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Resumen La neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) es una enfermedad infecciosa común y potencialmente grave que ocasiona elevada morbilidad y mortalidad. La terapia con corticosteroides (CS) sistémicos se ha propuesto para el manejo de pacientes adultos hospitalizados por neumonía adquirida en la comunidad. Objetivos: Evaluar la eficacia y seguridad del tratamiento con corticosteroides sistémicos en pacientes con NAC grave. Métodos: Se buscó la información actualizada en cinco bases de datos: PubMed, Scielo, Epistemonikos, Lilacs y Cochrane Library. Se evaluaron los ensayos clínicos controlados aleatorizados que examinaron la eficacia y seguridad de los corticosteroides en adultos hospitalizados con NAC grave. Resultados: Se incluyeron diez revisiones sistemáticas y quince estudios primarios que reclutaron pacientes hospitalizados con NAC grave. La terapia con corticosteroides redujo significativamente la mortalidad por todas las causas (cociente de riesgo [RR]: 0,58; IC95%: 0,40 a 0,84), fracaso clínico precoz (RR: 0,32; IC95%: 0,15 a 0,7), riesgo de síndrome de dificultad respiratoria del adulto (RR: 0,23; IC95%: 0,07 a 0,80), necesidad de ventilación mecánica (RR: 0,40; IC95%: 0,20 a 0,77) y se acortó la estancia hospitalaria (diferencia media: −2.91 días; IC95%: − 4,92 a −0,89). La terapia esteroidal aumentó el riesgo de hiperglicemia (RR: 1,72; IC95%: 1,38 a 2,14) pero no la frecuencia de hemorragia gastrointestinal (RR: 0,91; IC95%: 0,40 a 2,05). Conclusión: La terapia con corticosteroides sistémicos disminuye significativamente la mortalidad, riesgo de complicaciones y acorta la estancia hospitalaria en pacientes con NAC grave. Estos resultados deben ser confirmados por estudios controlados aleatorizados de mayor potencia.

El cáncer pulmonar es la principal causa de muerte por neoplasia a nivel mundial. En Chile se desconoce la magnitud del problema y la sobrevida asociada al diagnóstico. Material y Métodos: Se examinó una cohorte de 202 pacientes adultos con cáncer pulmonar confirmados histopatológicamente en una red de salud entre Enero de 2007 y Diciembre de 2011. Se accedió a las fichas clínicas y archivos de imágenes de los pacientes, registrando las variables clínicas, histológicas, imagenológicas y la etapificación clínica. Se siguió prospectivamente a los pacientes hasta Diciembre de 2013 para determinar sobrevida. Resultados: La edad promedio de la cohorte fue de 68,1 ± 11,5 años, 53% eran varones y 86% tenía historia de tabaquismo. El 82,2% de los casos presentaron síntomas al momento del diagnóstico, siendo la tos el más frecuente. La variedad histológica preponderante fue el adenocarcinoma (42%), seguido del carcinoma escamoso (26,2%). En las mujeres la mayoría de los tumores correspondieron a adenocarcinomas (56,4% del total) y en varones predominaron el adenocarcinoma (37%) y el carcinoma escamoso (33,3%). La mayoría de los pacientes se diagnosticaron en estadios avanzados de la enfermedad. La sobrevida global a los 36 meses fue 46,1%. La sobrevida media por estadio clínico fue de 70,7 meses en el estadio I, 60,3 meses en estadio II, 47,1 meses en IIIA, 12,3 meses en IIIB y 11,7 meses en IV Según histología, la sobrevida media en meses fue de 36,6 en adenocarcinoma, 33,8 en carcinoma escamoso, 20,9 en células grandes, 11,9 en células pequeñas y 19,6 en tumor no células pequeñas indiferenciado. No hubo diferencias significativas en la sobrevida por edad y género. Conclusión: La variedad histológica más frecuente es el adenocarcinoma y la sobrevida está relacionada a la etapificación clínica y variedad histológica.

