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The development of new and better implant materials adapted to osteoporotic bone is still urgently required. Therefore, osteoporotic muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M3 (M3 mAChR) knockout (KO) and corresponding wild type (WT) mice underwent osteotomy in the distal femoral metaphysis. Fracture gaps were filled with a pasty &alpha, tricalcium phosphate (&alpha, TCP)-based hydroxyapatite (HA)-forming bone cement containing mesoporous bioactive CaP-SiO2 glass particles (cement/MBG composite) with or without Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and healing analyzed after 35 days. Histologically, bone formation was significantly increased in WT mice that received the BDNF-functionalized cement/MBG composite compared to control WT mice without BDNF. Cement/MBG composite without BDNF increased bone formation in M3 mAChR KO mice compared to equally treated WT mice. Mass spectrometric imaging showed that the BDNF-functionalized cement/MBG composite implanted in M3 mAChR KO mice was infiltrated by newly formed tissue. Leukocyte numbers were significantly lower in M3 mAChR KO mice treated with BDNF-functionalized cement/MBG composite compared to controls without BDNF. C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations were significantly lower in M3 mAChR KO mice that received the cement/MBG composite without BDNF when compared to WT mice treated the same. Whereas alkaline phosphatase (ALP) concentrations in callus were significantly increased in M3 mAChR KO mice, ALP activity was significantly higher in WT mice. Due to a stronger effect of BDNF in non osteoporotic mice, higher BDNF concentrations might be needed for osteoporotic fracture healing. Nevertheless, the BDNF-functionalized cement/MBG composite promoted fracture healing in non osteoporotic bone.

Acetylcholine (ACh) is an important signaling molecule in non-neuronal systems where it is involved in regulation of viability, proliferation, differentiation and migration of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) that are capable to differentiate into osteoblasts, chondrocytes and adipocytes. Patients with the systemic disease osteoporosis show altered MSC properties, reduced bone formation and mineral density followed by increased bone fragility and high fracture incidence. Here we asked whether nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (AChR) are expressed in osteoblasts, adipocytes and chondrocytes differentiated from bone MSC extracted from human reaming debris (RDMSC) that was harvested during surgery of long bone diaphyseal fractures. Using RT-PCR, AChR were detected in RDMSC, osteoblasts, chondrocytes and adipocytes of male and female bone-healthy and of female osteoporotic donors. An up-regulation in multiplicity and occurrence of AChR subtypes was found in female compared to male donors and in osteoblast of male donors compared to adipocytes. Real-time RT-PCR analysis resulted in a significant increase in relative expression of nAChR α9 in chondrocytes compared to adipocytes of healthy female donors. The nAChR subunit α10 was significantly up-regulated in osteoblasts of healthy compared to osteoporotic donors as well as the mAChR M5 that is additionally decreased in osteoporotic osteoblasts compared to MSC and chondrocytes of osteoporotic donors. In summary, the gene expression of AChR during differentiation of RDMSC and its regulation in cells of osteoporotic donors lead to the assumption that AChR signaling is involved in bone formation and might be utilized to stimulate bone remodeling processes.

High frequency of osteoporosis is found in postmenopausal women where several molecular components were identified to be involved in bone loss that subsequently leads to an increased fracture risk. Bone loss has already been determined in male mice with gene deficiency of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M3 (M3R-KO). Here we asked whether bone properties of female 16-week old M3R-KO present similarities to osteoporotic bone loss by means of biomechanical, radiological, electron microscopic, cell- and molecular biological methods. Reduced biomechanical strength of M3R-KO correlated with cortical thickness and decreased bone mineral density (BMD). Femur and vertebrae of M3R-KO demonstrated a declined trabecular bone volume, surface, and a higher trabecular pattern factor and structure model index (SMI) compared to wild type (WT) mice. In M3R-KO, the number of osteoclasts as well as the cathepsin K mRNA expression was increased. Osteoclasts of M3R-KO showed an estimated increase in cytoplasmic vesicles. Further, histomorphometrical analysis revealed up-regulation of alkaline phosphatase. Osteoblasts and osteocytes showed a swollen cytoplasm with an estimated increase in the amount of rough endoplasmatic reticulum and in case of osteocytes a reduced pericellular space. Thus, current results on bone properties of 16-week old female M3R-KO are related to postmenopausal osteoporotic phenotype. Stimulation and up-regulation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype M3 expression in osteoblasts might be a possible new option for prevention and therapy of osteoporotic fractures. Pharmacological interventions and the risk of side effects have to be determined in upcoming studies.

Recent studies showed that the non-neuronal cholinergic system (NNCS) is taking part in bone metabolism. Most studies investigated its role in osteoblasts, but up to now, the involvement of the NNCS in human osteoclastogenesis remains relatively unclear. Thus, aim of the present study was to determine whether the application of acetylcholine (ACh, 10(−4) M), nicotine (10(−6) M), mineralized collagen membranes or brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF, 40 ng/mL) influences the mRNA regulation of molecular components of the NNCS and the neurotrophin family during osteoclastogenesis. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from the blood of young healthy donors (n = 8) and incubated with bone fragments and osteoclast differentiation media for 21 days. All the results are based on the measurement of RNA. Real-time RT-PCR analysis demonstrated a down-regulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit α2 and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) M3by osteoclastogenesis while BDNF mRNA expression was not regulated. Application of ACh, nicotine, BDNF or collagen membranes did not affect osteoclastic differentiation.No regulation was detected for nAChR subunit α7, tropomyosin-related kinase receptor B (TrkB), and cholineacetyl transferase (ChAT). Taken together, we assume that the transcriptional level of osteoclastogenesis of healthy young humans is not regulated by BDNF, ACh, and nicotine. Thus, these drugs do not seem to worsen bone degradation and might therefore be suitable as modulators of bone substitution materials if having a positive effect on bone formation.

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) degrades acetylcholine in addition to acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which is involved in embryonic development of limbs. Since BChE is expressed by osteoblast-like cells we asked whether it is functional in adult bone remodeling. We addressed this issue by analyzing BChE gene-deficient mice (BChE-KO). Bones were extracted from 16-week old female BChE-KO and corresponding wild type mice (WT). Femoral bones were used for biomechanical testing and μCT evaluation of cancellous and cortical bone. Also vertebrae Th12 and L1 were investigated with μCT while L3 was used for tartrate-resistant acidic phosphatase (TRAP) histomorphometry and Th10 for gene expression analysis by means of real-time RT-PCR. BChE-KO did not reveal significant differences in biomechanical bone strength and bone mineral density determined by μCT. Microarchitecture of cancellous and cortical bone showed an increase in μCT parameters like trabecular thickness, trabecular separation, and relative cortical bone area of femoral BChE-KO bone compared to WT. In vertebrae no changes of microstructure and mRNA expression were detected. However, osteoclast histomorphometry with TRAP stained sections demonstrated a significant increase in relative osteoclast number. In conclusion, in adult murine bone the role of BChE is limited to bone specific changes in microarchitecture and to an increase in relative number of bone resorbing osteoclasts whereas the main collagen resorbing enzyme Cathepsin-K (CtsK) was stably expressed. Besides, AChE might be able to compensate the lack of BChE. Thus, further analyses using bone tissue specific AChE BChE cre–lox double knockout mice would be helpful.

