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The use of the anti-parkinsonian drug trihexyphenidyl (THP) to treat patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), particularly those with tremor-dominant PD (tdPD), has been well documented. Despite growing concerns about THP causing cognitive decline in tdPD patients, the underlying neural correlates remain unclear. Therefore, we investigated the effects of THP on prefrontal executive function and spontaneous neural activity in patients with tdPD by utilizing functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).We recruited 30 patients with tdPD, including 15 patients receiving THP and 15 patients not receiving THP. We performed comprehensive neuropsychological and clinical assessments to evaluate each patient's cognitive function, mental status, and clinical symptoms. We measured brain activation elicited from the verbal fluency task (VFT) and changes in amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) at rest to investigate executive function and spontaneous neural activity, respectively. In addition, we examined the relationship between altered activation during task and resting state and neuropsychological and clinical data.Compared with tdPD patients not taking THP, tdPD patients taking THP showed no differences on neuropsychological tests. However, there was insufficient activity of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during VFT and reduced ALFF values for the DLPFC, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) related to the frontoparietal network (FPN) at rest. Furthermore, ALFF values of the VLPFC were positively correlated with scores of multiple cognitive domain functions.These findings suggest that THP treatment may lead to prefrontal dysfunction in tdPD patients, attenuating brain activation in executive function and cognition-related spontaneous neural activity.

Executive function encompasses effortful cognitive processes that are particularly susceptible to aging. Functional brain networks supporting executive function—such as the frontoparietal control network and the multiple demand system—have been extensively investigated. However, it remains unclear how structural networks facilitate and constrain the dynamics of functional networks to contribute to aging-related executive function declines. We examined whether changes in structural network modal controllability—a network’s ability to facilitate effortful brain state transitions that support cognitive functions—are associated with changes in executive function cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Diffusion-weighted imaging and neuropsychological testing were conducted at two time points (Time 1: ages 56 to 66, N = 172; Time 2: ages 61 to 70, N = 267) in community-dwelling men from the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging. An executive function factor score was computed from six neuropsychological tasks. Structural networks constructed from white matter connectivity were used to estimate modal controllability in control network and multiple demand system. We showed that higher modal controllability in control network and multiple demand system was associated with better executive function at Time 2, after controlling for age, young adult general cognitive ability, and physical health status. Moreover, changes in executive function over a period of 5 to 6 years (Time 1-Time 2, N = 105) were associated with changes in modal controllability of the multiple demand system and weakly in the control network over the same time period. These findings suggest that changes in the ability of structural brain networks in facilitating effortful brain state transitions may be a key neural mechanism underlying aging-related executive function declines and cognitive aging.

Sleep health and executive function are multifaceted constructs that decline with age. Some evidence suggests that poor sleep health may underlie declines in executive function, but this relationship is not consistently found in cognitively normal older adults. The authors systematically investigated distinct sleep health domain associations with specific aspects of executive function.Community-dwelling older adults completed clinical interviews, comprehensive neuropsychological assessments, and subjective sleep measures. Four sleep health domains were investigated: satisfaction/quality, sleep efficiency, sleep duration, and daytime sleepiness/fatigue. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses, adjusting for significant covariates, examined whether the sleep health domains differentially predicted executive function.Separate analyses found that greater sleep efficiency was associated with better response inhibition, while greater daytime sleepiness/fatigue was associated with worse cognitive flexibility. Categorical differences in sleep duration indicated that average durations, compared with short and long durations, had better executive function performance across measures. Sleep satisfaction/quality was not statistically associated with executive function.These findings have implications for sleep assessment and its intervention. Routine screening of sleep duration, efficiency, and daytime fatigue may be particularly useful in identifying those at greater risk of executive dysfunction. Targeting specific problems in sleep may serve to improve cognitive control and efficiency in older adults. Future research is warranted to establish the optimal hours of sleep duration for cognitive health.

Elevated brain choline is associated with better executive functions in preadolescents. Manipulating dietary choline prospectively in preadolescents using egg supplementation could improve executive functions via effects on brain cellular and neurotransmitter functions.We tested the 9-month impacts of egg supplementation on executive functions. It was hypothesized that preadolescents who consumed meal or snack replacement products containing powder made from whole eggs would have the largest improvements in executive functions after 9 months compared to those consuming similar products with either added milk powder or gelatin as a placebo.A randomized, parallel-group, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial design was used. The executive functions of 122 preadolescents (58 females) aged 9-13 were analyzed before and after the 9-month intervention. The primary outcomes were 3 NIH Toolbox-Cognitive Battery measures of executive function: mental flexibility, working memory, and selective attention and inhibitory control. Participants were randomized to consume food products with either: 1) whole egg powder; 2) milk powder; or 3) gelatin as a placebo, all matched on macronutrient content and used as replacements for commonly consumed foods (i.e., waffles, pancakes, macaroni and cheese, ice cream, and brownies). Hypothesis testing used mixed-effects models that included physical activity and sleep scores as covariates.A statistically significant group × time interaction for selective attention and inhibitory control was found (P = 0.049) for the milk group. This interaction resulted from no change for the placebo group and an improvement in selective attention and inhibitory control performance for the milk group by a T-score of 5.8; the effect size (d) was 0.44 SD units. Other comparisons were statistically insignificant.Consumption of foods with added milk powder as a replacement for snacks or meals for 9 months improves selective attention and inhibitory control in preadolescents. Replacement of foods with added whole egg powder does not impact 9-month changes in preadolescent executive functions. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03739424.

