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Combo nursery technique is a technique where seedlings/cuttings of Shorea leprosula , Gliricidia sepium , and Brachiaria decumbens grass were planted in one polybag to support mining reclamation. To reduce competition effects among the three species, optimum media and size of polybag need to be investigated. The objective of this experiment is to analyse the effect of size of polybag and media composition on the growth of S. leprosula , G. sepium , and B. decumbens grass in the combo nursery technique. The experiment used Randomised Complete Design in Factorial with two factors, i.e. media compositions (soil : compost (2 : 1, v/v), (1 : 1, v/v), (1 : 2, v/v), and soil : compost : rice husk (7:3:1, v/v/v); and size of polybag (15 x 20 cm, 20 x 20 cm, dan 25 x 25 cm). Each treatment had four replications, and each replication consisted of four polybags. The results showed no significant interaction effects between the composition of media and the size of polybag; however, media compositions of soil: compost (1:1) and (1:2), and the sizes of polybag 20 x 20 cm and 25 x 25 cm significantly eliminated competition and significantly increased the growth of S. leprosula and the number of tiller of B. decumbens grass. Keywords: Brachiaria decumbens , Gliricidia sepium , mining reclamation, nursery, Shorea leprosula

High productivity fast growing species plantation establishment such as the line planting of red meranti (i.e Shorea leprosula and Shorea parvifolia ) with intensive silviculture is one potential solution to improve wood supply for industries in Indonesia. However, the information of anatomical properties and wood properties of these two species related to the influence of the line planting system and tree growth rate is limited. This paper studies the anatomical features, wood cell proportions, fiber dimensions and physical properties of wood in radial variation in relation to the line planting effect and tree growth rate. Wood of the trees grown in the line planting system showed higher proportion of vessel element compared to those of wood from natural forest. The vessel diameter of wood from the line planting was also larger than that of in wood from natural forest. The specific gravity of wood from Shorea parvifolia grown on the line planting was higher than that of wood grown in natural forest. The variation of specific gravity on wood portion near to the pith of Shorea leprosula and Shorea parvifolia trees grown on the line planting was related to the variation of the cell wall thickness. The bigger diameter of trees grown or the faster growth rate in the line of planting at the same age shows the greater vessel diameter in wood of Shorea leprosula and Shorea parvifolia and greater specific gravity of Shorea parvifolia wood.

A b s t r a c t Information on calorific value is very important factor in fuel evaluation. The objective of the study was to investigate the calorific values of the leaves of five (5) selected trees species of dipterocarp in Piah Forest Reserve, Perak, Malaysia. The species are Hopea sp., Shorea parvifolia, Shorea leprosula, Shorea macroptera and Dipterocarpus sp. The calorific values were determined using the Adiabatic Bomb Calorimeter. The difference of calorific value between the five species were also examined. It was found that, the mean calorific value for the dipterocarp species were within the range of 4041.28 Cal g -1 to 4820.78 Cal g -1 . The leaves of the Shorea macroptera contain higher calorific value compared to other four species. The findings will be useful in the preparation of forest fire management plan, and also in the development of bioenergy project of wood-based biomass from forest species.

Failure in degraded forest rehabilitation was caused by using chosen species without pay attantion on site characterictics. Species selection by looking at site limiting factor, will increase success in degraded forest rehabilitation. This research aims to study the influence of physical and chemical soil properties on growth of Shorea leprosula Miq , Shorea palembanica Miq , dan Shorea mecisopteryx. Data was analyzed using multiple linear regression analysis with mean annual increment (MAI) of height and diameter as dependent variable and soil properties as independent variable . The results showed that growth increment of S.palembanica was the most species that influnced by soil perperties with R 2 a djusted value for MAI- diam e ter and MAI- h e i gh t repectively, 0.946 and 0.674 whereas others two Shorea have R 2 a djusted value < 0.5. The research also showed that available P content was the limiting factor of the three species . T here wa s a difference of each species in respond to the available P content. MAI- height on S . mecisopteryx and MAI- diam e ter and MAI- h e i gh t on S . pelambanica will increase in line with decreasing available P content w hile S . leprosula require d P available increasing in order to increas e of MAI-diameter . This indicates that each species have specific response on certain soil properties content .

This study demonstrated that the cambial activities of three selected Shorea species with different stem diameters growing in a tropical rainforest in Malaysia responded differently to climatic factors. We investigated the cambial activities in Shorea leprosula, Shorea acuminata, and Shorea parvifolia trees with different stem diameters at breast height growing in a natural lowland dipterocarp rainforest in Malaysia. We collected and analyzed samples from the main trunks of selected trees in monthly intervals from March 2013 to April 2014. The cambium of the three Shorea species showed periods of active and less active growth in the humid forest. Selected trees with different stem diameters of the same and different species showed variation in rhythms of cambial activity (changes in the numbers of cambial and enlarging cell layers) at site with similar growing conditions. Monthly mean relative humidity and monthly mean vapour pressure deficit were important factors influencing the number of cambial cells of S. acuminata with larger stem diameter, and those of S. parvifolia with different stem diameters. Active cambium were detected in months with high relative humidity and low vapour pressure deficit in those trees. Total monthly precipitation had significant positive correlation with the cambial cells activities of S. parvifolia with different stem diameters, but no correlation with those of the other two species. The cambium of S. leprosula with smaller and larger stem diameters were found active throughout the year. We concluded that the three Shorea species examined with different stem diameters have different growth strategies and thus react differently to climatic factors.

