie that is not included in a triangle, a 2-star or a 3-star is extremely low, increasing the odds significantly (p,0.05) each time a node is in a 2-star structure and decreasing it when a node is in a 3- star (p,0.05) or in a triangle formation (p,0.05)), conditional on the rest of the network. Two major constraining factors, namely distance and altitude, are not deterrent for the potential contact of susceptible small ruminant populations in the Highlands of Ethiopia.