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Since 2010, some of the Nordic countries have experienced fertility declines down to unprecedented levels. Fertility decline in the Nordic countries was unexpected for most experts, considering that these countries were not heavily affected by the 2008 economic recession which was related to fertility declines in other European countries. Researchers have sought to understand why fertility is declining in these countries but have so far paid little attention to the spatial dimension of this process, despite evidence of large spatial variation of fertility. This paper contributes new understanding to the role of space in Nordic fertility changa and how the uncertainty perspective is related to spatial patterns of fertility. We apply advanced spatial panel models to data covering 1,099 municipalities in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden to separate out spatial variation and temporal variation. Our models use both economic (employment, income) and social (partnership dissolution, voting) measures of uncertainty to explore how uncertainty is related to fertility. Results show that fertility levels and trends by age vary substantially by level of urbanization. Differences in uncertainty by age appear essential to spatial variation – while social contexts are related to variation at all ages, economic measures are more related to fertility under age thirty than over age thirty. In addition, stability in fertility over age thirty seems to be an important buffer for the overall rate of total fertility decline, especially in rural municipalities.

his study investigates union formation and dissolution among immigrants and their descendants in four European countries with different migration histories and family patterns (United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Estonia). Although there is a growing body of literature on migrant families in Europe, there is still little comparative research on partnership dynamics among immigrants and their descendants. We apply event history analysis to pooled data from the four countries. The analysis shows a significant variation in partnership patterns across migrant groups in some countries (e.g., South Asians vs. Caribbeans in the United Kingdom) and similar partnership behaviour for some migrant groups in different countries (e.g., South Asians in the United Kingdom and immigrants from Turkey in France). Descendants of immigrants often exhibit partnership patterns that are similar to those of their parents' generation. The country context matters; specific patterns are observed for Spain and Estonia., Directorate-General for Education and Culture; European Union's Seventh FrameworkProgramme (FP7/2007-2013), Grant/AwardNumber: 320116; Estonian Research Council,Grant/Award Number: PRG71; Economic and Social Research Council, Grant/AwardNumber: ES/K007394/1

This research was supported by Economic and Social Research Council grant ES/K007394/1 and carried out in the ESRC Centre for Population Change (CPC). This study investigates the contribution of population age structure to mortality from Covid-19 in the UK by geographical units. We project death rates at various spatial scales by applying data on age-specific fatality rates to the area's population by age and sex. Our analysis shows a significant variation in the projected death rates between the constituent countries of the UK, between its regions and within regions. First, Scotland and Wales have higher projected fatality levels from Covid-19 than England, whereas Northern Ireland has lower rate. Second, the infection fatality rates are projected to be substantially higher in small towns and rural areas than those in large urban areas. Third, our analysis shows that within urban regions there are also 'pockets' of high projected death rates. Overall, the areas with high and low fatality rates tend to cluster because of the high residential separation of different population age-groups in the UK. Our analysis also reveals that the Welsh-, Gaelic- and Cornish-speaking communities with relatively old populations are likely to experience heavy population losses if the virus spreads widely across the UK.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.Funding StatementThis research was supported by Economic and Social Research Council grant ES/K007394/1 and carried out in the ESRC Centre for Population Change (CPC).Author DeclarationsAll relevant ethical guidelines have been followed; any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained and details of the IRB/oversight body are included in the manuscript.YesAll necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived.YesI understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).Yes I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines and uploaded the relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material as supplementary files, if applicable.YesAll data-sets are available at the ONS and NRS websites. Preprint

This study investigates spatial variation in fertility in Europe. We analyze spatial variation in total fertility rates using small-scale geographical data from twenty-one European countries for 2010, and investigate the role economic, sociocultural, and spatial factors play in regional fertility levels. We compare the performance of conventional OLS regression and multilevel modeling with that of different spatial regression models and show that the spatial approach is superior for modeling regional fertility variation. The analysis shows that fertility levels in a region are strongly related to GDP per capita and the share of divorced individuals in the region, and fertility levels in neighboring regions, supporting that all three realms of fertility determinants – economic sociocultural, and spatial – are relevant for understanding modern fertility variation. Postprint

Background: The global COVID-19 pandemic means that people spend much more time in their immediate households, elevating the importance of intersecting househol