La evaluación de la fuerza de los músculos respiratorios permite diagnosticar y cuantificar la gravedad de la debilidad muscular en diferentes enfermedades. A propósito de un paciente con parálisis diafragmática bilateral, hemos revisado el cuadro clínico y los procedimientos diagnósticos para evaluar la fuerza de los músculos respiratorios. En los pacientes con debilidad muscular respiratoria severa, disminuye la capacidad vital y la capacidad pulmonar total, pero es una medida inespecífica y relativamente insensible. Tradicionalmente, la fuerza muscular respiratoria es evaluada midiendo la presión inspiratoria y espiratoria máximas en la boca sostenidas durante un segundo (PIMax y PEMax). La medición de la presión inspiratoria máxima en la nariz (SNIP) es una maniobra natural, más simple de medir y más reproducible, siendo útil en la evaluación de la fuerza diafragmática. Sin embargo, estas técnicas no invasivas son operador dependiente, por lo tanto, esfuerzos submáximos es más probable que ocurran en pacientes graves o con disnea. Las mediciones de las presiones esofágica, gástrica y transdiafragmática mediante estimulación eléctrica o magnética del nervio frénico no son dependientes de la voluntad y son más confiables. Sin embargo, la estimulación eléctrica del nervio frénico es técnicamente difícil y puede ser incómoda y dolorosa. La estimulación magnética del nervio frénico es menos dolorosa y la medición de la presión transdiafragmática es reproducible en sujetos normales. La evaluación clínica sistemática y los exámenes de laboratorio complementarios permiten establecer el diagnóstico en la mayoría de los pacientes con debilidad de los músculos respiratorios.

Introduccion: Las infecciones en oncologia son frecuentes. Objetivo: Caracterizar las infecciones respiratorias en pacientes oncologicos hospitalizados. Metodos: Estudio descriptivo prospectivo de pacientes adultos oncologicos febriles en el Hospital Clinico de la Universidad Catolica, entre abril de 2008 y abril de 2009. Resultados: Se evaluaron 187 episodios. Se identifico foco clinico en 70% y 33 episodios (25%) correspondieron a foco respiratorio. La patologia oncologica correspondio a tumores de organo solido en 77% de los casos y el 33% ingreso con neutropenia febril. La infeccion respiratoria alta represento el 36% y baja un 65% de los casos; 55% fueron neumonia. De estos, se aislo el agente causal en un 39% (S. pneumoniae 2 casos, S. bovis 1, E. faecalis 1, P. jirovecii 2, S. maltophilia 1 y A. fumigatus 1). La letalidad en el hospital por neumonia fue 22% y la mortalidad general 12%. Conclusiones: La infeccion respiratoria es un motivo de consulta y hospitalizacion frecuente en pacientes oncologicos, destacando la neumonia. Conlleva elevada mortalidad y etiologia variada.

La infección por virus influenza ocasiona importante morbilidad y mortalidad en Chile durante elperíodo de otono-invierno. La mayoría de las personas infectadas con el virus de la gripe presentan síntomas respiratorios agudos y fiebre autolimitados, sin complicaciones, o son asintomáticos. Sin embargo, enfermedad respiratoria grave y complicaciones debido a la infección viral, incluida la hospitalización y la muerte, pueden ocurrir en personas de edad avanzada, en ninos menores de dos anos, personas con condiciones médicas subyacentes (incluida la enfermedadpulmonar y cardiaca crónica, diabetes e inmunosupresión), embarazadas y en personas previamente sanas. Lapesquisa y tratamiento precoz con medicamentos antivirales (inhibidores de la neuraminidasa) puede reducir la gravedad y duración de los síntomas, riesgo de hospitalización y complicaciones (otitis media, bronquitis, neumonía), ypuede reducir el uso de los servicios de atención ambulatoria yprescripción de antibióticos, acortar el período de transmisibilidad de la infección en la comunidad y, posiblemente, la mortalidad en ciertas poblaciones de riesgo. La vacunación es el método de elección para la prevención de la gripe en la comunidad, pero los medicamentos antivirales también pueden ser utilizados como medio primario o secundario de prevención de la transmisión de la influenza en ciertos contextos epidemiológicos. Se revisan las principales recomendaciones para el diagnóstico, tratamiento y prevención de la influenza en nuestro país.