Plantations of tropical species are becoming an increasingly important source of wood. However, it is important that research trials focus not only on tree growth performance, but also on wood quality. The aims of this study were to assess the growth performance of six commercially and ecologically important tree species from separate plantation trials in Indonesia and to determine the relationships between tree growth and wood quality in terms of the dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOE) and wood density. Forty-eight 7-year Maesopsis eminii Engl. and thirty-five 9-year specimens (7 each of 5 Shorea spp.) were selected from two trials. The MOE, based on acoustic velocity, was indirectly measured to evaluate wood stiffness. Tree-growth performance was evaluated, and correlations between growth traits and acoustic velocity as well as density and wood stiffness properties were estimated. The growth performance of M. eminii in terms of tree volume was significantly different in three different categories of growth (i.e. fast, medium, slow). Of the five Shorea spp. studied, Shorea leprosula Miq. had the highest growth rate, as expected since it is known to be a fast-growing Shorea species. Indirect measurement of wood quality by means of non-destructive ultrasonic methods showed a weak negative correlation between tree volume and acoustic velocity and dynamic MOE. Although each fast-growing tree could reach a merchantable size faster than other varieties or species, wood traits of various species tested were not significantly different based on tree growth rate performance. The findings from this study could be used to improve selection criteria in future breeding trials; indirect measurements of the dynamic modulus of elasticity can be used in mass pre-selection of genetic materials, to choose the most-promising material for in-depth evaluation.

Background: Although natural hybridisation between dipterocarp trees is considered rare, putative dipterocarp hybrids (Shorea spp.) are found in a forest fragment in Singapore. Understanding the performance of hybrids is critical to inform conservation efforts and has implications for the demographic and genetic viability of these small populations.Aims: First, is there a difference in the frequency of hybrids between the mature and seedling stages, and second, do parent and hybrid seedlings have different ecological traits?Methods: We analysed seedling survival and growth rates in relation to environmental variables for Shorea curtisii, S. leprosula and hybrids of the two species. We monitored the height and diameter of seedlings for 4 years, as well as light conditions and soil moisture.Results: The proportion of hybrids at the seedling stage was 41% for S. leprosula and 17% for S. curtisii, respectively. Hybrids were more frequent at the seedling stage than at the mature stage. Hybrid individuals had g...

Selective cutting and line planting silvicultural system has been carried out in natural forest to increase the growth rate of red meranti (Shorea leprosula Miq.). Even though high growth rate has been understood tend to decrease certain basic properties of wood; however measurement of the basic properties specifically done on the red meranti resulted from thinning and shade free gap treatment has been lacking. In the present research, measurement of the basic properties of red meranti resulted from thinning and shade free gap treatment was done. It was found that thinning and increasing shade free gap increased the diameter of tree, longitudinal shrinkage, fiber diameter, lumen diameter, sapwood extractives, and ash content. On the other hand, these treatment decreased heartwood proportion, crown coverage, specific gravity, wood density, mechanical properties, radial and tangential shrinkage, fiber length, cell wall thickness and heartwood extractives. Lignin, holocellulose, α-cellulose and hemicelluloses were not significantly influenced by the treatments. Overall, thinning and increasing shade free gap tended to reduce the quality of wood.

Fungal endophytes are fungi that lives within plant tissues without causing apparent disease. It is also suggested that these fungi have ability to enhance plant growth and plant resistancy against pest and disease. This research is a preliminary study about root fungal endophytes in dipterocarp since there are lack research concerning about this study focus. We examined root fungal endophyte isolated from seedling of Shorea leprosula and Shorea selanica taken from Dramaga Experimental Forest, Bogor. Furthermore, we also tried to find out the fungal potential ability to solubilize phosphate and suppres fungal pathogen by in vitro assay. Surface sterilization method was used to isolated fungal endophytes from root tissues. Trichoderma spirale, Velsalceae sp., Melanconiela ellisii, Chaetosphaeria callimorpha, and Trichoderma asperellum were isolated during this study. These fungi appear to have specific association between fungal species and host plant, but no evidence of fungal order-level specificiation in S. leprosula and S. selanica. In vitro test also suggested that root fungal endophyte Trichoderma spirale and Melanconiella elisii have potential ability to solubilize inorganic phosphate. In addition, this result also present that root fungal endophyte T. spirale and T. asperellum have the potential to inhibit pathogen fungi Fusarium sp.

Vegetative propagation plays an important role to support Shorea leprosula’s clonal forestry development. This study aimed to determine the effect of mother trees and cuttings material position of S. leprosula shoot cuttings growth at 4 months of age. Complete Randomized Design (CRD) was used as the experimental design, which consists of two factors, i.e. cuttings material position (4 level) and mother trees (10 mother trees). The results showed that the interaction between mother trees and cuttings material position significantly affected the growth of height and the number of the leaf. The best interactions in height of growth values ranged from 7.83 to 8.83 cm and the best number of leaves ranged from 3.6 to 4.5 sheets. The single factor of the cuttings material position and mother trees significantly affected the rooting percentage, the number of the root, and the length of the root. The cuttings material position at 20 cm, 40 cm, and 60 cm found to be the best rooting percentage (84 to 88%), the cuttings material position at 40 cm and 60 cm found to be the best number of the root (4.04 to 4.43 pieces) and the best length of the root (10.23 to 10.93 cm).