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007- 2013) under grant agreement no. 320116 for the research project FamiliesAndSocieties. Hill Kulu and Júlia Mikolai’s work was also supported by Economic and Social Research Council grant ES/K007394/1 and carried out in the ESRC Centre for Population Change (CPC). Objective : This article provides an introduction to a special collection on childbearing among the descendants of immigrants in Europe. We first review recent life-course research on fertility of immigrants and their descendants followed by a summary of the papers of this special collection. Finally, we discuss their contribution and future research avenues. Results : The papers of this special collection report significant heterogeneity in childbearing patterns among descendants of immigrants. Some groups have fertility levels similar to those of natives, some have lower fertility, and some exhibit significantly higher fertility. Further, polarisation characterises many descendant groups; some individuals have small families or even remain childless, whereas others have large families. Conclusions : We conclude that factors related to mainstream society, minority subculture, and minority status all shape fertility behaviour of the descendants of immigrants and that their impact varies across descendant groups. Future research should investigate whether the observed heterogeneity in childbearing patterns is likely to decline over generations or the diversity is here to stay. Publisher PDF

PartnerLife was supported by a grant from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO, Grant No. 464-13-148), the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, Grant No. WA 1502/6-1), and the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC, Grant No. ES/L01663X/1) in the Open Research Area Plus scheme. Clara H. Mulder’s and Christine Schnor’s contribution was also supported by the FamilyTies project, which has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant Agreement No 740113). Hill Kulu’s and Júlia Mikolai’s work was also supported by Economic and Social Research Council Grant ES/K007394/1 and carried out in the ESRC Centre for Population Change (CPC). This study investigates the magnitude and persistence of elevated post-separation residential mobility (i.e. residential instability) in five countries (Australia, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK) with similar levels of economic development, but different welfare provisions and housing markets. While many studies examine residential changes related to separation in selected individual countries, only very few have compared patterns across countries. Using longitudinal data and applying Poisson regression models, we study the risk of a move of separated men and women compared with cohabiting and married individuals. We use time since separation to distinguish between moves due to separation and moves of separated individuals. Our analysis shows that separated men and women are significantly more likely to move than cohabiting and married individuals. The risk of a residential change is the highest shortly after separation, and it decreases with duration since separation. However, the magnitude of this decline varies by country. In Belgium, mobility rates remain elevated for a long period after separation, whereas in the Netherlands, post-separation residential instability appears brief, with mobility rates declining rapidly. The results suggest that housing markets are likely to shape the residential mobility of separated individuals. In countries, where mortgages are easy to access and affordable rental properties are widespread, separated individuals can rapidly adjust their housing to new family circumstances; in contrast, in countries with limited access to homeownership and small social rental markets, separated individuals experience a prolonged period of residential instability. Publisher PDF

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no. 320116 for the research project FamiliesAndSocieties. This study investigates formation of endogamous and exogamous marriages among immigrants and their descendants in the UK. While there is a growing literature on various aspects of ethnic minorities’ lives in Britain, their marriage patterns have been little studied and understood. We apply event-history analysis to data from the Understanding Society study and use multiple imputation to determine the type of marriage for individuals with missing information on the origin of their spouse. The analysis shows, first, significant differences among immigrants and their descendants in the likelihood of marrying within and outside of their ethnic groups. While immigrants from European countries have relatively high exogamous marriage rates, South Asians exhibit a high likelihood of marrying a partner from their own ethnic group; Caribbeans hold an intermediate position. Second, the descendants of immigrants have lower endogamous and higher exogamous marriage rates than their parents; however, for some ethnic groups, particularly for South Asians the differences across generations are small. Third, the exogamy rates are high among ethnic minority women and men with better English skills, individuals who are less religious and those who are older at first marriage. Fourth, highly-educated native British men have an elevated likelihood of forming an inter-ethnic marriage; exogamous marriages are also formed at later ages among the native men and women. Publisher PDF