Background: Chest computed tomography (CT) scan may improve lung cancer detection at early stages in high risk populations. Aim: To assess the diagnostic performance of chest CT in early lung cancer detection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Patients and Methods: One hundred sixty one patients aged 50 to 80 years, active or former smokers of 15 or more pack-years and with COPD were enrolled. They underwent annual respiratory functional assessment and chest computed tomography for three years and were followed for five years. Results: Chest CT allowed the detection of lung cancer in nine patients (diagnostic yield: 5.6%). Three cases were detected in the initial CT and six cases in follow-up scans. Most patients were in early stages of the disease (6 stage Ia and 1 stage Ib). Two patients were diagnosed at advanced stages of the disease and died due to complications of cancer. Two thirds of patients had nonspecific pulmonary nodules on the initial chest CT scan (100 patients, 62%). Seventy four percent had less than three nodules and were of less than 5 mm of diameter in 57%. In 92% of cases, these were false positive findings. In the follow-up chest CT, lung nodules were detected in two thirds of patients and 94% of cases corresponded to false positive findings. Conclusions: Chest CT scans may detect lung cancer at earlier stages in COPD patients.

La neumonía adquirida en la comunidad es la principal causa de muerte de origen infeccioso en la población infantil y adulta de nuestro país. La fisioterapia respiratoria (FR) ha sido ampliamente utilizada como tratamiento adyuvante en pacientes adultos con neumonía comunitaria, sin que se haya demostrado aún su eficacia clínica. En teoría, estas técnicas podrían ayudar a mantener abiertas las vías aéreas, facilitar la eliminación de secreciones bronquiales y mejorar el intercambio de gases en pacientes con neumonía. Revisamos los estudios publicados que han examinado la eficacia y seguridad de la FR en pacientes adultos con neumonía adquirida en la comunidad. Resultados: Seis ensayos clínicos controlados han evaluado cuatro modalidades de fisioterapia respiratoria en pacientes hospitalizados por neumonía comunitaria: a) La fisioterapia torácica convencional (vibración, percusión y drenaje postural); b) La manipulación osteopática (incluyendo la inhibición paraespinal, elevación costal y la liberación diafragmática o miofascial); c) El ciclo activo de técnicas de respiración (incluyendo el control de la respiración activa, ejercicios de expansión torácica y técnicas de espiración forzada); y d) La respiración con presión espiratoria positiva. Ninguna de estas técnicas ha logrado reducir en forma significativa la mortalidad hospitalaria o ha modificado la tasa de curación. Algunos estudios sugieren que la manipulación osteopática y la respiración con presión espiratoria positiva pueden acortar la estadía hospitalaria (2,0 y 1,4 días, respectivamente). Además, la respiración con presión espiratoria positiva puede reducir la duración de la fiebre en 0,7 días, y la manipulación osteopática puede acortar el uso de antibióticos en 1,93 días. No se han reportado eventos adversos serios. En resumen, la evidencia disponible es limitada y sugiere que la fisioterapia respiratoria no debería ser recomendada como tratamiento adyuvante de rutina en pacientes adultos con neumonía comunitaria no complicada.

Background: As the focus of healthcare provision shifts towards ambulatory care, increasing attention must now be given to develop opportunities for clinical teaching in this setting. Aim: To assess teacher and students' views about the strengths and weaknesses of real and simulated patient interactions for teaching undergraduate students clinical skills in the ambulatory setting. Material and Methods: Fourth-year medical students were exposed in a systematic way, during two weeks, to real and simulated patients in an outpatient clinic, who presented common respiratory problems, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, smoking and sleep apnea syndrome. After the clinical interview, students received feedback from the tutor and their peers. The module was assessed interviewing the teachers and evaluating the results qualitatively. Students evaluated the contents and quality of teaching at the end of the rotation. Results: Tutors identified the factors that facilitate ambulatory teaching. These depended on the module design, resources and patient care, of characteristics of students and their participation, leadership and interaction with professors. They also identified factors that hamper teaching activities such as availability of resources, student motivation and academic recognition. Most students evaluated favorably the interaction with real and simulated patients in the ambulatory setting. Conclusions: Teaching in the ambulatory setting was well evaluated by students and teachers. The use of qualitative methodology allowed contrasting the opinions of teachers and students.