Alterations in bone strength and structure were found in knockout (KO) mouse strains with deletion of several acetylcholine receptors. Interestingly, the expression of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) subunit α10 was down-regulated in osteogenic differentiated mesenchymal stem cells of patients with osteoporosis whereas the expression of subunit α9 was not altered. Since nAChR subunits α9 and α10 are often combined in a functional receptor, we analyzed here the bone of adult female KO mice with single deletion of either nAChR alpha9 (α9KO) or alpha10 (α10KO). Biomechanical testing showed a significant decrease of bending stiffness and maximal breaking force in α9KO compared to their corresponding wild type mice. Furthermore, an increase in trabecular pattern factor (Tb.Pf) and structure model index (SMI) was detected by μCT in α9KO indicating reduced bone mass. On the mRNA level a decrease of Collagen 1α1 and Connexin-43 was measured by real-time RT-PCR in α9KO while no alteration of osteoclast markers was detected in either mouse strain. Using electron microcopy we observed an increase in the number of osteocytes that showed signs of degeneration and cell death in the α9KO compared to their wild type mice, while α10KO showed no differences. In conclusion, we demonstrate alterations in bone strength, structure and bio-marker expression in α9KO mice which imply the induction of osteocyte degeneration. Thus, our data suggest that nAChR containing the α9 subunit might be involved in the homeostasis of osteocytes and therefore in bone mass regulation.

Increasing evidence is showing that the non-neuronal cholinergic system plays an important role in the pathology of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Choline transport into the cell is the rate-limiting step for the synthesis of acetylcholine (ACh), which can be released directly or in vesicles from the cell. However, in the human joint little is known about choline import or the release of ACh from the cell. Thus, we analyze the expression of members of the organic cation transporter (OCT), of the newly discovered choline transporter-like (CTL) family and of classical neuronal components such as the high-affinity choline transporter (CHT1) and the vesicular ACh transporter (VAChT) in the synovium and cartilage of the human hip joint from patients with osteoarthritis (OA) and RA. OCT1, OCT3 and OCTN1 and all members of the CTL family were expressed in synovial and cartilage samples. The expression of CTL1 and CTL2 was localized in synovial macrophages and fibroblasts. CHT1 mRNA expression was detectable only in the synovium, whereas VAChT was completely absent in all samples. Therefore, in the human joint, choline transport into the cell and the release of ACh seems to be mediated mainly by members of the OCT and CTL family. Expression of transporters appears not to be influenced by the pathological state, as no differences have been detected between joints from OA or RA patients. Importantly, however, all necessary components for choline import and the release of non-neuronal ACh are present in the human joint. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00441-014-2036-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The a9 and a10 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunits are likely to be the evolutionary precursors to the entire cys-loop superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels, which includes acetylcholine, GABA, glycine, and serotonin ionotropic receptors. nAChRs containing a9 and a10 subunits are found in the inner ear, dorsal root ganglia and many non-excitable tissues, but their expression in the central nervous system has not been definitely demonstrated. Here we show the presence of both α9 and α10 nAChR subunits in the mouse brain by RT-PCR and immunochemical approaches with a range of nAChR subunit-selective antibodies, which selectivity was demonstrated in the brain preparations of a7-/-, a9-/- and a10-/- mice. The α9 and α10 RNA transcripts were found in medulla oblongata, cerebellum, midbrain, thalamus and putamen, somatosensory cortex, frontal cortex and hippocampus. High a9-selective signal in ELISA was observed in the frontal cortex, somatosensory cortex, medulla oblongata, thalamus-putamen and hippocampus and a10-selective signal was the highest in medulla oblongata and frontal cortex. The α9 and α10 proteins were found in the brain mitochondria, while their presence on the plasma membrane has not been definitely confirmed The a7-, a9- and a10-selective antibodies stained mainly neurons and hypertrophied astrocytes, but not microglia. The a9- and a10-positive cells formed ordered structures or zones in cerebellum and superior olive and were randomly distributed among α7-positive cells in the frontal cortex; they were found in CA1, CA3 and CA4, but not in CA2 region of the hippocampus. The a9 and α10 subunits were up-regulated in a7-/- mice and both α7 and a9 subunits were down-regulated in a10-/- mice. We conclude that a9 and a10 nAChR subunits are expressed in distinct neurons of the mouse brain and in the brain mitochondria and are compensatory up-regulated in the absence of α7 subunits.

Osteoporosis induction in a sheep model by steroid administration combined with ovariectomy recapitulates decreased bone formation and substandard matrix mineralization in patients. Recently, the role of osteocytes has been frequently addressed, with focus on their role in osteoclastogenesis. However, the quantification of receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) signaling in osteocytes was not studied in sheep. The current study reproduced the sheep model of osteoporosis to study the RANKL/OPG ratio correlation to the method of osteoporosis induction. We investigated the induction of osteoporosis after 8 months using 31 female merino land sheep divided into four groups: control, ovariectomy, ovariectomy with dietary limitation, and ovariectomy with dietary limitation and steroid injection. In accordance to previous reports, the present study showed trabecular thinning, higher numbers of apoptotic osteocytes, and imbalanced metabolism, leading to defective mineralization. The global RANKL/OPG ratio in the spine after 8 months of steroid and dietary treatment was not different from that of the control. Interestingly, assessment of the osteocyte-specific RANKL/OPG ratio showed that the steroid-induced osteoporosis in its late progressive phase stimulates RANKL expression in osteocytes. Sclerostin is suggested to induce RANKL expression in osteocytes. The findings of this study can contribute to further explain the success of sclerostin antibodies in treating osteoporotic patients despite increased osteocyte-expressed RANKL.

In estrogen-deficient, postmenopausal women, vitamin D and calcium deficiency increase osteoporotic fracture risk. Therefore, a new rat model of combined ovariectomy and multiple-deficient diet was established to mimic human postmenopausal osteoporotic conditions under nutrient deficiency. Sprague-Dawley rats were untreated (control), laparatomized (sham), or ovariectomized and received a deficient diet (OVX-Diet). Multiple analyses involving structure (micro-computed tomography and biomechanics), cellularity (osteoblasts and osteoclasts), bone matrix (mRNA expression and IHC), and mineralization were investigated for a detailed characterization of osteoporosis. The study involved long-term observation up to 14 months (M14) after laparotomy or after OVX-Diet, with intermediate time points at M3 and M12. OVX-Diet rats showed enhanced osteoblastogenesis and osteoclastogenesis. Bone matrix markers (biglycan, COL1A1, tenascin C, and fibronectin) and low-density lipoprotein-5 (bone mass marker) were down-regulated at M12 in OVX-Diet rats. However, up-regulation of matrix markers and existence of unmineralized osteoid were seen at M3 and M14. Osteoclast markers (matrix metallopeptidase 9 and cathepsin K) were up-regulated at M14. Micro-computed tomography and biomechanics confirmed bone fragility of OVX-Diet rats, and quantitative RT-PCR revealed a higher turnover rate in the humerus than in lumbar vertebrae, suggesting enhanced bone formation and resorption in OVX-Diet rats. Such bone remodeling caused disturbed bone mineralization and severe bone loss, as reported in patients with high-turnover, postmenopausal osteoporosis. Therefore, this rat model may serve as a suitable tool to evaluate osteoporotic drugs and new biomaterials or fracture implants.

