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Investigation of the ion track morphologies and track etching behaviour in polycarbonate (PC) films was carried out using synchrotron based small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements. The tracks were induced by Au ions with kinetic energies of 1.7 and 2.2 GeV with applied fluences between 1 × 1010 and 1 × 1012 ions/cm2. The average radii of the un-etched tracks were studied as a function of the irradiation fluence, indicating a general ion induced degradation of the polymer, with a simultaneous increase in ion track radius from 2.6 ± 0.002 nm to 3.4 ± 0.03 nm. Chemical etching of the ion tracks in PC leads to the formation of cylindrical pores. The pore radius increases linearly with etching time. In 3 M NaOH at 55 °C, a radial etching rate of 9.2 nm/min is observed.

We report on the reduction of cross-section and length of amorphous ion tracks embedded within crystalline quartz during thermal annealing. The ion tracks were created via Au ion irradiation with an energy of 2.2 GeV. The use of synchrotron-based small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) allowed characterization of the latent tracks, without the need for chemical etching. Temperatures between 900 and 1000 °C were required to see a notable change in track size. The shrinkage in cross-section and length was found to be comparable for tracks aligned perpendicular and parallel to the c-axis.

Ion tracks in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) were created by swift heavy ion irradiation and subsequently characterized using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Due to their reduced density compared to the surrounding matrix, cylindrical geometry, and parallel orientation, ion tracks produce a characteristic scattering pattern which allows quantitative analysis of their radius with high precision. For ion tracks in PET thermal annealing led to a gradual fading with a decrease in density difference yet a simultaneous increase in ion track radius. Such an increase in radius is the direct opposite compared to temperature induced ion track shrinking in inorganic materials, and suggests a very different thermal response of the polymer.

Swift heavy ion (2 GeV 181Ta) irradiation-induced amorphization and temperature-induced recrystallization of cubic pyrochlore Gd2Ti2O7 ( Fd 3 ¯ m ) are compared with the response of a compositionally-similar material with a monoclinic-layered perovskite-type structure, La2Ti2O7 (P21). The averaged electronic energy loss, dE/dx, was 37 keV/nm and 35 keV/nm in Gd2Ti2O7 and La2Ti2O7, respectively. Systematic analysis of the structural modifications was completed using transmission electron microscopy, synchrotron X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and small-angle X-ray scattering. Increasing ion-induced amorphization with increasing ion fluence was evident in the X-ray diffraction patterns of both compositions by a reduction in the intensity of the diffraction maxima concurrent with the growth in intensity of a broad diffuse scattering halo. Transmission electron microscopy analysis showed complete amorphization within ion tracks (diameter: ∼10 nm) for the perovskite-type material; whereas a concentric, core–shell morphology was evident in the ion tracks of the pyrochlore, with an outer shell of disordered yet still crystalline material with the fluorite structure surrounding an amorphous track core (diameter: ∼9 nm). The radiation response of both titanate oxides with the same stoichiometry can be understood in terms of differences in their structures and compositions. While the radiation damage susceptibility of pyrochlore A2B2O7 materials decreases as a function of the cation radius ratio rA/rB, the current study correlates this behavior with the stability field of monoclinic structures, where rLa/rTi > rGd/rTi. Isochronal annealing experiments of the irradiated materials showed complete recrystallization of La2Ti2O7 at 775 °C and of Gd2Ti2O7 at 850 °C. The annealing behavior is discussed in terms of enhanced damage recovery in La2Ti2O7, compared to the pyrochlore compounds Gd2Ti2O7. The difference in the recrystallization behavior may be related to structural constraints, i.e., reconstructing a low symmetry versus a high symmetry phase.

Polycrystalline La2Ti2O7 powders have been irradiated with 2.0 GeV 181Ta ions up to a fluence of 1 × 1013 ions/cm2. Radiation-induced structural modifications were analyzed using synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction (XRD), small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), Raman spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). An increase in the amorphous fraction as a function of fluence was revealed by XRD and Raman analyses and is evidenced by the reduction in intensity of the sharp Bragg maxima from the crystalline regions. Concurrently, diffraction maxima and vibrational absorption bands broaden with the increasing amorphous fraction. The cross-section for the crystalline-to-amorphous transformation (ion tracks) was determined by quantitative analysis of XRD patterns yielding a track diameter of d = 7.2 ± 0.9 nm. Slightly larger track diameters were obtained directly from TEM images (d = 10.6 ± 0.8 nm) and SAXS analysis (d = 10.6 ± 0.3 nm). High-resolution TEM images revealed that single tracks are entirely amorphous without any outer crystalline, disordered shell as found in pyrochlore oxides of the same stoichiometry. The large ratio of ionic radii of the A- and B-site cations (rA/rB = 1.94) means that disordering over the A- and B-sites is energetically unfavorable.

The formation of ion tracks was studied in amorphous Ge for irradiation with Au ions with energies of 89 MeV, 185 MeV and 2.19 GeV. Synchrotron based small-angle X-ray scattering revealed an underlying core–shell morphology of the ion tracks for all irradiation energies. While the ion track dimensions increase with the electronic energy loss for the lower irradiation energies, the ion track radius remains unchanged for the highest energy which indicates an effect of the projectile velocity on the process of ion track formation.

Neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:Y3Al5O12 or Nd:YAG) crystals were irradiated with 2.2 GeV 197Au ions. Ion track formation was investigated using synchrotron based small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Cylindrical ion tracks consisted of an amorphous core with sharp boundaries within the crystalline matrix. The SAXS results, modelled as long cylindrical tracks, provided a constant track density that is 0.6 ± 0.3% different to that of the surrounding matrix. The average track radii determined by both techniques were in excellent agreement, 4.4 ± 0.1 nm from SAXS and 4.4 ± 0.5 nm from TEM. A comparison with previous results of ion tracks in YAG indicates that the track radius is not affected by the presence of 1 mol% Nd dopant.

Small angle X-ray scattering measurements were performed on natural apatite of different thickness irradiated with 2.2 GeV Au swift heavy ions. The evolution of the track radius along the full ion track length was estimated by considering the electronic energy loss and the velocity of the ions. The shape of the track is nearly cylindrical, slightly widening with a maximum diameter approximately 30 μm before the ions come to rest, followed by a rapid narrowing towards the end within a cigar-like contour. Measurements of average ion track radii in samples of different thicknesses, i.e. containing different sections of the tracks are in good agreement with the shape estimate.

Ion tracks were created in olivine from San Carlos, Arizona (95% Mg2SiO4), apatite (Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,O)) from Durango, Mexico, and synthetic silicates with the apatite structure: Nd8Sr2(SiO4)6O2 and Nd8Ca2(SiO4)6O2 using 1.6 and 2.2 GeV Au ions. The morphology and annealing behaviour of the tracks were investigated by means of synchrotron based small angle X-ray scattering in combination with ex situ annealing. Tracks in olivine annealed above ∼400 °C undergo a significant change in track radius due to recrystallisation of the damage tracks. At temperatures higher than 620 °C, the scattering images indicate fragmentation of the track cylinders into smaller subsections. Ion tracks were annealed at elevated temperatures up to 400 °C in the Durango and Ca-britholite, and up to 560 °C in Sr-britholite. While there was a significant change in the track radii in the Durango apatite, tracks in the two synthetic samples remained almost unchanged.

Fission track (FT) thermochornology is essentially based on empirical fits to annealing data of FTs revealed by chemical etching, because, until now, unetched, latent FTs could not be examined analytically at the atomic-scale. The major challenge to such an analysis has been the random orientation of FTs and their extremely small diameters. Here we use high-energy ions (2.2 GeV Au or 80 MeV Xe) to simulate FT formation along specific crystallographic orientations. By combining results from transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of single tracks and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) for millions of tracks, a precise picture of track morphology as a function of orientation is obtained. High-resolution analysis reveals that orientation affects the shape of tracks in apatite and zircon through the preferential creation of damage along directions with highest atomic density. However, track radius does not depend on orientation, contradicting previous reports. Independent of track orientation, track radii, as measured at each point along the entire length of 80 MeV Xe ion tracks in apatite, can be understood using the thermal spike model of Szenes. Thus, the well-known track annealing anisotropy of apatite is not due to track radius anisotropy. The combination of ion-irradiations with TEM and SAXS analysis provides a unique opportunity to understand and model track formation and annealing under various geologic conditions.

Ion tracks were created in natural quartz and fluorapatite from Durango, Mexico, by irradiation with 2.2 GeV Au ions at elevated temperatures of up to 913 K. The track radii were analysed using small-angle X-ray scattering, revealing an increase in the ion track radius of approximately 0.1 nm per 100 K increase in irradiation temperature. Molecular dynamics simulations and thermal spike calculations are in good agreement with these values and indicate that the increase in track radii at elevated irradiation temperatures is due to a lower energy required to reach melting of the material. The post-irradiation annealing behaviour studied for apatite remained unchanged.

Based on the Coulomb spike model, track formation depends strongly on the electrical resistivity of a material, and ion tracks form only in insulating materials. However, there are no systemic studies of the effect of resistivity on the track formation in materials, such as SrTiO 3 (STO), where with the addition of low concentrations of Nb, the resistivity dramatically decreases covering the entire electronic regime from an insulating to conducting material. In this study, high energy (8.6 MeV/u) ion-induced track formation in STO was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) techniques as a function of Nb-doping concentrations. Contrary to the Coulomb spike model’s predictions, the Nb-doping had no evident influence on track formation, as confirmed by both TEM and SAXS. This may be the result of the low electron density in the bulk material or the minor effect of the Nb-doping on the bonding in the material. In situ TEM studies of low energy (1 MeV Kr 2+ ) ion irradiations show that the low concentration doping has a minor influence on the crystalline-to-amorphous transformation as a result of subtle structural variations of incorporated impurity atoms.