Background: The etiology of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is heterogeneous and still under discussion. Inflammation increases during exacerbation of COPD. The identification of inflammatory changes will increase our knowledge and potentially guide therapy. Aim: To identify which inflammatory parameters increase during COPD exacerbations compared to stable disease, and to compare bacterial and viral exacerbations. Material and Methods: In 85 COPD patients (45 males, mean age 68 ± 8 years, FEV1 46 ± 17% of predicted) sputum, nasopharyngeal swabs and blood samples were collected to identify the causative organism, during a mild to moderate exacerbation. Serum ultrasensitive C reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen and interleukin 6 (IL 6), neutrophil and leukocyte counts were measured in stable conditions, during a COPD exacerbation, 15 and 30 days post exacerbation. Results: A total of 120 mild to moderate COPD exacerbations were included. In 74 (61.7%), a microbial etiology could be identified, most commonly Mycoplasma pneumoniae (15.8%), Rhinovirus (15%), Haemophilus influenzae (14.2%), Chlamydia pneumoniae (11.7%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (5.8%) and Gram negative bacilli (5.8%). Serum CRP, fibrinogen and IL 6, and neutrophil and leukocyte counts significantly increased during exacerbation and recovered at 30 days post exacerbation. Compared to viral exacerbations, bacterial aggravations were associated with a systemic inflammation of higher magnitude. Conclusions: Biomarkers of systemic inflammation increase during mild to moderate COPD exacerbations. The increase in systemic inflammation seems to be limited to exacerbations caused by bacterial infections.

Background: Clinical practice guidelines (CPG) are widely used as tools for improving quality of health care. Guidelines developed elsewhere, can be adapted using a valid and systematic process. Aim: To describe the methodology used in the process of adaptation of a guideline for the management of adults with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in a private health care organization. Material and Methods: We used the ADAPTE framework involving three main phases. At the set-up phase a guideline adaptation group integrated by medical specialists from different disciplines, a methodologist and a nurse coordinator was formed. At the adaptation phase, the specific clinical questions to be addressed by the guidelines were identified. Results: Twenty five guidelines were initially retrieved. After their assessment, the number was reduced to only three. Recommendations from these guidelines were 'mapped' and focused searches were carried out where 'evidence gaps' were identified. An initial draft was written and revised by the adaptation group. At the finalization phase, the external review of the guideline was carried out and a process for the regular review and update of the adapted guideline was defined. Conclusions: We developed a guideline for the management of adults with CAP, adapted to the local context of our health care system, using guidelines developed elsewhere. This guideline creation method can be an efficient means of saving professional resources.

Bronchiolar disorders are generally difficult to diagnose. A detailed clinical history may point toward a specific diagnosis. Pertinent clinical questions include history of smoking, collagen vascular disease, inhalation injury, medication use and organ transplantation. It is important also to evaluate possible systemic and pulmonary signs of infection, evidence of air trapping, and high-pitched expiratory wheezing, which may suggest small airways involvement. Pulmonary function tests and plain chest radiography may demonstrate abnormalities; however, they rarely prove sufficiently specific to obviate bronchoscopic or surgical biopsy. High-resolution CT (HRCT) scanning of the chest is often an important diagnostic tool to guide diagnosis in these difficult cases, because different subtypes of bronchiolar disorders may present with characteristic image findings. Some histopathologic patterns of bronchiolar disease may be relatively unique to a specific clinical context but others are nonspecific with respect to either etiology or pathogenesis. Primary bronchiolar disorders include acute bronchiolitis, respiratory bronchiolitis, follicular bronchiolitis, mineral dust airway disease, constrictive bronchiolitis, diffuse panbronchiolitis, and other rare variants. Prominent bronchiolar involvement may be seen in several interstitial lung diseases, including hypersensitivity pneumonitis, collagen vascular disease, respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia, and pulmonary Langerhans’ cell histiocytosis. Large airway diseases that commonly involve bronchioles include bronchiectasis, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The clinical and prognostic significance of a bronchiolar lesion is best determined by identifying the etiology, underlying histopathologic pattern and assessing the correlative clinic-physiologic-radiologic context.