IMPORTANCE: Arsenic, a contaminant of groundwater and irrigated crops, is a global public health hazard. Exposure to low levels of arsenic through food extends well beyond the areas with high arsenic content in water.OBJECTIVE: To identify cognitive impairments following commonly prevalent low-level arsenic exposure and characterize their underlying brain mechanisms.DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This multicenter population-based cohort study analyzed cross-sectional data of the Indian Consortium on Vulnerability to Externalizing Disorders and Addictions (cVEDA) cohort, recruited between November 4, 2016, and May 4, 2019. Participants aged 6 to 23 years were characterized using deep phenotyping measures of behavior, neuropsychology, psychopathology, brain neuroimaging, and exposure to developmental adversities and environmental neurotoxins. All analyses were performed between June 1, 2020, and December 31, 2021.EXPOSURE: Arsenic levels were measured in urine as an index of exposure.MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Executive function measured using the cVEDA neuropsychological battery, gray matter volume (GMV) from T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging, and functional network connectivity measures from resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging.RESULTS: A total of 1014 participants aged 6 to 23 years (589 male [58.1%]; mean [SD] age, 14.86 [4.79] years) were included from 5 geographic locations. Sparse-partial least squares analysis was used to describe a negative association of arsenic exposure with executive function (r = -0.12 [P = 5.4 × 10-4]), brain structure (r = -0.20 [P = 1.8 × 10-8]), and functional connectivity (within network, r = -0.12 [P = 7.5 × 10-4]; between network, r = -0.23 [P = 1.8 × 10-10]). Alterations in executive function were partially mediated by GMV (b = -0.004 [95% CI, -0.007 to -0.002]) and within-network functional connectivity (b = -0.004 [95% CI, -0.008 to -0.002]). Socioeconomic status and body mass index moderated the association between arsenic and GMV, such that the association was strongest in participants with lower socioeconomic status and body mass index.CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The findings of this cross-sectional study suggest that low-level arsenic exposure was associated with alterations in executive functioning and underlying brain correlates. These results indicate potential detrimental consequences of arsenic exposure that are below the currently recommended guidelines and may extend beyond endemic risk areas. Precision medicine approaches to study global mental health vulnerabilities highlight widespread but potentially modifiable risk factors and a mechanistic understanding of the impact of low-level arsenic exposure on brain development.

The functional roles of the precuneus are unclear. Focal precuneus lesions are rare, making it difficult to identify robust brain–behavior relationships. Distinct functional subdivisions of the precuneus have been proposed based on unique connectivity profiles. This includes an association of the anterior division with bodily awareness, the central region with complex cognition, and the posterior division with visual processing. Our goal was to test the hypothesis that the central precuneus is preferentially involved (compared to the other sectors of the precuneus) in executive function, as estimated from performance on the trail-making test (TMT). 35 patients with focal brain lesions involving the precuneus were included from the University of Iowa and Montpellier University. Multivariate lesion symptom mapping of TMT performance was performed to evaluate whether lesion location was associated with impaired task performance. Lesion symptom mapping revealed a statistically significant association of central precuneus lesions with impaired TMT performance (r = 0.43, p < 0.01). Further, a functional network derived from this precuneus region showed connectivity to other cortical areas implicated in executive function, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and inferior parietal lobe. This analysis provides support for the role of the central precuneus in executive function, consistent with the unique connectivity pattern of the central precuneus with a broader network implicated in cognitive control and executive function.

The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on post-stroke executive impairment (PSEI) remain controversial. Resting stateelectroencephalogram (EEG) can assist in the diagnosis and assessment of executive dysfunction.We aimed to use EEG to explore the effect of tDCS on executive function among stroke patients.Twenty-four patients with PSEI were randomly divided into experimental and control groups, which received real and sham stimulation, respectively. Anodal electrical stimulation was applied to the left dorsolateral prefrontal lobe (F3). The stimulation intensity was 2 mA for 20 min once daily for 7 days. Executive function was monitored using neuropsychological scales.The experimental group outperformed the control group in clinical scale results, with significant differences in the following scores: symbol digital modalities test, TMT-A, TMT-B, and digital span test. In the left central zone, theta band power was significantly higher after anodal electrical stimulation than before. Analysis of the correlation between EEG power and psychometric scores revealed that the power change was positively correlated with the scores on the symbol digital modality test (r = 0.435, p 0.05).Anodal tDCS can enhance executive function in patients with PSEI, and tDCS-related improvements are related to the enhancement of theta power in the affected region.