Vegetative propagation has an important role to produce high quality of seedling. Through vegetative propagation, the genetic potential of a mother tree will totally be inherited to the off-springs. Therefore, the success of stool plants preparation from selected mother tree is very important. The aim of study was to investigate the effect of populations and height of topping to sprouting ability of Meranti tembaga (Shorea leprosula Miq.) stool plants. This study was arranged in completely randomized block design with factorial. The two treatments used in the study were three populations (Muara Wahau, East Kalimantan; Kenangan, East Kalimantan and Ketapang, West Kalimantan) and four height of toppings (20 cm, 40 cm, 60 cm and 80 cm). The results of study showed that population were significantly different for the number of sprouts, length of sprouts, diameter of sprouts and number of nodus. While the height of topping were significantly different only for the number of sprouts. The best number of sprouts (6.82 buds), length of sprouts (18.41 cm), diameter of sprouts (2.14 mm) and number of nodus (7.10 nodus) was found at Muara Wahau population. While among the height of toppings, the best number of sprouts was found at 80 cm height (8,06 buds), followed by 60 cm (6,00 buds), 40 cm (5,08 buds) and 20 cm (3,86 buds). There were no significant differences on the interaction between population and height of topping for all measured characters.

Amirta R, Mukhdlor A, Mujiasih D, Septia E, Supriadi, Susanto D. 2016. Suitability and availability analysis of tropical forest wood species for ethanol production: a case study in East Kalimantan. Biodiversitas 17: 544-552. Fifteen species of woody biomass from tropical forest of East Kalimantan, Indonesia and identified as Acacia mangium, Aleurites moluccana, Alstonia scholaris, Anthocephalus cadamba, Artocarpus altilis, Artocarpus elasticus, Cananga odorata, Gmelina arborea, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Leucaena leucocephala, Macaranga gigantea, Macaranga tanarius, Paraserianthes falcataria, Shorea leprosula and Swietenia macrophylla were characterized and studied to find out and discover their potential utilization as suitable feedstocks for biofuel (ethanol) production. Characterization was done by evaluation of lignin, holocellulose and cellulose contents of woody biomass including the yield of reducing sugar (saccharification) after pretreated with alkaline (NaOH) at moderate temperature. Among 15 species of tropical forest wood biomass evaluated, our findings showed that M. gigantea was gave the highest yield of saccharified sugar (42.22%, weight of original wood dry basis) and also yield of theoretical ethanol (± 273 L/ton). We also found growth of M. giganteawas very fast to produce approximately 26,119 kg ha-1 dry biomass within 3 years. In general, the tropical wood biomass such as M. gigantea, A. moluccana, G. arborea, A. cadamba, and P. falcataria are suitable and potentially to be used as feedstocks for ethanol production due to their fast growing ability, availability and attractive chemical composition to produce high saccharified sugar and yield of ethanol.

A research was done at natural tropical forest in forest concession of PT : Suka Jaya Makmur (SJM).Ketapang. West Kalimantan . The objective of the study is germplasm area in natural Forest. The aims of this floristic study were to investigate the potensial and distribution of tengkawang tree species. Tengkawang kernel is one of the fomous Non –Wood Forest Product (NWFP), it is rescources of on importance vegetable fat. The inventory was conducted using line plot method in each area of 26 Hectares. 130 sample plots were made up systematically within 13 line plot. The sample plot had a square shape with nested sampling area measured 20 mx 20 m for tree stage, 10 m x 10 m for pole stage, 5 m x 5 m for sapling stage and 2 m x 2 m for seeding stage. The result reveal that the germplasm consisted of 75 species were dominated by industralwood species . The germpalsm are was dominated by Shorea leprosula with importance value (31.01%). Eugenia cymosa (26.32%).Litsea Firma (18.11%) and Shorea laevis (16.02%) respectively . Some tengkawang trees were found in the study area with important value were varied were Shorea pinnanga (9.43%) . Shorea macrophylla (4.11%). Shorea macistopterix (0.63%) respectively but the famous of tengkawang tree (Shorea stenoptera)was not found in the study area. Therefore, block 35 & 36 PT SJM germplasm area unrepresentative for tengkawang genetic concervation plat.

We investigated effects of heterogeneous stomatal behavior on diurnal patterns of leaf gas exchange in 10 tree species. Observations were made in middle and upper canopy layers of potted tropical rainforest trees in a nursery at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Measurements were taken from 29 January to 3 February 2010. We measured in situ diurnal changes in net photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance in three leaves of each species under natural light. In both top-canopy and sub-canopy species, midday depression of net assimilation rate occurred in late morning. Numerical analysis showed that patchy bimodal stomatal behavior occurred only during midday depression, suggesting that the distribution pattern of stomatal apertures (either uniform or non-uniform stomatal behavior) varies flexibly within single days. Direct observation of stomatal aperture using Suzuki's Universal Micro-Printing (SUMP) method demonstrated midday patchy stomatal closure that fits a bimodal pattern in Shorea leprosula Miq., Shorea macrantha Brandis. and Dipterocarpus tempehes V.Sl. Inhibition of net assimilation rate and stomatal conductance appears to be a response to changes in vapor pressure deficit (VPD). Variable stomatal closure with increasing VPD is a mechanism used by a range of species to prevent excess water loss from leaves through evapotranspiration (viz., inhibition of midday leaf gas exchange). Bimodal stomatal closure may occur among adjacent stomata within a single patch, rather than among patches on a single leaf. Our results suggest the occurrence of patches at several scales within single leaves. Further analysis should consider variable spatial scales in heterogeneous stomatal behavior between and within patches and within single leaves.