Los pacientes con enfermedades respiratorias crónicas son grandes consumidores de recursos sanitarios y servicios sociales en todo el mundo. Aunque el principal objetivo de los programas de rehabilitación pulmonar es aliviar la disnea y mejorar la capacidad física, su papel en el manejo de los pacientes con afecciones respiratorias crónicas debe ser validado por estudios de costo-efectividad. La reducción del empleo de los recursos sanitarios puede ser un beneficio potencial importante de los programas de rehabilitación respiratoria multidisciplinarios. La rehabilitación pulmonar ha demostrado ser una intervención efectiva en los pacientes con discapacidad por enfermedad respiratoria crónica, sin embargo, existen relativamente pocos estudios que hayan examinado su efecto sobre la utilización de recursos sanitarios. En un programa ambulatorio de rehabilitación pulmonar de seis semanas se observó una reducción en los días de hospitalización y el número de visitas domiciliarias en comparación con el tratamiento médico estándar. El análisis de costo-efectividad de un programa de rehabilitación pulmonar multidisciplinario en pacientes con enfermedades respiratorias crónicas discapacitantes concluyó que el programa era costo-efectivo en términos de años de vida ajustados por calidad (AVAC) considerados como rentables y por lo tanto es probable que fuera económicamente beneficioso para el sistema de salud. Los pacientes con EPOC que reciben una intervención educativa con supervisión y apoyo basado en los principios de autogestión de la enfermedad disminuyen los ingresos hospitalarios, las visitas a los servicios de urgencias y el número de visitas médicas no programadas. Este enfoque de la atención, basado en estrategias de autocuidado, es de interés, ya que no requiere de recursos especializados y podría aplicarse en la práctica de salud habitual. Un programa integral de rehabilitación pulmonar basado en la comunidad se asoció a una reducción promedio de los costos de US$ 344 por persona por año. Esto se asoció a reducción en la utilización de los servicios de salud, costos directos y mejor estado de salud de los pacientes con EPOC, independiente de la gravedad de la enfermedad. En resumen, la rehabilitación pulmonar en pacientes con EPOC disminuye la estadía hospitalaria y los reingresos hospitalarios especialmente después de las exacerbaciones. Los programas de rehabilitación respiratoria disminuyen significativamente el uso de los recursos sanitarios y son costo-efectivos.

Background: The clinical usefulness of blood cultures in the management of patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is controversial. Aim: To determine clinical predictors of bacteremia in a cohort of adult patients hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia. Material and Methods: A prospective cohort of 605 immunocompetent adult patients aged 16 to 101 years (54% male) hospitalized for CAP was studied. The clinical and laboratory variables measured at admission were associated with the risk of bacteremia by univariate and multivariate analysis using logistic regression models. Results: Seventy seven percent of patients had comorbidities, median hospital stay was 9 days, 7.6% died in hospital and 10.7% at 30 days. The yield of the blood cultures was 12.6% (S. pneumoniae in 69 patients, H. influenzae in 3, Gram negative bacteria in three and S. aureus in one). These results modified the initial antimicrobial treatment in one case (0.2%). In a multivariate analysis, clinical and laboratory variables associated with increased risk of bacteremia were low diastolic blood pressure (Odds ratio (OR): 1.85, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 1.02 to 3.36, p < 0.05), leukocytosis e" 15,000/mm³ (OR: 2.18, 95% CI 1.22 to 3.88, p < 0.009), serum urea nitrogen e" 30 mg/dL (OR: 2.23, 95% CI 1.22 to 4.05, p < 0.009) and serum C-reactive protein e" 30 mg/dL (OR: 2.20, 95% CI 1.22 to 3.97, p < 0.01). Antimicrobial use before hospital admission significantly decreased the blood culture yield (OR: 0.14, 95% CI 0.04 to 0.46, p < 0.002). Conclusions: Blood cultures do not contribute significantly to the initial management of patients hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia. The main clinical predictors of bacteremia were antibiotic use, hypotension, renal dysfunction and systemic inflammation.

Background: Day hospitals can reduce health care costs without increasing the risks of patients with lower respiratory tract infection. Aim: To report the experience of a respiratory day hospital care delivered to adult patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in a public hospital. Material and Methods: During the fall and winter of 2011 and 2012, adult patients with CAP of intermediate risk categories were assessed in the emergency room, their severity was stratified according to confusion, respiratory rate, blood pressure, 65 years of age or older (CRB-65) score and the Chilean CAP Clinical Guidelines, and were admitted to the respiratory day hospital. Results: One hundred seventeen patients aged 67 ± 16 years, (62% females) with CAP were attended in the respiratory day hospital. Ninety percent had comorbidities, especially chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 58%, heart disease in 32%, diabetes in 16% and asthma in 13%. Their most important risk factors were age over 65 years in 60%, comorbidities in 88%, failure of antibiotic treatment in 17%, loss of autonomy in 21%, vital sign abnormalities in 60%, mental confusion in 5%, multilobar CAP in 23%, pleural effusion in 15%, hypoxemia in 41% and a serum urea nitrogen over 30 mg/dL in 16%. Patients stayed an average of seven days in the day hospital with oxygen, hydration, chest physiotherapy and third-generation cephalosporins (89%) associated with quinolones (52%) or macrolides (4%). Thirteen patients required noninvasive ventilation, eight patients were hospitalized because of clinical deterioration and three died in hospital. Conclusions: Day hospital care reduced hospital admission rates of patients with lower respiratory tract infections.