Purpose: Responsive and dynamic aspects of father–child play are associated with behavioral and neurocognitive development in children and could represent an important contributor to executive function (EF) skills for children who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH). This study examined associations between paternal behaviors during play and EF skills of DHH children and children with typical hearing (TH). Method: Father–child dyads in families with DHH children ( n = 30) and TH children ( n = 29) participated in a 15-min video-recorded free-play session that was coded for parental behaviors using Parent–Child Interaction Rating Scales and Rough and Tumble Play Quality. Families also completed an age-appropriate version of the Behavior Rating Index of Executive Function as a measure of child EF. Results: DHH children were rated as having significantly more everyday difficulties with working memory than TH children. Fathers of DHH children were rated as more intrusive during play than fathers of TH children; however, there were no other differences between paternal groups on coded dimensions of father child play. Paternal respect for child autonomy was associated with fewer child difficulties with planning and organization skills and paternal play engagement was associated with fewer child EF difficulties. Moderation analyses revealed that paternal sensitivity was associated with more working memory difficulties and paternal respect for child autonomy was associated with fewer working memory difficulties for DHH children only. Conclusions: Paternal play could be an important environmental context for DHH outcomes. Fathers supporting independent play might generally support EF. Paternal engagement in play might also benefit EF. Results highlight paternal behavioral attributes that could lead to potential father-embedded intervention models.

The neural architecture of executive function is of interest given its utility as a transdiagnostic predictor of adaptive functioning. However, a gap exists in the meta-analytic literature assessing this relationship in neuropsychiatric populations, concordance between structural and functional architecture, and the relationship with neuropsychological assessment of executive function. Given the importance of the central executive network (CEN) in Alzheimer's disease, this population may be useful in understanding this relationship in Alzheimer's disease pathology.A meta-analysis of studies (Analyses revealed a positive brain-behavior relationship (Structural and functional imaging in the CEN are predictive of executive function performance among patients with Alzheimer's disease and HCs. Regardless of how the CEN is affected, behavior is correlated to the degree to which the CEN is affected. Findings are significant in the context of methodological decisions in multimodal neuroimaging research.

Cognitive impairment has been associated with anemia and iron deficiency; however, brain electrophysiological studies correlating red blood cell (RBC) indices and iron status to cognition in adulthood are scarce. We aimed to assess neurocognitive function in young adults of the general population and its correlation with RBC indices and iron status. Neurocognitive function was investigated using scalp-recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) within the context of a task-switching paradigm. ERPs and test performance were also compared across groups of "high"/"low" RBC and iron indices. Working memory was examined using the digit span test, in which mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and ferritin were found to be significant predictors of test performance, with higher MCH/MCV/ferritin being associated with better test scores. In the switching task, MCH, MCV, and ferritin were found to be significant predictors of task performance, with higher MCH/MCV/ferritin levels associated with a lower percentage of errors. Electrophysiological results showed that MCH and MCV were significant predictors of ERPs amplitude, with lower MCH/MCV levels associated with greater amplitude, which may reflect compensatory processes. P1, N1, P2, and P3 were greater for the low MCH/MCV groups. This is the first evidence of association between levels of MCH/MCV and brain function while engaged in an executive function task; possibly reflecting brain iron availability.

To investigate the influence of executive function (EF) on current and future quality of life (QoL) and negative emotion (NE) in older adults with diabetes.A total of 128 older adults with diabetes were recruited. Independent variables (demographic information, health and medical conditions, cognitive function, life function) were collected in the first year. Dependent variables (QoL and NE) were collected for 3 years. Pearson's correlation coefficient analysis and stepwise multiple linear regression analysis were performed to identify the predictors of QoL and NE.EF was the strongest predictor for overall QoL and NE in all 3 years, and accounted for 23.0-36.2% and 11.1-17.1% of the variance, respectively. The second strongest predictor for overall QoL in all 3 years was pain interference, which accounted for 3.2-5.8% of the variance. Pain interference was also the second strongest predictor for NE in the second year, accounting for 5.5% of the variance.The present study revealed that EF is more predictive than pain for current and future QoL and NE in older adults with diabetes. We recommend that EF be included as an indicator for diabetes surveillance, and that prevention of EF decline be a part of diabetes management plans.

The P3 component (P300, P3b) is considered to be an effective index of attention and categorization processes when elicited in a visual oddball task, specifically reflecting the selection of a rare target item among frequent non-targets. Researchers have proposed that target categorization is guided by representations of target features held in working memory (WM), thus guiding attention and categorization processes to distinguish targets from non-targets. Although WM is theorized to have visuospatial, verbal and executive function components, most studies do not investigate how these WM components contribute to the P3. This study uses an individual differences approach to determine whether correlations between WM capabilities and P3 amplitudes indicate a common underlying cognitive construct. Participants (n = 140) completed an 80/20 visual oddball task to elicit the P3 as well as independent visual working memory (VWM), spatial working memory (SPWM), and executive function (task switching (TS) and digit symbol substitution (DSS)) tests. Results indicated that measures of executive function, DSS and TS, but not VWM or SPWM ability, correlated with and predicted faster task response times and greater P3 amplitudes. RT and WM measures were not correlated with P3 fractional area latencies. These results support context updating theory. Executive function WM availability, whether as a property of the participant's processing system or based on task demands, plays a functional role in the P3 and an important role in efficient visual categorization and goal-directed learning.