Fracture treatment in osteoporotic patients is still challenging. Osteoporosis emerges when there is an imbalance between bone formation and resorption in favor of resorption by osteoclasts. Thus, new implant materials for osteoporotic fracture treatment should promote bone formation and reduce bone resorption. Nanoparticles can serve as drug delivery systems for growth factors like Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), which stimulated osteoblast differentiation. Therefore, polyelectrolyte complex nanoparticles (PEC-NPs) consisting of poly(l-lysine) (PLL) and cellulose sulfate (CS), with or without addition of BDNF, were used to analyze their effect on osteoclasts in vitro. Live cell images showed that osteoclast numbers decreased after application of high PLL/CS PEC-NPs concentrations independent of whether BDNF was added or not. Real-time RT-PCR revealed that relative mRNA expression of cathepsin K and calcitonin receptor significantly declined after incubation of osteoclasts with high concentrations of PLL/CS PEC-NPs. Furthermore, Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay indicated that tartrate-resistant acidic phosphatase 5b activity was significantly reduced in the presence of high PLL/CS PEC-NPs concentrations. Consistent with these results, the pit formation analysis showed that less hydroxyapatite was resorbed by osteoclasts after incubation with high concentrations of PLL/CS PEC-NPs. BDNF had no influence on osteoclasts. We conclude that highly concentrated PLL/CS PEC-NPs dosages decreased osteoclastogenesis and osteoclasts activity. Moreover, BDNF might be a promising growth factor for osteoporotic fracture treatment since it did not increase osteoclast activity.

The first objective was to investigate new bone formation in a critical-size metaphyseal defect in the femur of ovariectomized rats filled with a strontium modified calcium phosphate cement (SrCPC) compared to calcium phosphate cement (CPC) and empty defects. Second, detection of strontium release from the materials as well as calcium and collagen mass distribution in the fracture defect should be targeted by time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS). 45 female Sprague Dawley rats were randomly assigned to three different treatment groups: (1) SrCPC (n = 15), (2) CPC (n = 15), and (3) empty defect (n = 15). Bilateral ovariectomy was performed and three months after multi-deficient diet, the left femur of all animals underwent a 4 mm wedge-shaped metaphyseal osteotomy that was internally fixed with a T-shaped plate. The defect was then either filled with SrCPC or CPC or was left empty. After 6 weeks, histomorphometric analysis showed a statistically significant increase in bone formation of SrCPC compared to CPC (p = 0.005) and the empty defect (p = 0.002) in the former fracture defect zone. Furthermore, there was a statistically significant higher bone formation at the tissue implant interface in the SrCPC group compared to the CPC group (p < 0.0001). These data were confirmed by immunohistochemistry revealing an increase in bone-morphogenic protein 2, osteocalcin and osteoprotegerin expression and a statistically significant higher gene expression of alkaline phosphatase, collagen10a1 and osteocalcin in the SrCPC group compared to CPC. TOF-SIMS analysis showed a high release of Sr from the SrCPC into the interface region in this area compared to CPC suggesting that improved bone formation is attributable to the released Sr from the SrCPC. (C) 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Background Osteoporosis is a multi-factorial, chronic, skeletal disease highly prevalent in post-menopausal women and is influenced by hormonal and dietary factors. Because animal models are imperative for disease diagnostics, the present study establishes and evaluates enhanced osteoporosis obtained through combined ovariectomy and deficient diet by DEXA (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) for a prolonged time period. Material/methods Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into sham (laparotomized) and OVX-diet (ovariectomized and fed with deficient diet) groups. Different skeletal sites were scanned by DEXA at the following time points: M0 (baseline), M12 (12 months post-surgery), and M14 (14 months post-surgery). Parameters analyzed included BMD (bone mineral density), BMC (bone mineral content), bone area, and fat (%). Regression analysis was performed to determine the interrelationships between BMC, BMD, and bone area from M0 to M14. Results BMD and BMC were significantly lower in OVX-diet rats at M12 and M14 compared to sham rats. The Z-scores were below -5 in OVX-diet rats at M12, but still decreased at M14 in OVX-diet rats. Bone area and percent fat were significantly lower in OVX-diet rats at M14 compared to sham rats. The regression coefficients for BMD vs. bone area, BMC vs. bone area, and BMC vs. BMD of OVX-diet rats increased with time. This is explained by differential percent change in BMD, BMC, and bone area with respect to time and disease progression. Conclusions Combined ovariectomy and deficient diet in rats caused significant reduction of BMD, BMC, and bone area, with nearly 40% bone loss after 14 months, indicating the development of severe osteoporosis. An increasing regression coefficient of BMD vs. bone area with disease progression emphasizes bone area as an important parameter, along with BMD and BMC, for prediction of fracture risk.

Aims Increasing collagen synthesis was observed in lung after stimulation of nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR and mAChR) on fibroblasts. Since collagen synthesis is an important process during fracture healing and bone remodelling, we asked whether cholinergic receptors are involved in bone collagen production. Main methods In the present study we analysed 16 week old male knockout mice for nAChRα7 (α7-KO) and mAChR M3R (M3R–KO) in correlation to their corresponding wild types (WT). Microarchitecture of right femora, vertebrae Th13 and L1 were analysed by 3D Micro-CT, left femora by a three-point bending test and humeri by real-time RT-PCR. Key findings A significant decrease in relative bone volume, trabecular thickness, trabecular number, bone surface density, and a significant increase in trabecular separation and structure model index were measured for the M3R–KO using Micro-CT analysis. Bending stiffness of M3R–KO was significantly reduced in comparison to WT as well as the collagen 1α1 and 1α2 mRNA expression was down-regulated. No changes were detected for α7-KO using Micro-CT, biomechanical testing, and collagen mRNA expression. Significance Our results indicate that nAChRα7 are not involved in the regulation of bone collagen synthesis whereas M3R exert stimulatory effects on cancellous bone microarchitecture, flexural rigidity, and bone matrix synthesis. Since the M3R–KO exhibit bone structures similar to systemically diseased bone it might be valuable to establish new therapeutic strategies using administration of agonists for the M3R to improve bone qualities.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Recent studies detected the expression of proteins involved in cholinergic metabolism in airway epithelial cells, although the function of this non-neuronal cholinergic system is not known in detail. Thus, this study focused on the effect of luminal ACh as a regulator of transepithelial ion transport in epithelial cells. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH RT-PCR experiments were performed using mouse tracheal epithelial cells for ChAT and organic cation transporter (OCT) transcripts. Components of tracheal airway lining fluid were analysed with desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) MS. Effects of nicotine on mouse tracheal epithelial ion transport were examined with Ussing-chamber experiments. KEY RESULTS Transcripts encoding ChAT and OCT1–3 were detected in mouse tracheal epithelial cells. The DESI experiments identified ACh in the airway lining fluid. Luminal ACh induced an immediate, dose-dependent increase in the transepithelial ion current (EC50: 23.3 µM), characterized by a transient peak and sustained plateau current. This response was not affected by the Na+-channel inhibitor amiloride. The Cl--channel inhibitor niflumic acid or the K+-channel blocker Ba2+ attenuated the ACh effect. The calcium ionophore A23187 mimicked the ACh effect. Luminal nicotine or muscarine increased the ion current. Experiments with receptor gene-deficient animals revealed the participation of muscarinic receptor subtypes M1 and M3. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The presence of luminal ACh and activation of transepithelial ion currents by luminal ACh receptors identifies a novel non-neuronal cholinergic pathway in the airway lining fluid. This pathway could represent a novel drug target in the airways.