Mycobacterium avium complex pulmonary disease in immunocompetent adult patientsNontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are increasingly recognized as important pulmonary patho-gens. Mycobacterium avium intracellulare complex (MAC) causes most lung infections due to NTM. Although the organism was identified in the 1890s, its potential to cause human disease was only recog-nized 50 years later. Patients with preexisting lung disease or immunodeficiency are at greatest risk for developing MAC infection. The majority of MAC pulmonary cases, however, occur in immunocompetent elderly women in association with nodular infiltrates and bronchiectasis. More recently, pulmonary disease has also been described in immunocompetent patients after exposure to MAC-contaminated hot tubs. We describe two cases of MAC lung disease in immunocompetent adult patients without preexis-ting lung disease and we review clinical manifestations, diagnostic criteria and treatment of this entity.Key words: Mycobacterium avium complex, nontuberculous mycobacterium, bronchiectasis, diag-nosis, treatment, prognosis.ResumenLas micobacterias no tuberculosas (MNT) se reconocen cada vez mas como importantes pato-genos pulmonares. El complejo Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare (MAC) causa la mayoria de las infecciones pulmonares por MNT. Aunque el organismo fue identificado en la decada de 1890, su potencial patogenicidad en seres humanos fue reconocida solo cincuenta anos despues. Los pacientes con enfermedad pulmonar preexistente o inmunodeficiencia estan en mayor riesgo de desarrollar infeccion por MAC. Sin embargo, la mayoria de los casos se producen en mujeres de edad avanzada inmunocompetentes en asociacion con infiltrados nodulares y bronquiectasias. Recientemente, la en-fermedad pulmonar tambien se ha descrito en pacientes inmunocompetentes expuestos a equipos de hidroterapia o jacuzzis contaminados con MAC. En relacion a dos pacientes adultos inmunocompe-tentes con enfermedad pulmonar por MAC examinamos el cuadro clinico, los criterios diagnosticos y el tratamiento de esta entidad.Palabras clave: Mycobacterium avium complex, micobacterias no tuberculosas, bronquiectasias, diagnostico, tratamiento, pronostico.

BACKGROUND: A reduction in long-term survival of adult patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), especially older people with multiple comorbidities, has been reported. AIM: To examine the clinical variables associated to mortality at 72 months of adult patients older than 60 years hospitalized with CAP and compare their mortality with a control group matched for age, gender and place of admission. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Prospective assessment of 465 immunocompetent patients aged 61 to 101 years, hospitalized for CAP in a teaching hospital. Hospital and 30 day mortality was obtained from medical records. Seventy two months survival of the 424 patients who were discharged olive, was compared with a group of 851 patients without pneumonia paired for gender and age. Mortality at 72 months was obtained from death certificates. RESULTS: Eighty seven percent of patients had comorbidity. The median hospital length of stay was 10 days, 8.8% died in the hospital, 29.7% at one year follow-up and 61.9%o at 6 years. The actuarial survival at six years was similar in the cohort of adults hospitalized with CAP and the control group matched for age, gender and site of care. In a multivariate analysis, the clinical variables associated with increased risk of dying during long-term follow-up were older age, chronic cardiovascular and neurological diseases, malignancy, absence of fever, low C-reactive protein at hospital admission and high-risk parameters of the Fine index. CONCLUSIONS: Advanced age, some specific comorbidities, poor systemic inflammatory response at admission and high risk parameters of the Fine Index were associated to increased risk of dying on long-term follow-up among older adults hospitalized for CAP.