Objective This study aimed to evaluate the sensitivity of a digital platform to assess attentional and executive function in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients, and to evaluate the impact of an at-home interactive digital treatment to improve cognitive dysfunction in this clinical population. Background Deficits in attention and executive function are common in patients with SLE. Despite these cognitive difficulties, there are limited brief assessment techniques and few treatment options to improve cognitive abilities in patients with SLE. Interactive digital treatment approaches (use of video game-based software) have been successful in identifying and improving cognition in other clinical populations. Methods Sixty SLE patients completed baseline neuropsychological tests (of attention, psychomotor speed, and executive function), a tablet-based digital platform (EVOTM Monitor), and biobehavioral measures. The patients were randomized into treatment SLE ( n = 30) or no contact control SLE ( n = 30) groups, and returned 4 weeks later for follow-up cognitive, EVO Monitor, and biobehavioral testing. The SLE treatment group was trained on a tablet-based digital treatment (AKL-T01) and was instructed to complete 5 sessions at least 5 days per week for 4-weeks for a total of approximately 25 min of gameplay per day. Results Systemic lupus erythematosus patients demonstrated impairment in visuomotor and processing speed, visual attention, and cognitive flexibility/sequencing skills at baseline. The video game-like treatment group (AKL-T01) had significant improvement in visuomotor speed (Trail Making A) and cognitive flexibility/sequencing (Trail Making B) compared to the control group at 4-week follow-up. The treatment group also demonstrated significant improvement in EVO Monitor multitasking at follow-up (with no change in controls). At baseline, a multitasking metric from EVO Monitor was associated with performance on tasks of cognitive flexibility (Trail Making B) and psychomotor speed (WAIS-IV Coding). Conclusions These findings provide evidence that SLE patients who participated in a 4-week interactive digital video game-like activity had significant improvement in motor speed and executive functions, and would benefit from participation in digital interventions designed to target frontoparietal networks of the brain. Preliminary findings also suggest specific metrics from EVO Monitor may also be useful to detect cognitive impairment and cognitive changes in patients with SLE.

Executive function (EF) develops throughout childhood and adolescence; however, little is known about whether and how early life factors are associated with EF during these two stages. This secondary analysis examined the associations between maternal psychological characteristics at 2 years after childbirth and offspring EF at 6 and 18 years.Data were from the 18-year New Mothers' Study in Memphis, TN. Women who self-identified as African-American were included (mother-child dyads: N = 414). Maternal psychological characteristics (e.g., depressive symptoms, self-esteem) were assessed using standardized questionnaires; offspring EF at 6 (i.e., working memory, response inhibition) and 18 years (e.g., working memory, sustained attention) were assessed using age-appropriate cognitive tasks. Statistical analyses included principal component analysis (PCA) and regression models.PCA reduced the correlated psychological characteristics to two factors: emotionality (depressive symptoms, emotional instability) and psychological resources (self-esteem, mastery, active coping). After controlling for maternal IQ, maternal emotionality was associated with worse working memory and response inhibition (marginally significant) at 6 years. Maternal psychological resources were marginally associated with better working memory at 6 years.Maternal psychological characteristics may be associated with later EF in offspring. Future studies are needed to replicate these findings and to explore potential mediators.African-American mothers' depressive symptoms and emotional instability at 2 years after childbirth were associated with offspring executive function at 6 and 18 years. African-American mothers' psychological resources at 2 years after childbirth were marginally associated with offspring working memory at 6 years. Maternal IQ attenuated all of the associations observed between maternal psychological status and offspring executive function.

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often experience difficulties with emotional control and a consequent inability to perform tasks. To clarify the effects of emotional behavior on cognitive functions, we aimed to determine the association between emotional changes and executive functions in children with ADHD by measuring the pupil diameter changes associated with emotional changes.This study included 14 children with ADHD and 10 typically developing children (TDC) aged between 10 and 16 years. During the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), which is related to context formation and task switching among executive functions, changes in pupil diameter and frontal oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) were recorded simultaneously. Pupil diameter changes during "cognitive shift" and "consecutive correction" were compared between both groups.During cognitive shift, the pupils of children with ADHD contracted, whereas those of the TDC were mydriatic. During consecutive correction, the pupils of children with ADHD were mydriatic, whereas those of the TDC tended to contract. These results correlated with WCST performance. Moreover, during cognitive shifts, changes in bilateral frontal blood flow were increased in TDC, but not in children with ADHD.The locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system plays an important role in pupillary diameter response. These results suggest that the LC-NE system may be dysfunctional in children with ADHD, and the system's abnormality may lead to affective abnormalities in such patients, which results in poor performance on WCST (i.e., impaired executive functions).