Aims Alveolar hypoxia acutely elicits contraction of pulmonary arteries, leading to a rise in pulmonary arterial pressure (PAP) and shifting blood to better ventilated areas of the lung. The molecular mechanisms underlying this hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) are still incompletely understood. Here, we investigated the role of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH; synonymous to mitochondrial complex II) in HPV, with particular emphasis on regional differences along the vascular bed and consequences for PAP and perfusion-to-ventilation matching, using mutant mice heterozygous for the SDHD subunit of complex II ( SDHD +/−). Methods and results Western blots revealed reduced protein content of complex II subunits SDHA, SDHB, and SDHC in lungs of SDHD +/− mice, despite unaffected mRNA content as determined by real-time PCR. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction of small (20–50 µm) intra-acinar and larger (51–100 µm) pre-acinar arteries was evaluated by videomorphometric analysis of precision-cut lung slices. The hypoxic response was detectable in pre-acinar arteries but absent from intra-acinar arteries of SDHD +/− mice. In isolated perfused lungs, basal PAP and its hypoxia-induced increase were indistinguishable between both mouse strains. Arterial oxygenation was measured after provocation of regional ventilatory failure by tracheal fluid instillation in anaesthetized mice, and it declined more in SDHD +/− than in wild-type mice. Conclusion SDHD is required for the formation of a stable mitochondrial complex II and it is selectively important for HPV of intra-acinar vessels. This specialized vascular segment participates in perfusion-to-ventilation matching but does not significantly contribute to the acute hypoxic rise in PAP that results from more proximal vasoconstriction.

Acetylcholine (ACh), a classical transmitter of parasympathetic nerve fibres in the airways, is also synthesized by a large number of non-neuronal cells, including airway surface epithelial cells. Strongest expression of cholinergic traits is observed in neuroendocrine and brush cells but other epithelial cell types--ciliated, basal and secretory--are cholinergic as well. There is cell type-specific expression of the molecular pathways of ACh release, including both the vesicular storage and exocytotic release known from neurons, and transmembrane release from the cytosol via organic cation transporters. The subcellular distribution of the ACh release machineries suggests luminal release from ciliated and secretory cells, and basolateral release from neuroendocrine cells. The scenario as known so far strongly suggests a local auto-/paracrine role of epithelial ACh in regulating various aspects on the innate mucosal defence mechanisms, including mucociliary clearance, regulation of macrophage function and modulation of sensory nerve fibre activity. The proliferative effects of ACh gain importance in recently identified ACh receptor disorders conferring susceptibility to lung cancer. The cell type-specific molecular diversity of the epithelial ACh synthesis and release machinery implies that it is differently regulated than neuronal ACh release and can be specifically targeted by appropriate drugs.

The bladder urothelium not only provides a diffusion barrier but it also serves a sensor function and releases signalling molecules that are considered to act in a paracrine and autocrine fashion, e.g. by acetylcholine. Its actions are conferred by two classes of receptors, i.e. G-protein-coupled muscarinic receptors (MR) and ionotropic nicotinic receptors (nAChR). In this study we set out to determine the expression and distribution of all MR subtypes (M1R-M5R) and nAChR alpha-subunits 7, 9 and 10 in the human urothelium by means of RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Real-time RT-PCR revealed a rank order of MR subtype expression of M2R>>M3R=M5R>M4R=M1R. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated differential distribution patterns with M1R being restricted to basal cells, M2R nearly exclusively found in umbrella cells, whereas M3R and M4R were homogenously distributed and M5R was seen in a decreasing gradient from luminal to basal. As for nAChR alpha-subunits, rank order of expression is alpha7>>alpha10>alpha9, and they were observed throughout the urothelium with a gradient decreasing from luminal to basal in intensity. In conclusion, the human urothelium carries multiple cholinergic receptor subtypes, with predominant expression of M2R, M3R and alpha7-nAChR. Their distribution as well as that of the less expressed subtypes is layer-specific in the urothelium. In view of the multiplicity of pathways to which different cholinergic receptor subtypes are coupled, we propose that this layer-specific distribution serves to stratify cholinergic regulation of human urothelial function.

Administration of recombinant human keratinocyte growth factor (rHuKGF, Delta23N-KGF, palifermin) protects the lung against a variety of injurious stimuli. The exact mechanisms leading to lung protection are unknown. Alterations in the non-neuronal cholinergic system of the lung might be involved, as vital pulmonary functions are regulated by acetylcholine. Here, we investigated the effect of KGF on the expression of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits alpha7, alpha9 and alpha10 in rat lungs. Adult rats were treated via intratracheal instillation with rHuKGF or with an equivalent volume of PBS. The expression of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits was analyzed by real-time RT-PCR, immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry. Treatment with rHuKGF led to a decreased expression of nicotinic receptor subunit alpha7 in the total lung. In contrast, the expression of the receptor subunits alpha9 and alpha10 was up-regulated. In conclusion, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are differentially regulated by KGF treatment in vivo, which might result in changes in the biological effects of acetylcholine.

Bone loss is a symptom related to disease and age, which reflects on bone cells and ECM. Discrepant regulation affects cell proliferation and ECM localization. Rat model of osteoporosis (OVX) was investigated against control rats (Sham) at young and old ages. Biophysical, histological and molecular techniques were implemented to examine the underlying cellular and extracellular matrix changes and to assess the mechanisms contributing to bone loss in the context of aging and the widely used osteoporotic models in rats. Bone loss exhibited a compromised function of bone cells and infiltration of adipocytes into bone marrow. However, the expression of genes regulating collagen catabolic process and adipogenesis was chronologically shifted in diseased bone in comparison with aged bone. The data showed the involvement of Wnt signaling inhibition in adipogenesis and bone loss due to over-expression of SOST in both diseased and aged bone. Further, in the OVX animals, an integrin-mediated ERK activation indicated the role of MAPK in osteoblastogenesis and adipogenesis. The increased PTH levels due to calcium and estrogen deficiency activated osteoblastogenesis. Thusly, RANKL-mediated osteoclastogenesis was initiated. Interestingly, the data show the role of MEPE regulating osteoclast-mediated resorption at late stages in osteoporotic bone. The interplay between ECM and bone cells change tissue microstructure and properties. The involvement of Wnt and MAPK pathways in activating cell proliferation has intriguing similarities to oncogenesis and myeloma. The study indicates the importance of targeting both pathways simultaneously to remedy metabolic bone diseases and age-related bone loss.