Background Mortality increases in adults, especially in older adults, after recovery from an episode of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Aim To analyze survival and predictors of death at one year follow up of a cohort of adult patients hospitalized with CAP. Material and methods Immunocompetent patients admitted to a clinical hospital for an episode of CAP were included in the study and were assessed according to a standardized protocol. One year mortality after admission was assessed using death records of the National Identification Service. Clinical and laboratory variables measured at hospital admission associated with risk of death at one year follow up were subjected to univariate and multivariate analysis by a logistic regression model. Results We evaluated 659 patients aged 68 ± 19 years, 52% were male, 77% had underlying conditions (especially cardiovascular, neurological and respiratory diseases). Mean hospital length of stay was 9 days, 7.1% died during hospital stay and 15.8% did so during the year of follow-up. A causal agent was identified in one third of cases. The main pathogens isolated were Streptococcus pneumoniae (12.9%), Haemophilus influenzae (4.1%), respiratory viruses (6.5%) and Gram-negative bacilli (6.5%). In multivariate analysis, the clinical variables associated with increased risk of dying during the year of follow-up were older age, chronic neurological disease, malignancies, lack of fever at admission and prolonged hospital length of stay. Conclusions Age, specific co-morbidities such as chronic neurological disease and cancer, absence of fever at hospital admission and prolonged hospital length of stay were associated with increased risk of dying during the year after admission among adult patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia.

Treatment for community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompetent adults is mainly empirical. Beta-lactam antibiotics have been traditionally considered first-line therapy. New antibiotics could be more effective but the evidence is not clear until now, and its use could entail greater costs, an increase in bacterial resistance and other adverse effects. Searching in Epistemonikos database, which is maintained by screening 30 databases, we identified six systematic reviews including 36 randomized trials addressing this question. We combined the evidence using meta-analysis and generated a summary of findings table following the GRADE approach. We concluded new antibiotics are not better than beta-lactam antibiotics for the treatment of non-critical inpatients with community-acquired pneumonia in relation to clinical failure or adverse effects.

La disnea y la disminucion de la capacidad de realizar ejercicio son los principales factores que limitan las actividades de la vida diaria en pacientes con enfermedades respiratorias cronicas. Los sintomas cardinales que limitan la capacidad de ejercicio en la mayoria de los pacientes con enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva cronica (EPOC) son la disnea y/o fatigabilidad, los cuales pueden ser ocasionados por trastornos de la ventilacion alveolar e intercambio gaseoso, disfuncion de los musculos esqueleticos y/o falla cardiovascular. La ansiedad, falta de motivacion y depresion tambien han sido asociadas a una menor capacidad de realizar ejercicio, probablemente afectando la percepcion de los sintomas. La relacion entre el estado psicologico y los trastornos del animo en pacientes con EPOC y la tolerancia al ejercicio es compleja y aun no ha sido completamente dilucidada. El origen de la limitacion de la capacidad de ejercicio en pacientes con EPOC es multifactorial, por lo cual la separacion de las variables involucradas con fines academicos no siempre es factible realizarlo en los pacientes. Los mecanismos patogenicos pueden relacionarse en forma compleja, a modo de ejemplo, el desacondicionamiento fisico y la hipoxemia pueden contribuir a aumentar la ventilacion alveolar ocasionando limitacion del ejercicio de causa ventilatoria. Por lo tanto, el entrenamiento fisico y el suplemento de oxigeno pueden reducir la limitacion ventilatoria durante el ejercicio sin modificar la funcion pulmonar o la capacidad ventilatoria maxima. El analisis de los factores limitantes de la capacidad de ejercicio permite identificar trastornos potencialmente reversibles que pueden mejorar la calidad de vida de los enfermos, tales como la hipoxemia, broncoespasmo, insuficiencia cardiaca, arritmias, disfuncion musculoesqueletica y/o isquemia miocardica. En esta revision se examinan los principales mecanismos que contribuyen a la limitacion de la actividad fisica en pacientes con EPOC: anomalias de la ventilacion alveolar e intercambio gaseoso, disfuncion cardiovascular y del sistema musculo-esqueletico y disfuncion de los musculos respiratorios.