Objective: Parenting behavior is a well-established correlate of offspring ADHD. However, little is known about how parenting exerts its effects on offspring ADHD symptomatology. We examined whether prospective associations between positive and negative parenting behaviors and child ADHD symptoms are mediated by deficits in child executive function (EF) and reward responsivity (RR). Method: One hundred and thirty-five children with and without ADHD were assessed across two Waves, when children were mean ages 6 and 8 respectively. Children completed tasks on EF, and parents completed questionnaires about their parenting behaviors and their children’s RR and ADHD symptoms. Results: Negative parenting behavior at Wave 1 was indirectly associated with offspring ADHD symptoms at Wave 2 via offspring EF. Conclusion: Individual differences in EF, but not RR, during early childhood may constitute a potential pathway by which negative parenting behaviors exerts its effects on subsequent offspring ADHD symptomatology. Treatment implications are discussed.

Kong, Zhaowei, Qian Yu, Shengyan Sun, On Kei Lei, Yu Tian, Qingde Shi, Jinlei Nie, and Martin Burtscher. The impact of sprint interval exercise in acute severe hypoxia on executive function.

The alpha-synuclein gene promoter (SNCA-Rep1) is associated with Parkinson’s disease (PD), but its relationship with performance across individual cognitive domains in early PD is unknown. This study aims to investigate Rep1 polymorphism and longitudinal change in cognition in early PD. In this longitudinal study, Rep1 allele lengths (“long” and “short”) were determined in 204 early PD patients. All participants underwent annual neuropsychological assessments and followed up for 3 years. Linear-mixed model was performed to investigate the association of Rep1 status and longitudinal change in individual cognitive domains. At 3 years, significant decline in executive function was observed in long Rep1 allele carriers vs short allele carriers, controlling for potential confounders. This is the first longitudinal study demonstrating that long Rep1 allele carriers are at higher risk for executive dysfunction in early PD.

Emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and suppression, have been shown to dissimilarly affect life satisfaction. Specifically, reappraisal is linked to higher life satisfaction, while suppression is associated with lower life satisfaction. Less is known, however, about the potential moderators of these established relations. Given that reappraisal and suppression are contingent, in part, on executive function (EF), which comprises a group of adaptive, goal-orientated control processes (i.e., inhibitory control, working memory, and shifting), we explored whether different components of EF could moderate the impact of reappraisal and suppression on life satisfaction. Using latent moderated structural equation analyses, we found that the positive contribution of reappraisal to life satisfaction was more pronounced at higher than lower levels of inhibitory control and working memory. Shifting did not moderate the associations of reappraisal and suppression with life satisfaction. Further analyses, however, indicated that the interactive effects of reappraisal with inhibitory control and working memory on life satisfaction were driven primarily by the shared variance among EF constructs (i.e., common EF). Our findings underscore the pivotal role of common EF in moderating the relation of reappraisal with life satisfaction. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The aim of the study is to explore the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) characteristics of the improvement in executive function by aerobic exercise in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Seventeen children with ADHD were selected for 8 weeks of rope skipping aerobic training, and fMRI findings and executive function were examined before and after training. Regional homogeneity (ReHo) and degree centrality (DC) indexes were used in fMRI analysis, whereas the flanker task was used to test executive function. A paired t test was used to compare the fMRI indexes and response time of executive function before and after training. After aerobic exercise, the brain regions in which the ReHo value of ADHD children significantly increased included the left middle frontal gyrus and the right superior frontal gyrus; the brain region in which the DC value increased was the right posterior cingulate cortex. The flanker task response time decreased significantly (P 0.05, after correction) after aerobic exercise. The study findings support the hypothesis that aerobic exercise can improve the executive function of ADHD children, and the brain mechanism involved is mainly related to the enhancement of spontaneous prefrontal lobe activity.

Objective:Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is highly heritable, and AD polygenic risk scores (AD-PRSs) have been derived from genome-wide association studies. However, the nature of genetic influences very early in the disease process is still not well known. Here we tested the hypothesis that an AD-PRSs would be associated with changes in episodic memory and executive function across late midlife in men who were cognitively unimpaired at their baseline midlife assessment..Method:We examined 1168 men in the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging (VETSA) who were cognitively normal (CN) at their first of up to three assessments across 12 years (mean ages 56, 62, and 68). Latent growth models of episodic memory and executive function were based on 6–7 tests/subtests. AD-PRSs were based on Kunkle et al. (Nature Genetics, 51, 414–430, 2019), p −8 threshold.Results:AD-PRSs were correlated with linear slopes of change for both cognitive abilities. Men with higher AD-PRSs had steeper declines in both memory (r = −.19, 95% CI [−.35, −.03]) and executive functioning (r = −.27, 95% CI [−.49, −.05]). Associations appeared driven by a combination of APOE and non-APOE genetic influences.Conclusions:Memory is most characteristically impaired in AD, but executive functions are one of the first cognitive abilities to decline in midlife in normal aging. This study is among the first to demonstrate that this early decline also relates to AD genetic influences, even in men CN at baseline.