Shorea (Dipterocarpaceae) is a large genus in which many closely related species often grow together in Southeast Asian lowland tropical rain forests. Many Shorea species share common pollinators, and earlier studies suggested occurrence of interspecific hybridization and introgression. Here, we show morphological and molecular evidence of hybridization between Shorea species. In the census of all the trees of Shorea curtisii, Shorea leprosula, and Shorea parvifolia (>30 cm dbh) within the 164-ha area of Bukit Timah Nature Reserve in Singapore, we found 21 morphologically recognizable hybrid individuals. All of the putative hybrids could be distinguished obviously from the parental species on the basis of vegetative characters. Population genetic analysis of DNA sequences of two nuclear (GapC and PgiC) and chloroplast (trnL-trnF) regions demonstrated that each of the three species had several species-specific mutations. The nuclear sequences of the putative hybrids were heterozygote at all the species-specific sites between two parental species. Hybrid between S. curtisii and S. leprosula was found most, while S. curtisii × S. parvifolia and S. leprosula × S. parvifolia hybrids were also found. Almost no shared polymorphism between populations of the parental species suggests rarity of introgression. The study indicated that natural hybridization between sympatric Shorea species should not be uncommon, but all of the hybrid individuals were F1, and the post-F1 hybrids were considerably rare.

The genetic diversity within and among populations of Shorea leprosula and Shorea parvifolia from Indonesia was investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). The results indicated that S. leprosula is genetically more variable than S. parvifolia. At the population level, a higher level of genetic diversity was revealed for S. leprosula with a percentage of polymorphic loci (PPLp) of 53.32% and an expected heterozygosity (H ep) of 0.16 in comparison with S. parvifolia showing PPLp of 51.79% and H ep of 0.14. At the species level, S. leprosula showed PPLs of 92.86% and H es of 0.21, while S. parvifolia showed PPLs of 85.71% and H es of 0.21. Genetic differentiation (G st) indicated that 25 and 31% of total genetic diversity in S. leprosula and S. parvifolia, respectively, were attributed to the differences among populations. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) at two hierarchical levels exhibited that most genetic variation resided within populations with proportion of 70.2% for S. leprosula and 66.2% for S. parvifolia. The AMOVA at three hierarchical levels performed for S. leprosula and S. parvifolia together revealed that the genetic difference between the two species was remarkably higher with a proportion of 44.1% than the differences within and among populations (38.1 and 17.8%, respectively). The genetic differentiation between islands was significant for S. leprosula but not for S. parvifolia. The observed genetic diversity agreed with the life history traits of Shorea species. Highly differentiating individual AFLP markers were found for each species, which will serve as diagnostic markers for the identification of wood of different species, from different islands and regions.

Analyses of the spatial distribution pattern, spatial genetic structure and genetic diversity were carried out using a 33-ha plot in a hill dipterocarp forest for three dipterocarps with different habitat preferences, i.e. Shorea curtisii on the ridges, Shorea leprosula in the valleys and Shorea macroptera both on the ridges and in the valleys. The significant spatial aggregation in small-diameter trees of all the three species was explained by limited seed dispersal. At the large-diameter trees, only S. macroptera showed random distribution and this might further prove that S. macroptera is habitat generalist, whilst S. curtisii and S. leprosula are habitat specific. The levels of genetic diversity estimated based on five microsatellite loci were high and comparable in all the three studied species. As the three studied species reproduced mainly through outcrossing, the observed high levels of genetic diversity might support the fact that the plant mating system can be used as guideline to infer the levels of genetic diversity, regardless of whether the species is habitat specific or habitat generalist. The lack of spatial genetic structure but significant aggregation in the small-diameter trees of all the three species might indicate limited seed dispersal but extensive pollen flow. Hence, if seed dispersal is restricted but pollen flow is extensive, significant spatial aggregation but no spatial genetic structure will be observed at the small-diameter trees, regardless of whether the species is habitat specific or habitat generalist. The inferred extensive pollen flow might indicate that energetic pollinators are involved in the pollination of Shorea species in the hill dipterocarp forests.

Development of meranti (S . leprosula) plantation forest is limited/ constrained by many factors, e.g. seed supply and seedling growth environment. The research deals with the observation of the current condition on A. mangium stand and did not employ any treatments. Meranti seedling was obtained from vegetative cutting (Komatsu-Forda), at one year (old) post planted meranti under A. mangium stands and spacing of 4 x 2 m, approximately two hectares of permanent sample plot (PSP) were made. Ineach hectare of young meranti plants with spacing 10 x 3 m (330 seedling/ha), 9 (nine) observation plots with size 10 x 10 m (6 seedlings/plot) were prepared, and placed in the middle of PSP. Totally, there were 108 seedlings available for the measurement of particular parameter, i.e. light intensity, height growth, and survival rate. Light intensity was measured by going around of 10 x 10 m plot. Result of measurement in each observation plot (10 x 10 m size) rescaled that light intensity ranged about 6,55 - 35,2% or being equal with 4908 - 26568 flux hour. Meanwhile, the best height growth response and survivalrate were at 10 % light intensity or over.

The induction of carbon-based secondary metabolites in leaves following damage has been proposed to be a result of a shift in the carbon:nutrient balance, when growth is limited by nutrients in relation to carbon. Here we test this hypothesis using seedlings of a tropical tree, Shorea leprosula (Dipterocarpaceae). In the short term, we analysed the phenolic content of leaves 7 d after damage on seedlings grown under differing light and nutrient treatments. In the long term, we examined the effect of nutrients, over 12 mo, on leaf phenolic concentration and seedling growth. In both the long and short term, levels of phenolics increased in damaged leaves under low nutrient treatments. No changes in leaf phenolics were detected under high nutrient regimes, or in the short term under low light. In addition, it was found that defoliation of seedlings in high-nutrient environments led to greater rates of leaf production than in undamaged seedlings, suggesting compensation.