In addition to quantal, vesicular release of acetylcholine (ACh), there is also non-quantal release at the motor endplate which is insufficient to evoke postsynaptic responses unless acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is inhibited. We here addressed potential non-quantal release in the mouse trachea by organ bath experiments and (immuno)histochemical methods. Electrical field stimulation (EFS) of nerve terminals elicited tracheal constriction that is largely due to ACh release. Classical enzyme histochemistry demonstrated acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in nerve fibers in the muscle and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity in the smooth muscle cells. Acute inhibition of both esterases by eserine significantly raised tracheal tone which was fully sensitive to atropine. This effect was reduced, but not abolished, in AChE, but not in BChE gene-deficient mice. The eserine-induced increase in tracheal tone was unaffected by vesamicol (10(-5)M), an inhibitor of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter, and by corticosterone (10(-4)M), an inhibitor of organic cation transporters. Hemicholinium-3, in low concentrations an inhibitor of the high-affinity choline transporter-1 (CHT1), completely abrogated the eserine effects when applied in high concentrations (10(-4)M) pointing towards an involvement of low-affinity choline transporters. To evaluate the cellular sources of non-quantal ACh release in the trachea, expression of low-affinity choline transporter-like family (CTL1-5) was evaluated by RT-PCR analysis. Even though these transporters were largely abundant in the epithelium, denudation of airway epithelial cells had no effect on eserine-induced tracheal contraction, indicating a non-quantal release of ACh from non-epithelial sources in the airways. These data provide evidence for an epithelium-independent non-vesicular, non-quantal ACh release in the mouse trachea involving low-affinity choline transporters.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) hydrolyzes acetylcholine (ACh) to acetate and choline and thereby terminates nerve impulse transmission. ACh is also expressed in bone tissue and enhances here proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts, which makes it interesting to investigate effects of AChE deficiency on bone. To our knowledge, this is the first study that analyzed bone of heterozygous acetylcholinesterase-knockout (AChE-KO) mice. Tibia, femur, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of 16-week-old female heterozygous AChE-KO mice and their corresponding wildtypes (WT) were analyzed using real-time RT-PCR, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, biomechanics, micro-computed tomography, histology and histomorphometry. Our data revealed that heterozygous AChE-KO did not cause negative effects upon bone parameters analyzed. In contrast, the number of osteoclasts per perimeter was significantly reduced in lumbar vertebrae. In addition, we found a significant decrease in trabecular perimeter of lumbar vertebrae and cortical area fraction (Ct.Ar/Tt.Ar) in the mid-diaphysis of femurs of AChE-KO mice compared to their WT. Therefore, presumably a local homozygous knockout of AChE or AChE-inhibitor administration might be beneficial for bone formation due to ACh accumulation. However, many other bone parameters analyzed did not differ statistically significantly between AChE-KO and WT mice. That might be reasoned by the compensating effect of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE).

In airway epithelia, non-neuronal cholinergic regulations have been described; however, the route for acetylcholine (ACh) release has not been verified. To investigate whether organic cation transporters (OCTs) serve this function, we studied the expression of OCTs in airway epithelia and their capability to translocate ACh. Using immunohistochemistry in rats and humans, OCT1, OCT2, and OCT3 were localized to the luminal membrane of ciliated epithelial cells. In humans, OCT2 showed the strongest expression in the luminal membrane. We expressed the OCT isoforms in oocytes of Xenopus laevis and measured uptake and efflux of ACh. Tracer flux measurements showed that ACh is transported by OCT1 and OCT2 but not by OCT3. Two-electrode-voltage-clamp measurements revealed that OCT2 mediates electrogenic uptake and efflux of ACh. For ACh uptake by human OCT2, a K(M) value of approximately 0.15 mM was determined. At -50 mV, ACh efflux by human OCT2 was trans-inhibited by micromolar concentrations of the inhalational glucocorticoid budesonide, which is used in treatment of asthma (K(i) approximately 2.7 microM). The data show that OCT1 and OCT2 mediate luminal ACh release in human airways and suggest that ACh release is blocked after inhalation of budesonide.

Background Cholinergic signaling via muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR) is known to influence various physiological functions. In bone, M3 mAChR and M5 mAChR were identified on the membrane of osteoblast-like cells. M3 mAChR seems to be particularly relevant for bone physiology, as signaling via this receptor was reported to increase bone formation and decrease bone resorption. Thus, in the present study we investigated the relative mRNA expression of M3 and M5 mAChR in bones of a rat osteoporosis model. Material and methods Osteoporosis was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats by bilateral ovariectomy and additional feeding of a diet deficient in calcium, vitamins C, D2, D3, and phosphorus, and free of soy and phytoestrogen. After a period of 3, 12, and 14 months, relative mRNA expression of M3 mAChR and M5 mAChR was analyzed in the 11th thoracic vertebra by real-time RT-PCR. Results Relative mRNA expression of M3 mAChR was significantly reduced in bones of osteoporotic rats compared to sham operated animals that served as controls. Further, M3 mAChR mRNA expression was significantly down-regulated when comparing 14-month osteoporotic rats to 3-month osteoporotic rats. Relative M5 mAChR mRNA was expressed to a lesser extent than M3 mAChR and did not show significant differences in mRNA expression level between the experimental groups. Conclusions M3 mAChR mRNA expression was reduced upon induction of osteoporosis and progression of disease was associated with further decrease of this receptor, indicating that M3 mAChR is involved in the development and regulation of osteoporosis.

A correlation between obesity and bone metabolism is strongly assumed because adipocytes and osteoblasts originate from the same precursor cells and their differentiation is conversely regulated by the same factors. It is controversially discussed if obesity protects bone or leads to loss of bone mass. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of diet-induced mild obesity (11% increased body weight compared to control) on bone microstructure in mice. Four-week-old male C57BL/6J mice received a high-fat diet (HFD, 60% kcal from fat) and were analyzed by means of dual X-ray absorptiometry, histological methods, real-time RT-PCR, and transmission electron microscopy in comparison to control animals (10% kcal from fat). The cancellous bone mass, collagen 1α1 expression, amount of osteoid, and cohesion of cells via cell-to-cell contacts decreased in HFD mice whereas the bone mineral density and the amount of osteoblasts and osteoclasts were not modified. The amount of apoptotic osteocytes was increased in HFD mice in comparison to controls. We conclude that moderately increased body weight does not protect bone architecture from age-dependent degeneration. By contrast, bone microstructure is negatively affected and reduced maintenance of cell-cell contacts may be one of the underlying mechanisms.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) influence bladder afferent activity and reflex sensitivity, and have been suggested as potential targets for treating detrusor overactivity. Mechanisms may include indirect effects, e.g. involving the urothelium, and direct action on nAChR expressed by afferent neurons. Here we determined the nAChR repertoire of bladder afferent neurons by retrograde neuronal tracing and laser-assisted microdissection/reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and quantified retrogradely labelled nAChRα3-subunit-expressing neurons by immunohistochemistry in nAChR α3β4α5 cluster enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) reporter mice. Bladder afferents distinctly expressed mRNAs encoding for nAChR-subunits α3, α6, α7, β2-4, and weakly α4. Based upon known combinatorial patterns of subunits, this predicts the expression of at least three basically different subunits of nAChR - α3(∗), α6(∗) and α7(∗) - and of additional combinations with β-subunits and α5. Bladder afferents were of all sizes, and their majority (69%; n=1367) were eGFP-nAChRα3 positive. Immunofluorescence revealed immunoreactivities to neurofilament 68 (NF68), transient receptor potential cation channel vanilloid 1 (TRPV1), substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in eGFP-nAChRα3-positive and -negative neurons. For each antigen, all possible combinations of colocalisation with eGFP-nAChRα3 were observed, with eGFP-nAChRα3-positive bladder neurons without additional immunoreactivity being most numerous, followed by triple-labelled neurons. In conclusion, more than one population of bladder afferent neurons expresses nAChR, indicating that peripheral nicotinic initiation and modulation of bladder reflexes might result, in addition to indirect effects, from the direct activation of sensory terminals. The expression of multiple nAChR subunits offers the potential of selectively addressing functional aspects and/or sensory neuron subpopulations.