Rebecca Allan's research was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council (PhD project: “Residential Context, Health and Mortality: The Effect of Context, Composition or Selective Migrations?”). Previous research shows significant health and mortality variations by residential context. Numerous studies report better health and lower mortality among rural populations in comparison to urban residents, whereas other research shows the opposite, with poor health and high mortality in rural areas. This study investigates health variations in England by residential contexts and the causes of such differences. Further, it examines the sensitivity of results to different rural-urban classifications. Applying logistic regression models to individual-level data from the 2001 UK census we demonstrate significant health variation by residential context. A clear urban-rural positive health gradient is apparent, with levels of ill health increasing parallel to levels of urbanisation. Briefly, people living in rural areas have better health than those living in cities and other urban contexts. However, the capital city (London) provides an exception to the gradient, with its inhabitants having better health than anticipated. Once we control for individual socio-demographic characteristics, including occupational status and educational level, the urban-rural health variations are reduced, but significant differences still persist. Most notably, Outer London residents have health expectations similar to those residing in the most rural locations. Clearly, our results support the existence of a positive urban-rural health gradient, with the exception of a protective "capital city" effect. These findings persist regardless of the precise urban-rural classification used. Finally we show that, having accounted for composition and the rural-urban context, there still remains a North-South divide in health outcomes. Postprint

Previous research shows low mortality for most immigrants compared to natives in host countries. This advantage is often attributed to health selection processes in migration and to protective health behaviours. Little research has examined the role of data quality, especially the registration of moves. Registration errors relating to moves between origin and host countries can mismatch deaths and risk populations, leading to denominator bias and an under-estimation of migrant mortality (data artefact). The paper investigates the mortality of immigrants in England and Wales from 1971 to 2001 using the Office for National Statistics Longitudinal Study (ONS LS), a 1% sample of the population of England and Wales. We apply parametric survival models to study the mortality of 450,000 individuals. We conduct sensitivity analysis to assess the impact of entry and exit uncertainty on immigrant mortality rates. The analysis shows that most international migrants have lower mortality than natives in England and Wales. Differences largely persist when we adjust models to entry and exit uncertainty and they become pronounced once we control for individual socioeconomic characteristics. This study supports low mortality among immigrants and shows that results are not a data artefact.

This study examines fertility variation by residential context in Britain. While there is a large literature on fertility trends and determinants in industrialised countries, to date longitudinal research on spatial fertility variation has been restricted to the Nordic countries. We study fertility variation across regions of different sizes, and within urban regions by distinguishing between central cities and suburbs. We use vital statistics and longitudinal data and apply event history analysis. We investigate the extent to which the socio-economic characteristics of couples and selective migrations explain fertility variation between residential contexts, and the extent to which contextual factors potentially play a role. Our analysis shows that fertility levels decline as the size of an urban area increases; within urban regions suburbs have significantly higher fertility levels than city centres. Differences in fertility by residential context persist when we control for the effect of population composition and selective migrations. Publisher PDF

This study examines the health of migrants between England and Scotland comparing their health patterns with those of origin and host populations. While there is a growing literature on the health and mortality of international migrants, few studies have investigated the health of people moving within a country. We use individual-level data from the UK 1991 population census and apply the technique of logistic regression to analyse health differences between migrants and non-migrants. The analysis of the prevalence of a limiting long-term illness shows that on average migrants have better health than non-migrants. Scottish migrants are origin country selective by health, whereas English migrants are host country selective by health. English men in older working ages show significant health advantages over both origin and host populations. No evidence was found to support a Salmon Bias. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Kulu H. Why do fertility levels vary between urban and rural areas?, Regional Studies. This study examines the causes of fertility variation across settlements. It uses rich longitudinal data from Finland and applies event history analysis. Analysis shows that fertility levels are the highest in small towns and rural areas and the lowest in the capital city, as expected. The socio-economic characteristics of women and selective migrations account for only a small portion of fertility variation across settlements. Housing conditions explain a significant portion of urban–rural fertility variation for the first birth, but little variation for the second and the third births. The analysis suggests that there are also significant contextual effects. Kulu H. 为什么生育水平存在城乡差异？区域研究。 本研究考察了导致不同地域生育差异的原因。研究采纳了芬兰历年数据并将其运用于历史分析。分析与预期一致：小城镇以及乡村地区生育水平最高，首都最低。妇女的社会经济特征以及选择性移民对于不同地域生育差异产生部分影响。家庭状况构成了城乡首胎生育差异的主要因素，但是对二胎三胎差异影响不大。分析表明，也存在较为明显的语境效应。 生育 城市 农村 事件历史分析 北欧 芬兰 Kulu H. Expliquer la variation urbano-rurale de la fecon...