The survival of dipterocarp seedlings in the understorey of south-east Asian rain forests is limited by their ability to maintain a positive carbon balance. Photosynthesis during sunflecks is an important component of carbon gain. Field measurements demonstrated that Shorea leprosula seedlings in a rain forest understorey received a high proportion of daily photon flux density at temperatures supra-optimal for photosynthesis (72% at ≥ 30 ∞ C, 14% at ≥ 35 ∞ C). To investigate the effect of high temperatures on photosynthesis during sunflecks, gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence measurements were made on seedlings grown in controlled environment conditions either, under uniform, saturating irradiance (approximately 539 m mol m - 2 s - 1 ) or, shade/fleck sequences (approximately 30 m m m mol m - - 2 s - 1

In the deeply shaded understorey of S.E. Asian rain forests the growth and survival of dipterocarp seedlings is limited by their ability to maintain a positive carbon balance. Photosynthesis during sunflecks is an important component of carbon gain in understorey plants. To test the sensitivity of photosynthesis and growth to variation in the pattern of dynamic irradiance, dipterocarp tree seedlings (Shorea leprosula and Hopea nervosa) were grown for 370 days under shaded forest light treatments of equal total daily photosynthetic photon flux density (~3.3 mol m-2 day-1), but characterised by either long flecks (LF) or short flecks (SF). Seedling growth was more than 4-fold greater under LF, compared with SF, in both species. Variation in the relative growth rates (RGR) and light saturated rates of photosynthesis (A max) were strongly positively correlated with the mean duration of sunflecks. Variation in RGR was strongly correlated with greater unit leaf rate growth, indicating that photosynthetic carbon gain per unit leaf area was greater under LF. The accumulation of starch in leaves over the diurnal period was 117% greater in both species under LF, compared with SF. Greater carbon gain in seedlings under LF is likely to have resulted from the combination of (1) greater A max (S. leprosula 35%, H. nervosa 40%), (2) more efficient dynamic photosynthesis, and (3) greater incident photosynthetic quantum yield, compared with seedlings receiving the SF irradiance treatment. The pattern of dynamic irradiance received by seedlings may significantly impact their growth and survival to a previously unrecognised extent, with important consequences for regeneration processes and hence forest structure and composition.

The survivorship of dipterocarp seedlings in the deeply shaded understorey of South-east Asian rain forests is limited by their ability to maintain a positive carbon balance. Photosynthesis during sunflecks is an important component of carbon gain. To investigate the effect of elevated CO 2 upon photosynthesis and growth under sunflecks, seedlings of Shorea leprosula were grown in controlled environment conditions at ambient or elevated CO 2 . Equal total daily photon flux density (PFD) ( ~ ~ ~ 7·7 mol m - - 2 d - 1 ) was supplied as either uniform irradiance ( ~ ~ ~ 170 m mol m - 2 s - 1 ) or shade/ fleck sequences ( ~ 30 m m m mol m - 2 s - 1 / ~ ~ ~ 525 m mol m - 2 s - 1 ). Photosynthesis and growth were enhanced by elevated CO 2 treatments but lower under flecked irradiance treatments. Acclimation of photosynthetic capacity occurred in response to elevated CO 2 but not flecked irradiance. Importantly, the relative enhancement effects of elevated CO 2 were greater under sunflecks (growth 60%, carbon gain 89%) compared with uniform irradiance (growth 25%, carbon gain 59%). This was driven by two factors: (1) greater efficiency of dynamic photosynthesis (photosynthetic induction gain and loss, post-irradiance gas exchange); and (2) photosynthetic enhancement being greatest at very low PFD. This allowed improved carbon gain during both clusters of lightflecks (73%) and intervening periods of deep shade (99%). The relatively greater enhancement of growth and photosynthesis at elevated CO 2 under sunflecks has important potential consequences for seedling regeneration processes and hence forest structure and composition.

Vegetative propagation has an important role in production of high quality planting stocks. Through vegetative propagation, the genetic potential of a mother tree will totally be inherited to the off-springs.This study aimed to determine the effects of population sources and clones on growth variation of Shorea leprosula Miq shoot cuttings. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used as an experimental design; which consists of two factors, i.e population sources (Muara Wahau, Berau, Kenangan, Ketapang and Carita) and clones (40 clones). In this study clone was nested in the population. The results showed that the clones and population sources influenced the rooting percentage, height growth, number of root, length of root and number of leaves of S. leprosula shoot cuttings. Rooting percentage of clones ranged between 66.7 – 100.0% (2 groups difference), height growth ranged between 2.60 – 6.80 cm (6 groups difference), number of root ranged between 2.1 – 5.7 (9 groups difference), length of root ranged between 4.3 – 15.8 cm (8 groups difference) and number of leaves ranged between 1.17 – 3.57 (5 groups difference).