Spherical silver nanoparticles were prepared by means of ion beam synthesis in lithium niobate. The embedded nanoparticles were then irradiated with energetic (84)Kr and (197)Au ions, resulting in different electronic energy losses between 8.1 and 27.5 keV nm(-1) in the top layer of the samples. Due to the high electronic energy losses of the irradiating ions, molten ion tracks are formed inside the lithium niobate in which the elongated Ag nanoparticles are formed. This process is strongly dependent on the initial particle size and leads to a broad aspect ratio distribution. Extinction spectra of the samples feature the extinction maximum with shoulders on either side. While the maximum is caused by numerous remaining spherical nanoparticles, the shoulders can be attributed to elongated particles. The latter could be verified by COMSOL simulations. The extinction spectra are thus a superposition of the spectra of all individual particles.

Ion tracks were generated in crystalline San Carlos olivine (Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 and Durango apatite Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 F 2 using different heavy ions ( 58 Ni, 101 Ru, 129 Xe, 197 Au, and 238 U) with energies ranging between 185 MeV and 2.6 GeV. The tracks and their annealing behavior were studied by means of synchrotron based small angle X-ray scattering in combination with in situ annealing. Track radii vary as a function of electronic energy loss but are very similar in both minerals. Furthermore, the annealing behavior of the track radii has been investigated and preliminary results reveal a lower recovery rate of the damaged area in olivine compared with apatite.

Ion tracks in amorphous Fe"8"0B"2"0, produced by irradiation with 11.1MeV/u Au ions, were characterized using synchrotron based small angle X-ray scattering. The tracks resemble long cylindrical structures with a radius of 8.2+/-0.1nm. Annealing experiments reveal an activation energy for track recovery E"a=0.39+/-0.10eV. Wide angle X-ray scattering measurements of irradiated and unirradiated amorphous Fe"8"0B"2"0 samples indicate enhanced recrystallization for the irradiated material.

Ion tracks formed in amorphous Ge by swift heavy-ion irradiation have been identified with experiment and modeling to yield unambiguous evidence of tracks in an amorphous semiconductor. Their underdense core and overdense shell result from quenched-in radially outward material flow. Following a solid-to-liquid phase transformation, the volume contraction necessary to accommodate the high-density molten phase produces voids, potentially the precursors to porosity, along the ion direction. Their bow-tie shape, reproduced by simulation, results from radially inward resolidification.

We present experimental evidence for the formation of ion tracks in amorphous Si induced by swift heavy-ion irradiation. An underlying core-shell structure consistent with remnants of a high-density liquid structure was revealed by small-angle x-ray scattering and molecular dynamics simulations. Ion track dimensions differ for as-implanted and relaxed Si as attributed to different microstructures and melting temperatures. The identification and characterization of ion tracks in amorphous Si yields new insight into mechanisms of damage formation due to swift heavy-ion irradiation in amorphous semiconductors.

The structure and thermal response of amorphous ion tracks formed along the [112¯0], [101¯0], and [0001]-directions in crystalline quartz have been investigated using small angle x-ray scattering. The radii of the ion tracks vary by about 5% (0.3 nm) for tracks along different crystallographic directions. Molecular dynamics simulations reproduce this anisotropy along the [101¯0] and [0001] directions and suggest that differences in thermal conductivity along these directions are partly responsible for this observation. Using in situ annealing, tracks along the [101¯0] and [0001] directions were shown to recrystallize during thermal annealing around 960–1020 °C with activations energies around 6 eV, while those along the [112¯0]-direction already disappeared at 640 °C with a significantly lower activation energy around 3–4 eV.

Natural apatite samples were irradiated with 185 MeV Au and 2.3 GeV Bi ions to simulate fission tracks. The resulting track morphology was investigated using synchrotron small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements before and after chemical etching. We present preliminary results from the SAXS measurement showing the etching process is highly anisotropic yielding faceted etch pits with a 6-fold symmetry. The measurements are a first step in gaining new insights into the correlation between etched and unetched fission tracks and the use of SAXS as a tool for studying etched tracks.

We have studied the morphology and annealing kinetics of ion tracks in Durango apatite using synchrotron small angle X-ray scattering. The non-destructive, artefact-free technique enables us to determine the track radii with a resolution of fractions of a nanometre. The tracks were generated using different heavy ions with energies between 185 MeV and 2.6 GeV. The track morphology is consistent with the formation of long cylindrical amorphous tracks. The annealing kinetics, measured by SAXS in combination with ex situ and in situ annealing experiments, suggests structural relaxation followed by recrystallisation of the damaged material. The measurement methodology shown here provides a new means for in-depth studies of ion-track formation in minerals under a wide variety of geological conditions.

We report on small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) measurements of amorphous Fe80B20, Fe85B15, Fe81B13.5Si3.5C2, and Fe40Ni40B20 metallic alloys irradiated with 11.1 MeV/u 132Xe, 152Sm, 197Au, and 8.2 MeV/u 238U ions. SAXS experiments are nondestructive and give evidence for ion track formation including quantitative information about the size of the track radius. The measurements also indicate a cylindrical track structure with a sharp transition to the undamaged surrounding matrix material. Results are compared with calculations using an inelastic thermal spike model to deduce the critical energy loss for the track formation threshold. The damage recovery of ion tracks produced in Fe80B20 by 11.1 MeV/u 197Au ions was studied by means of isochronal annealing yielding an activation energy of 0.4 ± 0.1 eV