The aims of this study were to examine spatial variation in the risk of union dissolution (divorce or separation) and to investigate the causes of this variation. Although there is an increased interest in variations in divorce and separation across countries, surprisingly, few studies have examined the spatial variation in the levels of union disruption within countries. Using rich retrospective survey data from Austria, we examined the relative contributions of demographic and socio-economic characteristics, selective migrations, and contextual factors to spatial variation in the risk of union dissolution. Our study showed, first, that union dissolution levels varied significantly across counties, as expected. Second, geographical differences in the type of union (cohabitation or marriage) accounted for some spatial variation in the risk of separation. Third, the socio-economic characteristics of couples and selective migrations did not explain any of the spatial variations in the union dissolution levels. Fourth, a significant spatial variation in separation and divorce after controlling for compositional factors suggested that there were also contextual factors. We examined the role of various contextual characteristics for explaining spatial variation in divorce and separation, including the level of urbanisation, economic well-being of an area, and characteristics measuring the cultural-normative climate of a region. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This research was possible through funding by the Economic and Social Research Council (ES/J500094/1; “Mortality among Immigrants and their Descendants in England and Wales”) and North West Doctoral Training Centre. Despite researchers regularly observing a migrant mortality advantage in high‐income destination countries, it remains unclear whether empirically observed low mortality among foreign‐born relative to natives is genuine or a result of censoring and selection biases inherent in the remigration of foreign‐born individuals. Our aim is to determine whether the main mode of selection bias, the “salmon bias effect” (remigration triggered by poor health), can account for this low foreign‐born mortality. We use the largest longitudinal resource in the United Kingdom, the Office for National Statistics Longitudinal Study, to fit discrete‐time survival models and observe which foreign‐born populations experience a migrant mortality advantage and/or salmon bias effect. For foreign‐born groups in which we observe both, we correct their mortality (using an indirect method) to see if the salmon bias can explain the observed mortality advantage. Importantly, we demonstrate that for many foreign‐born groups a mortality advantage exists in the absence of the salmon bias effect. Furthermore, in cases which we observe a mortality advantage and salmon bias (males and females from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, and the Caribbean), the latter cannot sufficiently “explain away” the former. Taken together with previous findings on censoring bias in the United Kingdom and the wider international literature on censoring and selection biases, it becomes clear that remigration biases alone cannot sufficiently explain the migrant mortality advantage. Postprint

This study examines fertility variation across different residential contexts in four Northern European countries: Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. We move beyond the conventional urban-rural focus of most previous studies of within-nation variations in fertility by distinguishing between urban centres and suburbs of cities and towns. We base our study on aggregate and individual-level register data and our analysis shows that fertility levels are significantly higher in suburbs than in urban centres; this pattern has persisted over the past quarter of a century for all four countries. A parity-specific analysis of Swedish register data reveals that total fertility varies between central cities and suburbs due to the relatively high first- and second-birth propensities in the suburbs. Further analysis shows that fertility variation between the central cities and suburbs persists after controlling for women's socioeconomic characteristics. We discuss the role of various factors in accounting for high suburban fertility including omitted individual characteristics, contextual factors and selective residential moves of couples planning to have a child.

Fertility rates are known to be higher in city suburbs. One interpretation is that the suburban ‘context’ influences the behaviour of individuals who reside there while an alternative is that the ‘composition’ of the suburban population explains the higher fertility levels. Furthermore, suburban in-migrants who intend to have children may have a significant influence on suburban fertility rates. Using Finnish longitudinal register data we show that fertility rates are higher in the suburbs and rural areas and lower in the cities. Fertility variation across these residential contexts decreases significantly after controlling for women’s demographic and socio-economic characteristics. However, it does not disappear entirely suggesting that the local context may have some influence on fertility. While movers to suburbs do display higher fertility levels than non-migrant residents, their overall impact is not great because they form a small share of the suburban population.

There is a growing body of literature looking at the interplay between an individual's residential and other careers in the life course. Previous research has mostly studied the impact of partnership and employment changes on spatial mobility. The author focuses on the effect of child-bearing on migrations and residential moves. The study is based on retrospective event-history data from Austria, to which intensity (or hazard) regression is applied. The analysis suggests, first, that the birth of a child triggers housing-related and environment-related residential relocations. These are mostly moves within a labour-market area, but there are also migrations from cities to rural areas. Second, growing family size significantly reduces couples' wishes to and chances of moving over long distances for a job. The event of first conception also induces moves related to partnership formation.