Dipterocarps dominate the canopy of lowland tropical rain forest in South-east Asia. Seedlings of these species form diverse assemblages on the forest floor where low irradiance severely limits their growth. Further growth depends largely upon the increased irradiance that can occur with the creation of canopy gaps. However, the response of dipterocarp seedlings to increased irradiance and their subsequent establishment in the canopy may be influenced by the availability of other resources, such as nutrient availability. We investigated the influence of nitrogen supply on aspects of the photosynthetic physiology and growth of seedlings of four dipterocarp species (Shorea leprosula, Shorea johorensis, Shorea oleosa and Dryobalanops lanceolata) growing under low irradiance, during transfer from low to high irradiance, and during subsequent growth at high irradiance. All four species increased growth and photosynthetic capacity in response to N-supply at high irradiances but not at low irradiance approximating that which can be expected to occur in the forest understorey. When seedlings grown at low irradiances and varying N-supply were exposed to a large increase in irradiance, all species showed some degree of initial photodamage (measured through chlorophyll fluorescence), the extent of which was similar between species but differed markedly depending on the pre-exposure growth irradiance and N-supply. Greater photodamage occurred in seedlings grown at lower compared with higher N-supply and irradiance. Despite these initial difference in the extent of this photodamage, all seedlings demonstrated a similar capacity to recover from damage. However, the alterations in the photosynthetic physiology of leaves during this recovery differed between species and depended on N-supply. Under high N-supply all species apart from S. oleosa increased photosynthetic capacity per unit chlorophyll following exposure to high irradiance by increasing photosynthetic capacity per unit leaf area while, under low N-supply, an increase in photosynthetic capacity per unit leaf only occurred in D. lanceolata. Our results suggest that variations in N-availability may have a much greater impact on the relative competitiveness of dipterocarp seedlings during the regenerative phase following canopy gap formation than physiological differences between seedlings. Our results demonstrate a potentially significant role for N-availability in the regeneration dynamics and distribution of canopy-dominating dipterocarp species.

Adaptability to light conditions was examined for seedlings of three species of Dipterocarpaceae, Shorea leprosula, S. ovalis and Dryobalanops lanceolata, possessing different ecological and silvicultural properties. S. leprosula and S. ovalis showed significant morphological adaptations to weak light conditions by changing leaf weight ratio, root weight ratio and leaf areal weight, as compared with D. lanceolata which is the most shade tolerant among the three species. When the shade-adapted leaves of each species were released from shading, they showed depression in photosynthetic activity, though the extent of depression differed with species. Only S. leprosula showed a recovery in photosynthetic rate 18 days after the release from shading. This result indicates that S. leprosula was more adaptable to increase in light intensity than the other two species. S. leprosula could be regarded as one of the adaptable species for reforestation in degraded open land.

Rooting percentage at week 16 was highest in cuttings with a leaf area of 15 cm 2 (82%), followed by 30 cm 2 (68%) and 60 cm 2 (55%). Cuttings with 60 cm 2 leaf area appeared to suffer water deficit as reflected by higher transpiration rates ( E ) and leaf shedding compared to 15 cm 2 and 30 cm 2 leaf area. This indicates that it is necessary to reduce leaf area to minimise excessive water loss especially during periods of water stress. Photosynthesis rate ( P n ) measured in leaves of cuttings prior to rooting was positive (1.8 μmol CO 2 m −2 s −1 ). P n and stomatal conductance ( g s ) of rooted cuttings were higher than in those which remained unrooted.

The light environment within tropical rain forests varies considerably both spatially and temporally, and photon flux density (PFD) is considered to be an important factor determining the growth and survival of rain forest tree seedlings. In this paper we examine the ability of four ecologically contrasting dipterocarps (Dryobalanops lanceolata, Shorea leprosula, Hopea nervosa and Vatica oblongifolia) to utilise and dissipate light energy when grown in different light environments in lowland dipterocarp rain forest in the Danum Valley Conservation Area, Sabah, East Malaysia. Specifically we report (i) photosynthetic light response curves and associated fluorescence characteristics, including quantum yield (ΦPSII) and non-photochemical quenching (qN) and (ii) the extent to which photoinhibition occurs when plants grown in either high or low light are exposed to short bursts of high PFD. When grown in low light (artificial or forest shade) all four species had low light saturated rates of photosynthesis which were achieved at low PFDs. In addition, values of ΦPSII and qN were similar over a range of measurement PFDs. D. lanceolata and S. leprosula were also grown at high PFD and showed marked differences in their responses. S. leprosula demonstrated an ability to increase its rate of photosynthesis and there was a small increase in capacity to dissipate excess light energy non-photochemically at high PFDs. Partitioning of this qN into its fast, photo-protective (qE) and slow, photoinhibitory (qI) components indicated that there was an increase in qE quenching. In contrast, although D. lanceolata survived in the high light environment, greater rates of photosynthesis were not observed and the plants showed a greater capacity to dissipate energy non-photochemically. Partitioning of qN revealed that the majority of this increase was attributable to the slower relaxing phases.

Radial and longitudinal variation in fibre wall percentage, area percentage of vessels and resin canals and specific gravity was studied in five superior six-year-old plantation grown trees of red meranti (Shorea leprosula, S. parvifolia and S. pauciflora). In another 23 trees of these species specific gravity was measured at breast height.

summary The development of mycorrhizal infection on seedlings of the dipterocarp. Shorea leprosula (Miq.). was followed for 7 months after germination at three sites in West Malaysia. Arbuscular mycorrhizal infection was not observed, Seedling roots had well-developed ectomycorrhizal sheaths, but no Hartig net, 20 d after germination, i.e. before the leaves had formed. By 2 months a range of ectomycorrhizal types with well-developed Hartig nets were present. Twenty-three types were recognized, of which 15 were common to alt three sites, and 20 to two sites. Individual seedlings never had more than five types and normally had line or two types only. The majority of ectomycorrhizas were formed by relatively few fungi and the six most abundant types at each site accounted for 77–92%, of the mycorrhizas. On the basis of the frequency of types (i.e. number of seedlings having mycorrhizas of a given type), and the number of times that a type contributed more than 40% of the mycorrhizas on a given seedling it was possible to recognize group of 12 dominant types. At each site new types were encountered at each harvest, and the number of types per harvest also increased. As well as fungi entering the mycorrhizal community as time progressed there was clear evidence that some fungi were lost or declined in relative abundance. Over the study period the level of infection fell at the two sites at which it was initially greatest. Although the community of mycorrhizal fungi was broadly similar at all three sites, overall level of infection, total number of types and number of types per seedling were highest at the site which appeared to have experienced the least disturbance and at which there were the greatest number of adult S. Ieprosula trees.