Background H protons magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) has been used to detect abnormal biochemical changes and the mechanism of executive dysfunction in major depressive disorder (MDD). While, finding information associated with non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) among adolescents with MDD is challenging. The present study aimed to examine the executive function and biochemical metabolism alterations as well as to elucidate their associations in depressed adolescents with NSSI. Methods A total of 86 adolescents with MDD (40 with NSSI, and 46 without NSSI) and 28 healthy controls were recruited in the current study. The executive function was assessed by Digital symbol test (DST), Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), Trail Making Test, part B (TMT-B), and Verbal fluency (VF). Bilateral metabolite levels of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), anterior cingulated cortex (ACC), lenticular nucleus (LN) of basal ganglia and thalamus were obtained by 1H-MRS at 3.0 T, and then the ratios of N-acetyl aspartate (NAA) and choline-containing compounds (Cho) to creatine (Cr) were determined, respectively. Finally, association analysis was conducted to investigate their relationships. Results The depressed adolescents with NSSI showed significantly lower VF scores than those without NSSI and healthy controls. We also found significantly higher NAA/Cr ratios in the right thalamus, while significantly lower Cho/Cr ratios in the right thalamusof NSSI group than the MDD without NSSI group and healthy controls. And NSSI group also showed lower NAA/Cr ratio in the right LNthan the MDD without NSSI group. For MDD with NSSI, the NAA/Cr ratios of the left thalamus was positively correlated with the time of TMTB and the Cho/Cr ratios of the left ACC was positively correlated with the VF scores. Conclusions Depressed adolescents with NSSI may have executive dysfunction and an abnormal NAA and Cho metabolism in thalamus. Andthe NAA/Cr ratios of the right LN could distinguish NSSI from depressed adolescents. Further, the executive dysfunction may associated with the abnormal NAA metabolism in the right thalamus and ACC.

Objective: To analyze the association between physical fitness, cognitive function, and depressive symptoms among older adults in long-term care facilities (LTCFs). Methods: Seventy-six institutionalized male and female elderly individuals (65 years and older) living in LTCFs participated of this study. Physical fitness (aerobic capacity and strength), cognitive functions (global cognition, short-term and working and semantic memories, and executive function), and depressive symptoms were assessed. Linear regression and contingency analyses were performed. Significance was accepted at p-values ≤ 0.05. Results: Aerobic capacity predicted 32% of variance in global cognition (p < 0.01) and 25% of variance in semantic fluency/executive function (p < 0.01). Low levels of upper limb strength, lower limb strength, and aerobic capacity were associated with semantic fluency/executive function (OR = 1.38, p = 0.01, OR = 1.26, p = 0.03, and OR = 1.07, p = 0.01, respectively) and depressive symptoms (OR = 1.06, p < 0.01). Conclusion: Poor physical fitness is associated with cognition and depressive symptoms in institutionalized older adults. Low levels of strength and aerobic fitness increase the odds of presenting with impaired semantic fluency and executive function, possibly denoting an increased risk of developing dementia.

The conversational speech of most children can be understood by people outside the family by the time they reach 4 years. However, for some children, speech sound disorders (SSDs) persist into their early school years, and beyond, despite adequate hearing, oromotor function, and language learning opportunities. One explanation for children's SSDs are domain-general cognitive-linguistic deficits that impair the child's ability to correctly derive rules governing how speech sounds legally combine to form words in a specific language.To explore whether there are differences in performance on executive function tasks between children who make speech errors characteristic of phonological delay and those who make speech errors characteristic of phonological disorder.Twenty-six children aged from 3;6 to 5;2 (13 with phonological delay and 13 with phonological disorder), matched pairwise for age and sex (nine males), were assessed on tasks measuring cognitive flexibility (rule abstraction and cognitive shift) and phonological working memory.For the cognitive flexibility tasks, the performance of children with phonological delay was significantly better than that for children with phonological disorder, but there were no group differences for the phonological working memory task.Children with phonological disorders might benefit from intervention programmes that incorporate training in cognitive flexibility.Children with phonological delay and phonological disorder comprise the two largest SSD subgroups that present to speech-language therapy clinics. Evidence suggests domain-general cognitive processes (e.g., phonological working memory, ability to revise faulty underlying representations, rule abstraction, and cognitive shift) influence phonological development. Differences between the two subgroups in the types of speech errors, linguistic abilities, developmental trajectories, and responses to intervention have been reported, yet little is known about the underlying cognitive-linguistic deficits.The results of this study suggest that children with phonological delay and phonological disorder have distinct patterns of performance on executive function tasks: Children with phonological disorder showed deficits in domain general rule-abstraction and cognitive shift when compared to children with phonological delay. WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL OR ACTUAL CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THIS WORK?: The findings draw attention to: (1) the importance of differential diagnosis of phonological delay and phonological disorder; (2) the role of domain-general cognitive processes in explaining why children make particular types of errors; and (3) the need to develop innovative and tailored intervention techniques that target specific underlying deficits.