This paper examines the effect of migration and residential mobility on union dissolution among married and cohabiting couples. Moving is a stressful life event, and a large, multidisciplinary literature has shown that family migration often benefits one partner (usually the man) more than the other. Even so, no study to date has examined the possible impact of within-nation geographical mobility on union dissolution. We base our longitudinal analysis on retrospective event-history data from Austria. Our results show that couples who move frequently have a significantly higher risk of union dissolution, and we suggest a variety of mechanisms that may explain this.

Researchers are divided on the trends and causes of internal migration in postsocialist Central and Eastern Europe. Theories run in opposite directions: some scholars argue that increasing similarities with Western market economies are explaining the migration processes, whereas others claim that specific developments during the postsocialist socioeconomic restructuring are playing a major role. In this paper we contribute to the existing discussion by providing an analysis of personal and contextual determinants of migration to urban and rural destinations in post-Soviet Estonia. We base our study on the data of the Estonian Labour Force Survey from 1995. Our research population consists of 8480 people aged 15 years to 68 years in early 1989. We analyze the intensity of urban-bound and rural-bound migration from January 1989 to December 1994, using the techniques of multilevel event-history analysis. We show that personal characteristics (age, marital status, employment status, education, and ethnicity) and contextual factors (unemployment level and the share of ethnic minorities) are both important in shaping the intensity of migration to urban and rural destinations in post-Soviet Estonia. Although the differences in migration behaviour by demographic characteristics in Estonia are in line with universalistic explanations, the regionally varying effect of socioeconomic status on migration is specific to developments in postsocialist countries, as a result of general economic hardship during the socioeconomic transition.

Kulu H. and Billari F. C. (2004) Multilevel analysis of internal migration in a transitional country: the case of Estonia, Regional Studies38, 679-696. Recent geographical migration studies have aimed at clarifying the impact of both social environment and people's desires and beliefs on migration behaviour. However, most studies have focused on migration in Western countries, using cross-sectional data and single level methods. In this paper, we study the determinants of internal migration in Estonia, a multicultural society, during the transition period (1989-94). We use longitudinal data and apply multilevel event history methods. We show that both personal and contextual (potentially time-varying) factors are important in determining migration propensity. Moreover, several personal determinants−age, employment status, ethnic origin−interact with environmental conditions in shaping behaviour. While our results of the age differences support a traditional life-course-related migration pattern, our resul...

Two European geographers survey the change in numbers, location, and composition of Estonia's non-titular population utilizing census returns for the period 1934-2000. Much attention is devoted to an investigation of return migration of non-Estonians to other FSU republics in the 1990s. Also covered are changes in the spatial distribution of Estonia's minorities and the dynamics of age structure as a result of its natural evolution, the sharp decline in fertility, and emigration of younger cohorts. Additionally, the authors also investigate trends in employment affecting the country's principal ethnic minorities. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: J10, J11, R23. 8 figures, 3 tables, 56 references.

In this article the author examines the role an individuals early growth environment plays in her/his later migration behavior. The research subjects are ethnic Estonians from Russia living within Estonia. The author compares different groups of foreign-born Estonians in their choices of residence by variables reflecting their early growth environment. The results support the hypothesis that the socialization variables significantly impact the choice of residence of foreign-born Estonians. The chance that foreign-borns would live in North Estonia and urban areas compared with South Estonia and rural areas is much higher in ethnic return migrants whose parents level of education was/is higher whose parental home was Russian-speaking and who grew up in cities. Thus the results of the research enable us to argue that the social environment not only influences an individuals migration behavior directly but also indirectly through the growth environment of her/his childhood. (authors)

Recently there has been growing interest among scholars in ethnic return migration. This article examines return migration during the post World War 2 period of descendants of Estonians who emigrated to Russia at the end of the nineteenth and at the beginning of the twentieth century. A case of return migration of West-Siberian Estonians from the Omsk province is used as an example. Structuration theory is adopted and return migration is treated as a behavioural norm that evolves, spreads and becomes embedded within an ethnic minority living outside its homeland. The research shows that in the case of West-Siberian Estonians the main carrier of the migration behavioural norm is a generation. The behavioural norm of Estonians born in the 1910s-1920s has been return migration to Estonia, while the migration behaviour of the 1930s-1940s and the 1950s-1960s generations can be characterized by urbanization in West Siberia. Behind these inter-generation differences in migration behaviour can be found the different socialization of the generations, appearing largely on the level of practical consciousness. The results give reason to assume that ethnic return migration over a long period depends neither directly nor indirectly on momentary environmental changes, but rather on changes in people’s values, habits, identity etc., which in the case of an ethnic minority living outside its historical homeland may be followed generation by generation.