The application of auxin (indole butyric acid, IBA) significantly increased the rate of root emergence in single node leafy stem cuttings of Shorea leprosula taken from 10-month-old potted seedlings. A range of IBA doses (0, 20, 40, 60 and 80 μg IBA per cutting) were tested and 20 μg per cutting was found to be the best with 70% of cuttings rooted within 12 weeks. Higher doses resulted in less rooting success. IBA application also enhanced the number of roots developed on each cutting. The mean accumulated number of roots per rooted cutting in Week 10 on cuttings treated with 20, 40, 60 and 80 μg IBA was 5.05, 5.26, 4.82 and 4.80 respectively compared with 3.11 for cuttings treated with only a 50% ethanol and water mixture.

Antioxidant activity of crude methanol extracts of five Dipterocarpaceae species; Shorea ovalis (Meranti Kepong), Shorea resinosa (Meranti Belang), Shorea leprosula (Meranti Tembaga), Shorea acuminata (Meranti Rambai Daun) and Shorea macroptera (Meranti Melantai) from UiTM Jengka Forest Reserve were successfully being studied. The activities were determined by using four methods which are Total Phenolic Content (TPC) method, 1, 1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method, ferric thiocyanate (FTC) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) method. Among all the Shorea extracts analyzed, S. acuminata (Meranti Rambai Daun) showed the highest total phenolic content (2731.00 ± 0.09 mg GAE/ 100 g weight). A good correlation was found between the results of radical scavenging activity and total phenolic contents where S. acuminata (Meranti Rambai Daun) containing the highest total phenolic contents exhibited the strongest antioxidants potential. Meanwhile, S. macroptera (Meranti Melantai) has indicated the highest antioxidant for the FTC and TBA methods, respectively. This study also revealed that antioxidant activities of these Malaysian Dipterocarpaceae species can be used as a potential source of natural antioxidants and may give new alternative for medical cure.

An investigation was made into the availability of mycorrhizal inoculum and the response of tree seedlings to mycorrhizal infection in West Malaysian forests. Spores of vesicular arbuscular (VA) mycorrhizal fungi in the soil were reduced by 25% after selective logging and by 75% after heavy logging, VA infection in the roots of plants persisting on, or colonizing, a heavily logged site was reduced by up to 75% . The most probable number (MPN) of VA propagules in sieved soil was up to ten times greater than spore density, but was also greatly reduced by heavy logging. This resulted in reduced infectivity of soil from the heavily logged site, as demonstrated by reduced VA infection of bioassay plants. The infectivity of soil declined following sun drying, but sun-dried soil devoid of vegetation retained some infectivity even after 12 months storage. Overall the data suggest that root and hyphal fragments are more important than spores as inoculum in disturbed forest, and that in undisturbed forest living roots and hyphae are likely to be important sources of infection. In a pot experiment, shoot growth of two test species, Albizia falcataria (L.) Becker and Parkia speciosa Hassk. responded more to VA mycorrhizal infection than to P fertilization over the range 0-6 g triple superphosphate per 8 kg of soil. The response to inoculation with a cocktail of ‘introduced’ VA fungi propagated in pot cultures was greater than the response to inoculation with ‘indigenous’ fungi propagated in pot cultures from roots and soil collected in undisturbed forests. Another test species, Intsia palembanica Miq., also responded better to mycorrhizal infection than to P fertilization, and better to VA mycorrhizal infection than to ectomycorrhizal infection. Intsia palembanica seedlings growing around mature dipterocarps quickly became ectomycorrhizal, suggesting that at least some ectomycorrhizal fungi infect both dipterocarps and Intsia. Shorea leprosula Miq. seedlings growing naturally in the forest had ectomycorrhizas 20 days after germination, i.e. before they had true leaves, and within 7 months supported up to 11 different ectomycorrhizal fungi. However, seedlings isolated from contact with the roots of mature Shorea trees remained uninfected in the held for up to 6 months. This shows the importance of contact with living ectomycorrhizal roots for early infection of dipterocarp seedlings, a point which should be recognized in logging operations and forest regeneration programmes.

S. leprosula and S. parvifolia are widely developed as source of high quality wood. The quality of wood could be affected by nutrient elements. It is important to measure the nutrients contained in tree stem including wood density and fiber length due to their influence in tree growth. This research aims to know correlation between wood density and fiber length with distribution of essential macro-nutrients; N, P and K on stem base of S. leprosula and S. parvifolia trees. Wood density measurement followed DIN 2135 standard method, fiber length measurement followed FPL method, and nutrient measurement used AAS method. Further, the observation data was analyzed using SPSS 16 software. Wood density and fiber length on stem bases of both of tree species tended to increase radially from section nearby the pith to section nearby the bark respectively. Wood density of S. leprosula ranged from 0.333-0.362 with 1.279-1.343 µm in fiber length, while wood density of S. parvifolia ranged from 0.285-0.346 with 1.497-1.805 µm in fiber length. Distribution of nutrient N, P and K of stem base from pith to bark also tended to increase. On S. leprosula, nutrient elements N, P, K had significant correlation with wood density and fiber length. On S parvifolia, nutrient elements N, P, K had a significant correlation with wood density. Meanwhile, nutrient elements N, P, K had a non significant correlation with fiber length.Keywords : Shorea leprosula, Shorea parvifolia, base of the stem, wood quality distribution, nutrient distribution.