Summary Background As women are the population most affected by multifactorial osteoporosis, research is focused on unraveling the underlying mechanism of osteoporosis induction in rats by combining ovariectomy (OVX) either with calcium, phosphorus, vitamin C and vitamin D2/D3 deficiency, or by administration of glucocorticoid (dexamethasone). Material/Methods Different skeletal sites of sham, OVX-Diet and OVX-Steroid rats were analyzed by Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) at varied time points of 0, 4 and 12 weeks to determine and compare the osteoporotic factors such as bone mineral density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), area, body weight and percent fat among different groups and time points. Comparative analysis and interrelationships among osteoporotic determinants by regression analysis were also determined. Results T scores were below-2.5 in OVX-Diet rats at 4 and 12 weeks post-OVX. OVX-diet rats revealed pronounced osteoporotic status with reduced BMD and BMC than the steroid counterparts, with the spine and pelvis as the most affected skeletal sites. Increase in percent fat was observed irrespective of the osteoporosis inducers applied. Comparative analysis and interrelationships between osteoporotic determinants that are rarely studied in animals indicate the necessity to analyze BMC and area along with BMD in obtaining meaningful information leading to proper prediction of probability of osteoporotic fractures. Conclusions Enhanced osteoporotic effect observed in OVX-Diet rats indicates that estrogen dysregulation combined with diet treatment induces and enhances osteoporosis with time when compared to the steroid group. Comparative and regression analysis indicates the need to determine BMC along with BMD and area in osteoporotic determination.

Aims In the oviduct, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (MR) are linked with motility regulation and nicotinic receptors (nAChR) with ectopic pregnancy. We here aimed to determine the repertoire of cholinergic receptor expression in the murine oviduct and their functional coupling to regulation of intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca 2+ ] i ). Main methods Cholinergic receptor transcripts were assessed by RT-PCR in oviductal segments (ampulla, isthmus, uterotubar junction) in all cyclic stages and pregnancy, and in laser-microdissected samples of epithelium and smooth muscle, nAChR subunit α3 distribution in tissue sections using an appropriate genetic reporter mouse strain. [Ca 2+ ] i responses were monitored in ciliated and non-ciliated oviductal cells isolated from wild-type and MR subtypes 1 and 3 gene deficient mice. Key findings Transcripts for all MR subtypes (M1–M5) are constantly expressed whereas there is some variability in nAChR expression from individual to individual. The qualitative expression pattern is independent from the hormonal status of the animal, except for nAChR α7, which is less present during pregnancy. The epithelium expresses M1, M3, nAChR α7 (data from laser-assisted microdissection) and nAChR α3 (ultrastructural investigation of reporter mice). MR dominate over nAChR in increasing [Ca 2+ ] i with being M3 the major, but not sole subtype driving this effect. The general nAChR inhibitor mecamylamine enhances muscarinic and purinergic responses. Significance In conclusion, the murine oviduct is endowed with a multiplicity of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors subtypes that, with respect to regulation of [Ca 2+ ] i , are inversely linked to each other. The major, but not sole, cholinergic receptor driving increase in [Ca 2+ ] i is M3.

Aims As the stimulation of the α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is present in the synovium of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), leads to a decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokines, the α7-nAChR is being discussed as a new therapeutic target. On this background we addressed the question whether α7-nAChR mRNA was differentially expressed in RA compared to osteoarthritis (OA) synovial samples and whether other components of the non-neuronal cholinergic system were also present and differentially expressed in the synovium of patients with RA in comparison to OA. Main methods The expression of nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs), choline and acetylcholine transporters, synthesising and degrading enzymes was determined in human samples of synovial tissue from patients with RA and OA using RT-PCR and immunofluorescence labelling. Key findings Compared to OA, patients with RA showed increased expression of nAChR subunit β4 while a decline in subunits α2 and α4 as well as in mAChR M1R was observed. For all other nAChR subunits and mAChRs however there was no significant difference between RA and OA patients. With regard to the ACh transporters and enzymes no expressional changes were observed between OA and RA patients, except for the choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) which was only detected in OA but not in RA synovium. Significance Our results indicate that besides α7-nAChR other components of the non-neuronal cholinergic system are present and differentially expressed in the synovium of RA and OA patients, which makes them interesting alternative targets in the development of new strategies for RA therapy.

Aims Alterations of the bladder sensory system are considered to contribute to detrusor overactivity (DO) when patients suffer from bladder outlet obstruction (BOO). The urothelium is one part of this sensory system and it harbors a non-neuronal cholinergic system (NNCS). We aimed to investigate if BOO causes alterations in the NNCS. Main methods Urothelial specimens were collected by endoscopy from six male controls and eight male patients suffering from BOO and DO. The samples were examined by immunofluorescence (IF) and real-time RT-PCR for high-affinity choline transporter-1 (CHT1), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), organic cation transporters OCT1–3, muscarinic receptor (mAChR) subtypes M1–M5 and nicotinic receptor (nAChR) subunits α7, α9 and α10. Key findings ChAT, VAChT and OCT2 are not present in the male urothelium. Real-time RT-PCR and IF detected all other investigated targets. Rank order of expression was M2 ≫ M3 = M5 > M4 = M1 for mAChR subtypes and α7 ≫ α10 > α9 for nAChR subunits. Statistical analysis of RT-PCR results did not detect significant differences between patients and controls. Only IF detected differences between both groups: α9-Immunolabeling was increased in all BOO/DO patients. Significance BOO does not induce considerable alterations of the human urothelial NNCS on mRNA level. Expression of mAChRs, CHT1, OCT1 and OCT3 is not significantly affected by BOO. Thus, transport mechanisms for choline and acetylcholine (ACh) stay unaltered. BOO increases immunolabeling of α9-nAChR but whether this sole finding contributes to the onset of DO seems questionable. Comparing the present results with our previous work, the urothelial NNCS does not differ between men and women.

The present study focused on the influence of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) on ion transport processes in mouse tracheal epithelium. RT-PCR experiments revealed expression of the α3, α4, α5, α7, α9, α10, β2, and β4 nAChR subunits in mouse tracheal epithelium. In Ussing chamber recordings of mouse tracheae, apically applied nicotine (100 μM) induced a dose-dependent increase of the transepithelial short-circuit current (EC(50): 14.6 μM). The nicotine-induced effect (I(NIC)) was attenuated by mecamylamine (25 μM, apical) and methyllycaconitine (1 μM, apical). The nAChR agonist 1.1-dimethyl-4-phenylpiperatinium iodide (DMPP) (100 μM) revealed apical and basolateral location of the receptors. I(NIC) was not affected by the sodium channel inhibitor amiloride (10 μM, apical) or the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator inhibitor CFTR(inh)-172 (20 μM, apical) but was reduced by the chloride channel inhibitor 5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid (100 μM, apical), the Na(+)/K(+)/2Cl(-) cotransporter inhibitor bumetanide (200 μM, basolateral), the potassium channel inhibitor Ba(2+) (5 mM, basolateral), and 4.4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2.2'-disulfonate (100 μM, apical), indicating a contribution of Ca(2+)-activated chloride channels and potassium channels. Removal of extracellular Na(+) (apical) or Ca(2+) (apical) did not influence I(NIC) but reduced the DMPP effect. Experiments with the Ca(2+)-ionophore A23187, a mix of 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine and forskolin, or the inositol-1,4,5-triphospate (IP(3)) receptor inhibitor 2-aminoethyl-diphenyl-borinate (75 μM, apical) decreased I(NIC), indicating a nicotine-mediated increase of intracellular Ca(2+) and cAMP levels involving the IP(3) signaling pathway. These findings indicate the activity of Ca(2+)-permeable nAChRs and alternative metabotropic pathways by nAChR activation that mediate Cl(-) and K(+) transport in tracheal epithelium.

