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A fundamental question in psychology and neuroscience is the extent to which cognitive and neural processes are specialised for social behaviour, or are shared with other 'non-social' cognitive, perceptual, and motor faculties. Here we apply the influential framework of Marr (1982) across research in humans, monkeys, and rodents to propose that information processing can be understood as 'social' or 'non-social' at different levels. We argue that processes can be socially specialised at the implementational and/or the algorithmic level, and that changing the goal of social behaviour can also change social specificity. This framework could provide important new insights into the nature of social behaviour across species, facilitate greater integration, and inspire novel theoretical and empirical approaches. A central question in psychology and neuroscience is the extent to which social behaviour is subserved by dedicated processes or systems that are 'socially specific' or shared with other 'non-social' cognitive, perceptual, and motor faculties. We suggest that a process can be socially specific at different levels of explanation. This approach could help to clarify the role of mirror neurons in social contexts and whether social learning is uniquely 'social'. Experimental design should be guided by an appreciation that social specificity is possible at different levels. Examining social behaviour across species can give unique clues about different implementations and algorithms. For example, converging evidence highlights the anterior cingulate gyrus as crucial for processing social implementations, and that 'theory of mind' is a putative social algorithm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The neuropeptides vasopressin (VP) and oxytocin (OT) and their receptors in the brain are involved in the regulation of various social behaviors and have emerged as drug targets for the treatment of social dysfunction in several sex-biased neuropsychiatric disorders. Sex differences in the VP and OT systems may therefore be implicated in sex-specific regulation of healthy as well as impaired social behaviors. We begin this review by highlighting the sex differences, or lack of sex differences, in VP and OT synthesis in the brain. We then discuss the evidence showing the presence or absence of sex differences in VP and OT receptors in rodents and humans, as well as showing new data of sexually dimorphic V1a receptor binding in the rat brain. Importantly, we find that there is lack of comprehensive analysis of sex differences in these systems in common laboratory species, and we find that, when sex differences are present, they are highly brain region- and species-specific. Interestingly, VP system parameters (VP and V1aR) are typically higher in males, while sex differences in the OT system are not always in the same direction, often showing higher OT expression in females, but higher OT receptor expression in males. Furthermore, VP and OT receptor systems show distinct and largely non-overlapping expression in the rodent brain, which may cause these receptors to have either complementary or opposing functional roles in the sex-specific regulation of social behavior. Though still in need of further research, we close by discussing how manipulations of the VP and OT systems have given important insights into the involvement of these neuropeptide systems in the sex-specific regulation of social behavior in rodents and humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study on the prosocial effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) that contribute to the recreational use and as a measure of generosity. The study examined MDMA performance associated to measures of socioeconomic status and personality. Results showed that MDMA develops prosocial effects, and the effects of MDMA on brain mechanisms remain to be determined.

Rationale: Alcohol is usually consumed in social contexts. However, the drug has been studied mainly under socially isolated conditions, and our understanding of how social setting affects response to alcohol is limited. Objectives: The current study compared the subjective, physiological, and behavioral effects of a moderate dose of alcohol in moderate social drinkers who were tested in either a social or an isolated context and in the presence of others who had or had not consumed alcohol. Methods: Healthy men and women were randomly assigned to either a social group tested in pairs (SOC; N = 24), or an isolated group tested individually (ISO; N = 20). They participated in four sessions, in which they received oral alcohol (0.8 g/kg) or placebo on two sessions each, in quasi-randomized order under double-blind conditions. In the SOC condition, the drug conditions of the co-participants were varied systematically: on two sessions, both participants received the same substance (placebo or alcohol) and on the other two sessions one received alcohol while the other received placebo. Cardiovascular measures, breath alcohol levels, and mood were assessed at regular intervals, and measures of social interaction were obtained in the SOC group. Results: Alcohol produced greater effects on certain subjective measures in the SOC condition compared with the ISO condition, including feelings of intoxication and stimulation, but not on other measures such as feeling sedated or high, or on cardiovascular measures. Within the SOC condition, participants rated themselves as more intoxicated when their partner received alcohol, and paired subjects interacted more when at least one participant received alcohol. Conclusions: The presence of others enhances some of the subjective and behavioral effects of alcohol, especially the presence of another intoxicated individual. This enhancement of alcohol effects may explain, in part, why it is used in a