1. Rockphosphate has a significant effect on the growth of Shorea leprosula, both for diameter and height. 2. Rockphosphate has a good relation to mycorrhizal formation. 3. Shaded blocks in the field have a better effect on mycorrhizal formation of seedlings than do open blocks. 4. Mycorrhizal formation could increase the P-available, Cu total, and Zn-total nutrients.

Leaf morphology and rates of stomatal conductance, net photosynthesis and dark respiration were determined for seedlings associated with a gap-understorey situation in the mixed dipterocarp rainforest of the Batu Apoi Forest Reserve in the Temburong District of Brunei Darussalam. The species investigated included four emergent tree species, Shorea falciferoides Foxw., Shorea leprosula Miq., Parashorea macrophylla Wyatt-Sm. ex Ashton, and Dryobalanops lanceolata Burck., two canopy species Aporosa lunata (Miq.) Kurz and Drypetes sp. and two pioneer species, Macaranga trachyphylla Airy Shaw and Musa sp. The pioneer species were confined to the gap while all other species were present in both the gap and understorey. Comparative morphological studies indicated that leaves of understorey seedlings are thinner, have a lower stomatal density and higher specific leaf area than leaves of the same species growing in the gap. Stomatal conductances for leaves of gap seedlings fall into two categories; high rates for the pioneers and more conservative rates for the non-pioneers. In the understorey low photosynthetically active photon flux density values are associated with relatively high stomatal conductance. Rates of light saturated net photosynthesis were significantly higher for pioneer species than non-pioneers. Based on apparent quantum yields, understorey seedlings tended to be photosynthetically more efficient than gap plants; also, light compensation points and rates of dark respiration were lower for understorey plants than for those of the same species growing in the gap. These features may be important adaptations which allow seedlings to establish in the very low light of the understorey.

Foliar phosphorus content and mycorrhizal infection of dipterocarp seedlings growing in a 61-year-old forest plantation (site A) and a selectively logged forest (site B) were determined. Mycorrhizal infection levels were high−83.7% forShorea bracteolata and 95.0% forS. leprosula at site A, and 77.8% forS. leprosula and 86.3% forS. curtisii at site B. The seedlings all had similar foliar phosphorus contents although available soil phosphorus at site B was half that at site A. Significant correlations were obtained between foliar phosphorus content and percentage mycorrhizal infection at site B only.

Sudrajat, Susanto D, Kartika R. 2016. Phytochemicals analysis and antibacterial activity of the leaf of red meranti, Shorea leprosula (Dipterocarpaceae). Nusantara Bioscience 8: 111-116. This study aims to investigate the antibacterial activity of the total ethanolic extract and its fractions of red meranti (Shorea leprosula) leaf against Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli. The ethanolic extract and its fractions were subjected to antibacterial assay using well diffusion technique. Column chromatography was used to purify the active compounds from the mixture, while GC/MS was used to identify the phytocomponents of the fractions. The GC/MS study demonstrated the presence of different types of compounds were 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid (65.77%), eicosanoic acid (9.82%), 2-pentadecenone (6.53%), tricosane (5.86%) and hexanedioic acid (4.13%). The result showed that the inhibition zone diameters of the ethanolic extracts ranged from 15.56-16.44 mm against S. aureus, and 15.37-16.56 mm for E. coli, respectively. The total ethanolic extract from red meranti leaf showed a strong category of antibacterial properties against both types of bacteria which were equivalent to antibiotic chloramphenicol. While, the fractions extracts showed that antibacterial activity was lower than total ethanolic extract against Gram-positive bacteria S. aureus and Gram-negative bacteria E. coli. The results obtained from this study justify the use of this plant in traditional medicine and provide leads which could be further exploited for the development of new and potent antibacterial.

Bamboos are grasses (Poaceae) that are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. We aimed at exploring water use patterns of four tropical bamboo species (Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, Gigantochloa atroviolacea and Gigantochloa apus) with sap flux measurement techniques. Our approach included three experimental steps: (1) a pot experiment with a comparison of thermal dissipation probes, the stem heat balance method and gravimetric readings using potted B. vulgaris culms, (2) an in situ calibration of thermal dissipation probes with the stem heat balance method for the four bamboo species, and (3) field monitoring of sap flux of the four bamboo species along with three tropical tree species (Gmelina arborea, Shorea leprosula and Hevea brasiliensis) during a dry and a wet period. In the pot experiment, it was confirmed that the stem heat balance method is well suited for bamboos but that thermal dissipation probes need to be calibrated. In situ, species-specific parameters for such calibration formulas were derived. During field monitoring we found that some bamboo species reached high maximum sap flux densities. Across bamboo species, maximal sap flux density increased with decreasing culm diameter. In the diurnal course, sap flux densities in bamboos peaked much earlier than radiation and vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and also much earlier than sap flux densities in trees. There was a pronounced hysteresis between sap flux density and VPD in bamboos, which was less pronounced in trees. Three of the four bamboo species showed reduced sap flux densities at high VPD values during the dry period, which was associated with a decrease in soil moisture content. Possible roles of internal water storage, root pressure and stomatal sensitivity are discussed.