Over the past decades Europe has witnessed fundamental changes of its population dynamics and population structure. Fertility has fallen below replacement level in almost all European countries, while childbearing behavior and family formation have become more diverse. Life expectancy has increased in Western Europe for both females and males, but has been declining for men in some Eastern European countries. Immigration from non-European countries has increased substantially, as has mobility within Europe. These changes pose major challenges to population studies, as conventional theoretical assumptions regarding demographic behavior and demographic development seem unfit to provide convincing explanations of the recent demographic changes.This book, derived from the symposium on “The Demography of Europe” held at the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research in Rostock, Germany in November 2007 in honor of Professor Jan M. Hoem, brings together leading population researchers in the area of fertility, family, migration, life-expectancy, and mortality. The contributions present key issues of the new demography of Europe and discuss key research advances to understand the continent’s demographic development at the turn of the 21st century.

This study examines fertility variation across housing types and childbearing patterns following housing changes. While the effect of family changes on housing choices has been studied in detail little is known about childbearing patterns within various housing types and this despite the fact that many studies suggest housing to be an important determinant of fertility. We use longitudinal register data from Finland and apply hazard regression. First we observe a significant variation in fertility levels across housing types - fertility is highest among couples living in single-family houses and lowest among those residing in apartments with the variation remaining significant even after controlling for the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of women. Second our results show elevated fertility levels after couples have changed dwellings suggesting that much of the fertility variation across housing types is attributed to selective moves. Third the study reveals a relatively highrisk of third birth for couples in single-family houses several years after the move. This suggests that living in spacious housing and in a family-friendly environment for a relatively long time leads to higher fertility. (authors)

There is a growing body of literature that looks at the causes of below-replacement fertility in developed countries. While the variation in childbearing patterns across countries and between socio-economic groups within a country has been studied in detail, little is known about the differences in fertility patterns across settlements within a country. A few recent studies suggest that there are persistent differentials between high- and low-fertility settlements in contemporary Europe. This study examines fertility variation across settlements in four Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. We base our study on aggregate and individual-level register data. We first examine annual total and parity-specific fertility across settlement type from the mid-1970s to the early twenty-first century. We proceed to study the relative contribution of the socio-economic characteristics of the local populations and the characteristics of the settlements to this variation, using hazard regression models.

This paper examines the effect of migration and residential mobility on union dissolution among married and cohabiting couples. While there is a large, multi-disciplinary literature looking at the determinants of union dissolution in Europe and North America, the possible impact of geographical mobility has received little attention. This is despite the fact that moving is a stressful life event and that numerous studies suggest that women’s economic well-being and employment suffer from family moves which are usually stimulated by the man’s career. We base our longitudinal analysis on retrospective event-history data from Austria and apply hazard regression. Our results show that couples who move frequently have a significantly higher risk of union dissolution. We argue that frequent moving increases couple stress and union instability through a variety of mechanisms.

Previous research has proposed four competing views on an individual's fertility following a move from one social context to another. Each view has received support but has also been challenged in the literature. This study contributes to the existing discussion on fertility by providing an analysis of the effects of internal migration on the fertility of post-war Austrian and Polish female cohorts. The study is based on retrospective event-history data and applies intensity regression to both single and simultaneous equations. The analysis shows, firstly, that natives in urban areas in general and in large cities in particular have lower fertility compared with non-migrants in rural areas, both in Austria and Poland. Secondly, it reveals that people who move from one place to another adopt the fertility behaviour that dominates at the destination. Thirdly, we observe an elevated first-birth risk for women who move because of union formation, and a short-term postponement of childbearing for those who settle in a large city. The country comparison shows some differences in fertility variation across settlements, but overall the results are quite similar, despite the different post-war societal contexts of the two countries. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Funding: Economic and Social Research Council. Grant Numbers: ES/K007394/1, ES/K000446/1; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme. Grant Number: 834103.