Keratinocyte growth factor protects the lung against various injurious stimuli. The protective mechanisms, however, are not yet fully understood. The aim of this study is to determine the influence of keratinocyte growth factor on the pulmonary capacity to synthesize acetylcholine, a potent regulator of pulmonary functions which is potentially involved in lung damage. Rats were treated twice (days 1 and 2) intratracheally with keratinocyte growth factor and analyzed at day 4. The mRNA expression of choline acetyltransferase – the acetylcholine synthesizing enzyme – was analyzed by real-time RT-PCR in the lung and in isolated alveolar epithelial type II cells. Choline acetyltransferase protein was assessed by immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry. Finally, pulmonary acetylcholine content was assessed biochemically. Keratinocyte growth factor-treatment led to decreased levels of choline acetyltransferase mRNA in the lung and in isolated alveolar epithelial type II cells. Accordingly, pulmonary choline acetyltransferase protein levels were reduced and pulmonary acetylcholine content declined from 2.8 nmol (control) to 0.4 nmol acetylcholine per gram of wet weight. In conclusion, the present data show that the potent regulator of pulmonary functions, acetylcholine, is produced by the major pulmonary target cell of keratinocyte growth factor, that is alveolar epithelial type II cells. Acetylcholine synthesis is down-regulated by keratinocyte growth factor administration which might contribute to lung protection and to harmonize surfactant homeostasis under conditions of keratinocyte growth factor-induced alveolar epithelial type II cell hyperplasia.

Acetylcholine (ACh) and its receptors play a crucial role in bladder physiology. Here, we investigated the presence of muscarinic receptor subtypes (MR) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) alpha-subunits in the mouse urothelium by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. With RT-PCR, we detected mRNAs coding for all of the five different MR subtypes and for the nicotinic receptor subunits alpha2, alpha4, alpha5, alpha6, alpha7, alpha9 and alpha10, whereas the alpha3-subunit was not expressed. Using immunohistochemistry, we localised a panel of acetylcholine receptors in the different layers of the murine bladder urothelium, with predominant appearance in the basal plasma membrane of the basal cell layer and in the apical membrane of the umbrella cells. M2R and subunit alpha9 were observed exclusively in the umbrella cells, whereas the MR subtypes 3-5 and the nAChR subunits alpha4, alpha7 and alpha10 were also detected in the intermediate and basal cell layers. The subunit alpha5 was localised only in the basal cell layer. In conclusion, the murine urothelium expresses multiple cholinergic receptors, including several subtypes of both MR and nAChR, which are differentially distributed among the urothelial cell types. Since these receptors have different electrophysiological and pharmacological properties, and therefore are considered to be responsible for different cellular responses to ACh, this differential distribution is expected to confer cell type-specificity of cholinergic regulation in the bladder urothelium.

Background It has been proposed that serotonin (5-HT)-mediated constriction of the murine trachea is largely dependent on acetylcholine (ACh) released from the epithelium. We recently demonstrated that ACh can be released from non-neuronal cells by corticosteroid-sensitive polyspecific organic cation transporters (OCTs), which are also expressed by airway epithelial cells. Hence, the hypothesis emerged that 5-HT evokes bronchoconstriction by inducing release of ACh from epithelial cells via OCTs. Methods We tested this hypothesis by analysing bronchoconstriction in precision-cut murine lung slices using OCT and muscarinic ACh receptor knockout mouse strains. Epithelial ACh content was measured by HPLC, and the tissue distribution of OCT isoforms was determined by immunohistochemistry. Results Epithelial ACh content was significantly higher in OCT1/2 double-knockout mice (42 ± 10 % of the content of the epithelium-denuded trachea, n = 9) than in wild-type mice (16.8 ± 3.6 %, n = 11). In wild-type mice, 5-HT (1 μM) caused a bronchoconstriction that slightly exceeded that evoked by muscarine (1 μM) in intact bronchi but amounted to only 66% of the response to muscarine after epithelium removal. 5-HT-induced bronchoconstriction was undiminished in M2/M3 muscarinic ACh receptor double-knockout mice which were entirely unresponsive to muscarine. Corticosterone (1 μM) significantly reduced 5-HT-induced bronchoconstriction in wild-type and OCT1/2 double-knockout mice, but not in OCT3 knockout mice. This effect persisted after removal of the bronchial epithelium. Immunohistochemistry localized OCT3 to the bronchial smooth muscle. Conclusion The doubling of airway epithelial ACh content in OCT1/2-/- mice is consistent with the concept that OCT1 and/or 2 mediate ACh release from the respiratory epithelium. This effect, however, does not contribute to 5-HT-induced constriction of murine intrapulmonary bronchi. Instead, this activity involves 1) a non-cholinergic epithelium-dependent component, and 2) direct stimulation of bronchial smooth muscle cells, a response which is partly sensitive to acutely administered corticosterone acting on OCT3. These data provide new insights into the mechanisms involved in 5-HT-induced bronchoconstriction, including novel information about non-genomic, acute effects of corticosteroids on bronchoconstriction.

Smoking during pregnancy causes low birth weight, premature delivery, neonatal morbidity, and mortality. Nicotine is a main pathogenic compound of cigarette smoke, and depresses active amino-acid uptake by human placental villi. It binds to the acetylcholine binding site of the alpha-subunits of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR). Eight different neuronal nAChR alpha-subunits have been identified in mammals. Here, we investigated their localisation and distribution in the human and rat placenta by RT-PCR and immunofluorescence. The mRNAs of all alpha-subunits are expressed in the human and rat placenta. Immunohistochemically, subunits alpha2-5, alpha7, alpha9 and alpha10 are localised in different combinations in rat cytotrophoblast, human and rat syncytiotrophoblast, vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, Hofbauer cells, human amnion epithelium and rat visceral yolk sac epithelium. Thus, all human and rat placental cell types exhibit receptor subunits with binding sites for the endogenous ligand ACh and nicotine. ACh is suggested to be an important placental signalling molecule that, through stimulation of nAChR, controls the uptake of nutrients, blood flow and fluid volume in placental vessels, and the vascularisation during placental development. Chronic stimulation of nAChR by nicotine might result in unbalanced receptor activation or functional desensitisation followed by the known pathological effects of smoking.