Background Recent studies in bipolar offspring (BO) showed that a low cognitive performance, especially executive function deficit, could be an early marker of bipolar disorder (BD). Nevertheless, these findings have not been replicated (specifically attentional control, flexibility, and working memory). In addition, most studies have focused on children and adolescents, but few studies analyze the executive function performance in BO adults. Objective Our goal was to compare the neurocognitive performance of BO with control parent-offspring (CO) in a sample that included various age groups. Method We conducted a cohort study, including subjects between six to 30 years old. We evaluated 129 BO and 113 CO subjects using validated psychiatric diagnostic interviews and an extensive neuropsychological battery. Results Compared to the CO group, the BO group presented a lower performance in several executive functioning domains, mainly in tasks of attentional control, flexibility, and working memory. All age groups exhibited these findings. Conclusions BO group presents executive function deficits, regardless of the age group: children, adolescents, and adults. This neurocognitive deficit should be accountable as a neurocognitive endophenotype candidate in BD.

Objective Children who are hard of hearing (CHH) experience delays in spoken language and executive function, but the mechanisms for these deficits remain unresolved. Differences in auditory experience and language skills have been examined as contributing factors to deficits in executive function, primarily with children who are deaf and children with cochlear implants. The theoretical model of cumulative auditory experience quantifies auditory dosage as how much speech is audible and how often children wear their hearing aids. CHH with higher auditory dosage have better language outcomes than peers with less auditory dosage. However, the effects of auditory experience on executive function have not been studied in CHH. The goal of this study was to examine the influences of auditory experience and language skills on the development of executive function in CHH. Design We collected measures of aided speech audibility, hearing aid use, executive function, and receptive vocabulary in 177 CHH and 86 children with typical hearing who were 5- to 10 years old and matched for socioeconomic status and nonverbal intelligence. Auditory dosage was calculated by combining each child's average hours of hearing aid use with their audibility for speech to create a variable that quantifies individual differences in auditory access. Results CHH had lower receptive vocabulary and deficits in executive function related to working memory and selective attention compared to peers with typical hearing. CHH with greater auditory dosage had higher receptive vocabulary than CHH with lower auditory dosage. Better receptive vocabulary was associated with better scores on executive function measures related to working memory and attention. Auditory dosage was also directly associated with measures of verbal working memory. Conclusions CHH have deficits in language and some, but not all, areas of executive function related to working memory and attention. Auditory dosage was associated with language abilities and verbal working memory. Language was associated with individual differences in executive function skills related to attention and working memory. These results provide support for systems theories regarding the development of executive function in CHH. Interventions that improve auditory access and language may be effective for improving executive function related to working memory and attention in CHH.

Executive function entails high-level cognitive control supporting activities of daily living. Literature has shown that a single-bout of exercise involving volitional muscle activation (i.e., active exercise) improves executive function and that an increase in cerebral blood flow (CBF) may contribute to this benefit. It is, however, unknown whether non-volitional exercise (i.e., passive exercise) wherein an individual's limbs are moved via an external force elicits a similar executive function benefit. This is a salient question given that proprioceptive and feedforward drive from passive exercise increases CBF independent of the metabolic demands of active exercise. Here, in a procedural validation participants (n = 2) used a cycle ergometer to complete separate 20-min active and passive (via mechanically driven flywheel) exercise conditions and a non-exercise control condition. Electromyography showed that passive exercise did not increase agonist muscle activation or increase ventilation or gas exchange variables (i.e., V̇O2 and V̇CO2 ). In a main experiment participants (n = 28) completed the same exercise and control conditions and transcranial Doppler ultrasound showed that active and passive exercise (but not the control condition) increased CBF through the middle cerebral artery (ps

We examined the efficacy and feasibility of an iPad® app used at-home in identifying a postexercise benefit to executive function. The iPad® app required simple reaching movements mirror-symmetrical to an exogenously presented target (i.e., antipointing) and is a task that lab-based behavioral and neuroimaging work has shown to provide a valid measure of the response inhibition component of executive function. Fifty English-speaking individuals (18 female, age range 18-26 years of age) completed the iPad® app before and immediately after a 20-min session of heavy-intensity aerobic exercise, and on a separate day completed the app prior to and following a 20-min non-exercise control condition. Results showed antipointing reaction times (RTs) in the exercise condition decreased by an average of 18 ms postexercise (p < 0.001) with an observed large effect size (dz = 0.90), whereas control condition pre- and post-assessment RTs did not reliably differ (p = 0.12, dz = 0.22) and were within an equivalence boundary (p < 0.005). Further, pre-assessment exercise and control condition antipointing RTs were within an equivalence boundary (p < 0.05). Accordingly, a simple iPad® app provides the requisite resolution to detect subtle executive function benefits derived from a single bout of exercise.