social context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether a child's friendship network in an afterschool program influences his/her physical activity. METHODS: Three waves of data were collected from school-aged children participating in aftercare (n = 81; mean [SD] age, 7.96 [1.74] years; 40% African American, 39% white, and 19% Latino) a name generator survey was used to map each child's social network, and accelerometers were used to measure physical activity. We applied stochastic actor-based modeling for social networks and behavior. RESULTS: Children did not form or dissolve friendships based on physical activity levels, but existing friendships heavily influenced children's level of physical activity. The strongest influence on the amount of time children spent in moderate-to-vigorous activity in the afterschool hours was the activity level of their immediate friends. Children consistently made adjustments to their activity levels of 10% or more to emulate the activity levels of their peers (odds ratio [OR] = 6.89, P< .01). Age (OR = 0.92, P < .10) and obesity status (OR = 0.66, P < .10) had marginally significant and relatively small direct effects on the activity. Gender had no direct effect on activity. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that friendship ties play a critical role in setting physical activity patterns in children as young as 5 to 12 years. Children's activity levels can be increased, decreased, or stabilized depending on the activity level of their immediate social network during a 12-week afterschool program. Network-based interventions hold the potential to produce clinically significant changes to children's physical activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Steroids and peptides mediate a diverse array of animal social behaviors. Human research is restricted by technical–ethical limitations, and models of the neuroendocrine regulation of social–emotional behavior are therefore mainly limited to non-human species, often under the assumption that human social–emotional behavior is emancipated from hormonal control. Development of acute hormone administration procedures in human research, together with the advent of novel non-invasive neuroimaging techniques, have opened up opportunities to systematically study the neuroendocrinology of human social–emotional behavior. Here, we review all placebo-controlled single hormone administration studies addressing human social–emotional behavior, involving the steroids testosterone and estradiol, and the peptides oxytocin and vasopressin. These studies demonstrate substantial hormonal control over human social–emotional behavior and give insights into the underlying neural mechanisms. Finally, we propose a theoretical model that synthesizes detailed knowledge of the neuroendocrinology of social–emotional behavior in animals with the recently gained data from humans described in our review. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Workplace bullying is an important and serious issue in a healthcare setting because of its potential impact on the welfare of care-providers as well as the consumers. Aims: To gauge the extent of bullying among the medical community in India; as a subsidiary objective, to assess the personality trait of the bullying victims. Settings and Design: A cross-sectional, anonymous, self-reported questionnaire survey was undertaken among a convenient sample of all the trainee doctors at a Government Medical College in Tamil Nadu, India. Materials and Methods: A questionnaire, in English with standard written explanation of bullying was used. Basic information like age, sex, job grade and the specialty in case of Postgraduates (PGs) were also collected. Statistical Analysis: The results were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis and Chi-square test for comparison of frequencies. Results: A total of 174 doctors (115 PGs and 59 junior doctors), took part in the study with a cent percent response. Nearly half of the surveyed population reported being subjected to bullying. Nearly 54 (53%) of the men and 35 (48%) of women were subjected to bullying. Significant proportions (P<0.0001) of medical personnel and paramedical staff bullied the PGs and junior doctors, respectively. More than 85 (90%) of bullying incidents went unreported. A significant (P<0.0001) percentage of PGs and junior doctors revealed a personality trait towards bully. Conclusions: Workplace bullying is common among trainee doctors and usually goes unreported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Testosterone (T) levels can fluctuate after wins and losses, but surprisingly, there are no empirical studies in humans that have tested whether these post-competition T changes predict the social behaviors that follow. The present study examined whether changes in T after losing in a competition predicted who wanted to compete again in a second competition. Sixty-four males provided saliva samples immediately before and 15 min after a rigged one-on-one competition. After the second saliva sample, participants chose whether or not to compete again against the same competitor. Winners did not increase in T relative to losers, but pre-competition cortisol, change in cortisol, and pre-competition T were associated with T changes, especially in losers. Importantly, changes in T predicted decisions to compete again in losers. Losers who increased in T were more likely to choose to compete again than losers who decreased in T. T changes were unrelated to decisions to compete again in winners. These findings provide novel data in humans that T changes after a status loss predict subsequent social behavior. Our discussion focuses on the theoretical implications of these findings for the link between short-term T changes and status-related behaviors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]