We investigated the occurrence and distribution of the ligand-binding alpha-subunits of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the rat arterial system in situ by means of RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. Except the alpha9-subunit, all other mammalian non-muscular alpha-subunits were expressed in the arterial wall--either in endothelial or in smooth muscle cells--suggesting it as a direct target of nicotine and endogenous acetylcholine. The distribution pattern of alpha-subunits found in smooth muscle cells varied considerably among the individual elastic, muscular and intraparenchymal arteries investigated, suggesting that non-neuronal cholinergic signalling via nicotinic receptors in the vascular wall includes components that are highly specific for individual arteries.

For the murine trachea, it has been reported that constriction evoked by serotonin (5-HT) is largely dependent on acetylcholine (ACh) released from the epithelium, owing to the sensitivity of the 5-HT response to epithelium removal, sensitivity to atropine, and insensitivity to tetrodotoxin (Moffatt et al., 2003). Consistent with this assumption, the respiratory epithelium contains ACh, its synthesizing enzyme, and the high-affinity choline transporter CHT1 (Reinheimer et al., 1996; Pfeil et al., 2003; Proskocil et al., 2004). Recently, we demonstrated that ACh can be released from non-neuronal cells by corticosteroid-sensitive polyspecific organic cation transporters (OCTs), which are also expressed by airway epithelial cells (Lips et al., 2005). Hence, we proposed that 5-HT evokes release of ACh from epithelial cells via OCTs and that this epithelial-derived ACh induces bronchoconstriction. We tested this hypothesis in a well-established model of videomorphometric analysis of bronchial diameter in precision-cut murine lung slices utilizing epithelium removal to assess the role of the epithelium, OCT mouse knockout (KO) strains to assess the role of OCT isoforms, and muscarinic receptor M2/M3 double-KO mice to assess the cholinergic component of 5-HT induced bronchoconstriction, as bronchi of this strain are entirely unresponsive to cholinergic stimulation(Struckmann et al., 2003).

Background Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) have been identified on a variety of cells of the immune system and are generally considered to trigger anti-inflammatory events. In the present study, we determine the nAChR inventory of rat alveolar macrophages (AM), and investigate the cellular events evoked by stimulation with nicotine. Methods Rat AM were isolated freshly by bronchoalveolar lavage. The expression of nAChR subunits was analyzed by RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting. To evaluate function of nAChR subunits, electrophysiological recordings and measurements of intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) were conducted. Results Positive RT-PCR results were obtained for nAChR subunits α3, α5, α9, α10, β1, and β2, with most stable expression being noted for subunits α9, α10, β1, and β2. Notably, mRNA coding for subunit α7 which is proposed to convey the nicotinic anti-inflammatory response of macrophages from other sources than the lung was not detected. RT-PCR data were supported by immunohistochemistry on AM isolated by lavage, as well as in lung tissue sections and by Western blotting. Neither whole-cell patch clamp recordings nor measurements of [Ca2+]i revealed changes in membrane current in response to ACh and in [Ca2+]i in response to nicotine, respectively. However, nicotine (100 μM), given 2 min prior to ATP, significantly reduced the ATP-induced rise in [Ca2+]i by 30%. This effect was blocked by α-bungarotoxin and did not depend on the presence of extracellular calcium. Conclusions Rat AM are equipped with modulatory nAChR with properties distinct from ionotropic nAChR mediating synaptic transmission in the nervous system. Their stimulation with nicotine dampens ATP-induced Ca2+-release from intracellular stores. Thus, the present study identifies the first acute receptor-mediated nicotinic effect on AM with anti-inflammatory potential.

BACKGROUND Osteoporosis is diagnosed by bone loss using a radiological parameter called T-score. Preclinical studies use DXA to evaluate bone status were the T-score is referenced on bone mineral density (BMD) values of the same animals before treatment. Clinically, the reference BMD represents values of an independent group of healthy patients around 30 years old. The present study established a clinically similar T-score standard to diagnose osteoporosis in a sheep model. MATERIAL AND METHODS We used 31 female merino land sheep (average 5.5 years old) to study osteoporosis. The following groups were compared using DXA measurement: 1) control; 2) ovariectomized (OVX); 3) OVX combined with a deficient diet (OVXD); and 4) OVXD combined with methylprednisolone administration (OVXDS). Further, an independent group of 32 healthy sheep (4-6 years old) were measured as an independent baseline. BMD was measured at 0 months, 3 months, and 8 months after treatment. RESULTS The same significance pattern between the treated groups and either baseline groups was seen. However, using an independent baseline changed the "clinical" interpretation of the data from an osteoporotic bone status (T-score

New bone formation was studied in a metaphyseal fracture-defect in ovariectomized rats stimulated by a plain and a strontium-enriched macroporous silica/collagen scaffold (ScB30 and ScB30Sr20) and a compact silica/collagen xerogel (B30). 45 female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to three different treatment groups: (1) ScB30 (n=15), (2) ScB30Sr20 (n=15), and (3) B30 (n=15). 12 weeks after bilateral ovariectomy and multi-deficient diet, a 4 mm wedge-shaped fracture-defect was created at the metaphyseal area of the left femur. A 7-hole T-shaped plate at the lateral aspect of the femur stabilized the bone and the defect was filled with ScB30, ScB30Sr20 or B30 subsequently. After six weeks, histomorphometrical analysis revealed a statistically significant higher bone volume/tissue volume ratio in the ScB30Sr20 group compared to ScB30 (p=0.043) and B30 (p=0.0001) indicating an improved formation of new bone by the strontium-enriched macroporous silica/collagen scaffold. Furthermore, immunohistochemical results showed increased expression of BMP2 and OPG and a decreased RANKL expression in the ScB30Sr20 group. This was further confirmed with the gene expression analysis where an increase in prominent bone formation markers (ALP, OCN, Runx2, Col1a1 and Col10a1) was seen. No material remnants were found in the scaffold group indicating an almost complete degradation process of the biomaterials. This is confirmed by ToF-SIMS analysis that did not detect any strontium in the ScB30Sr20 group neither in the defect nor in the surrounding tissue. Taken together, this study shows the stimulating effects of strontium through increased bone formation by up regulation of osteoanabolic markers. This work also indicates the importance of material porosity, geometry and biodegradability in bone healing.

The arterial vascular wall contains a non-neuronal intrinsic cholinergic system. The rate-limiting step in acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis is choline uptake. A high-affinity choline transporter, CHT1, has recently been cloned from neural tissue and has been identified in epithelial cholinergic cells. Here we investigated its presence in rat and human arteries and in primary cell cultures of rat vascular cells (endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts). CHT1-mRNA was detected in the arterial wall and in all isolated cell types by RT-PCR using five different CHT1-specific primer pairs. Antisera raised against amino acids 29-40 of the rat sequence labeled a single band (50 kD) in Western blots of rat aorta, and an additional higher molecular weight band appeared in the hippocampus. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated CHT1 immunoreactivity in endothelial and smooth muscle cells in situ and in all cultured cell types. A high-affinity [3H]-choline uptake mechanism sharing characteristics with neuronal high-affinity choline uptake, i.e., sensitivity to hemicholinium-3 and dependence on sodium, was demonstrated in rat thoracic aortic segments by microimager autoradiography. Expression of the high-affinity choline transporter CHT1 is a novel component of the intrinsic non-neuronal cholinergic system of the arterial vascular wall, predominantly in the intimal and medial layers.