This randomized, controlled study examined the initial efficacy of an executive function training program for children with autism spectrum disorder. Seventy 7- to 11 year-olds with autism spectrum disorder and intelligence quotients ⩾80 were randomly assigned to receive a web-based set of executive function training games combined with in-person metacognition coaching or to a waitlist. Primary outcomes were evaluated for neural responses related to executive function, lab-based executive function behavior, and generalization of executive function skills. Secondary outcomes included measures of social function. Post-testing and analyses were conducted by staff naïve to group assignment. Children exhibited a change in neural response following training relative to the waitlist group [Formula: see text]. Training effects were not detected via lab-based tasks [Formula: see text] or generalized to caregiver-reported executive function skills outside the lab [Formula: see text]. However, the training group demonstrated reduced symptoms of repetitive behavior [Formula: see text] following training. There were no adverse events or attrition from the training group. Findings suggest that brief, targeted computer-based training program accompanied by coaching is feasible and may improve neural responses and repetitive behaviors of school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Lay abstract Executive function, which is a set of thinking skills that includes stopping unwanted responses, being flexible, and remembering information needed to solve problems, is a challenge for many children on the autism spectrum. This study tested whether executive function could be improved with a computerized executive function training program under the guidance of a coach who reinforced the use of executive function skills. Seventy children with autism spectrum disorder from age 7 to 11 years of age participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to receive training or to a waiting group. The tests most likely to determine whether the training may be effective were chosen from a larger battery before the study started and included one task measuring brain responses, two measures of executive function in the lab, and a parent questionnaire. Changes in social functioning and repetitive behaviors were also explored. All children assigned to training completed the program and families generally reported the experience was positive. Brain responses of the training group changed following training, but not within the waiting group during a similar time period. Children who received training did not exhibit behavioral changes during the two the lab-based tasks. Parent report on questionnaires indicated that neither group showed a significant change in their broad use of executive function in other settings. Yet, children who received training were reported to have fewer restricted and repetitive behaviors following training. These initial findings suggest that short executive function training activities are feasible and may improve some functioning of school-aged children on the autism spectrum.

There are multivariate influences on the development of children's executive function throughout the lifespan and substantial individual differences can be seen as early as when children are 1 and 2 years of age. These individual differences are moderately stable throughout early childhood, but more research is needed to better understand their origins. To some degree, individual differences in executive function are correlated between mother and child, but no research to date has examined these associations prior to when children are preschool age, nor have any studies considered the role of fathers' and mothers' executive function in tandem. Here, we use a sample of 484 families (Mothers 89.2% white; Fathers 92.5% white) in three countries (UK, USA, Netherlands) to investigate the role of each parents' executive function on the development of children's (49.7% female) executive function from 14 (M = 14.42, SD = 0.57) to 24 (M = 24.47, SD = 0.78) months, as well as parenting practices that underlie these associations. Results of structural equation models suggest stability in some-but not all-components of executive function and growing unity between components as children age. We replicate extant findings such that mothers' executive function predicts children's executive function over and above stability and extend these findings to include associations between father and child skills. We find an additive role of fathers' EF, similar in magnitude to the role of mothers' EF. Finally, for both mothers and fathers we find that sensitivity and autonomy supportive practices mediate the relations between parents' and children's executive function.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of aerobic and neurocognitive exercise with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels on executive functions (EFs) and sleep quality in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).In a parallel two-group randomized controlled trial (RCT) design, 80 children with ADHD aged 6-12 years (Mage = 8.46 ± 1.50) were assigned to either a 12-week combined aerobic-and neurocognitive-exercise experimental group (EG; three sessions per week for 60-min) or a wait-list control group (CG). Forty children with typical development aged 6-12 years (Mage = 8.49 ± 1.51) were recruited as healthy controls (HC). A Polar heart rate (HR) monitor was used to track the exercise intensity (60%-80% predicted HRmax) throughout the intervention. Three core EFs (inhibitory control [IC], working memory [WM], and cognitive flexibility [CF]) were assessed by computer-based neurocognitive tasks, and sleep quality and physical activity (PA) levels were assessed by self-report questionnaires.The results showed that the exercise intervention was beneficial for improving three core EFs, shortening sleep latency and decreasing sleep disturbances. The intervention effects on EFs and sleep quality appeared to be sustained for at least 12 weeks in EG. In addition, children with ADHD after intervention showed non-significant differences in IC, CF and multiple sleep quality outcomes compared with HC. Furthermore, a significant PA-EFs-sleep correlation was found in children with ADHD after the intervention.The findings suggest that a 12-week combined aerobic and neurocognitive exercise intervention appears to be an effective treatment program for EFs and sleep quality in children with ADHD.

There is increasing interest in using motor function tests to identify risk of cognitive impairment in older adults (OA). This study examined associations among grip strength, with and without adjustment for muscle mass, manual dexterity and Trail Making Test (TMT) A and B in 77 OA (73.4 ± 5.2 years) with globally intact cognition. A subset of OA who exhibited mismatched motor function (e.g., in the highest strength and lowest dexterity tertiles, or vice versa) was identified and analyzed. Dexterity showed stronger associations with TMT-A and -B than grip strength (absolute or adjusted). OA with mismatched motor function scored worse on tests of TMT-B, but not -A than those with matched motor function. Dexterity may have more promise than grip strength for identifying increased risk of cognitive impairment. Intriguing, though limited, data suggest that mismatched motor function (strength vs. dexterity) in OAs might be an even more robust marker of such risk.