Los pacientes con enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva cronica (EPOC) tienen debilidad de los musculos respiratorios, lo cual contribuye a la disnea, hipoxemia, hipercapnia, desaturacion nocturna y limitacion de la actividad fisica. Durante el ejercicio se ha demostrado que aumenta el trabajo del diafragma en pacientes con EPOC y utilizan una mayor proporcion de la presion inspiratoria maxima (PImax) comparado con los sujetos sanos. Elpatron respiratorio anormal de los pacientes con EPOC esta relacionado con la sensacion de disnea durante el ejercicio y, potencialmente, podria inducir a la fatiga muscular respiratoria. Sin embargo, la fatiga del diafragma no se ha demostrado despues de un ejercicio intenso. Los estudios en pacientes con EPOC han demostrado cambios adaptativos en las fibras musculares del diafragma que tienen mayor capacidad oxidativa y resistencia a la fatiga. De este modo, existen argumentos contradictorios en relacion al beneficio clinico obtenido con el entrenamiento de los musculos inspiratorios (EMI) en pacientes con EPOC. El EMI aislado o como complemento de ejercicios de reacondicionamiento general aumenta significativamente la fuerza muscular inspiratoria y la resistencia a la fatiga, disminuyendo significativamente la disnea en reposo y durante el ejercicio. Ademas, los estudios sugieren que el EMI tiende a mejorar la capacidad funcional para realizar ejercicio, efecto favorable que no alcanzo significacion estadistica. El analisis de subgrupos ha demostrado mayor beneficio clinico del EMI en los pacientes con debilidad muscular inspiratoria. De esta revision se concluye que el entrenamiento muscular inspiratorio puede ser util en pacientes seleccionados con enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva cronica, que tienen disfuncion muscular inspiratoria comprobada, insertado en un programa de rehabilitacion integral. El efecto sobre la capacidad de realizar ejercicio aun no ha sido determinado. En resumen, el EMI aumenta la fuerza muscular inspiratoria y la resistencia a la fatiga, mejorando la capacidad funcional, la disnea y la calidad de vida de los pacientes con EPOC.

Background: Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSA) is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in adults. Aim: To evaluate the diagnostic value of clinical features and oximetric data to screen for obstructive sleep apnea before performing polysomnograpy or respiratory polygraphy. Material and Methods: We studied 328 consecutive adult patients referred for snoring or excessive daytime sleepiness to a sleep clinic in whom a standardized questionnaire and the Sleepiness Epworth Scale were performed and body mass index (BMI), cervical circumference (CC), and nocturnal oximetry were measured. Results: Fifty three percent (n = 173) had evidence of clinically significant OSA (apnea/hypopnea index (AHI) > 15 events/h). Patients with OSA were more likely to be male, obese (BMI ≥ 26 kg/m²), smokers, to have a thick neck (CC > 41 cm), and to have a significant greater prevalence of relative reported apneas and excessive daytime sleepiness, as determined by Epworth scale. Male gender (Odds ratio (OR): 4.00; 95% confidence intervals (CI): 1.59-10.0, p = 0.003), BMI ≥ 26 kg/m² (OR: 3.68; 95%CI: 1.59-8.49, p = 0.002), smoking (OR: 2.29; 95% CI: 1.17-4.47, p = 0.015), Epworth index > 13 (OR: 2.65; 95% CI: 1.35-5.23, p = 0.005) and duration of symptoms over 2 years (OR: 2.35; 95% CI: 1.20-4.58, p = 0.012) were significant independent predictors of OSA. In nocturnal oximetry, the lowest SpO2 (SpO2 min) and the length of registries below 90% (CT-90) were independent predictors of OSA and both correlated significantly with AHI (r = -0.49 and r = 0.46 respectively, p < 0.001). Conclusions: No single factor was usefully predictive of obstructive sleep apnea. However, combining clinical features and oximetry data may be appropriate to detect clinically significant OSA patients.

Background: Low grade systemic inflammation is commonly observed in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Aim: To evaluate the extent of systemic inflammation in a group of ex-smokers with COPD in stable condition and its relation with pulmonary function and clinical manifestations. Patients and Methods: We studied 104 ex-smokers aged 69 ± 8 years (62 males) with mild to very severe COPD and 52 healthy non-smoker subjects aged 66 ± 11 years (13 males) as control group. High sensitivity serum C reactive protein (CRP), interleukin 6 (IL6), fibrinogen (F) and neutrophil count (Nc) were measured. Forced expiratory volume in the first minute (FEV1), inspiratory capacity (IC), arterial blood gases, six minutes walking test, dyspnea and body mass index (BMI) were measured, calculating the BODE index. Health status was assessed using the Saint George Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ), the chronic respiratory questionnaire (CRQ), registering the number of acute exacerbations (AE) during the previous year and inhaled steroids’s use. Systemic inflammation was considered present when levels of CRP or IL6 were above the percentile 95 of controls (7.98 mg/L and 3.42 pg/ml, respectively). Results: COPD patients had significantly higher CRP and IL6 levels than controls. Their F and Nc levels were within normal limits. Systemic inflammation was present in 56 patients, which had similar disease severity and frequency of inhaled steroid use, compared with patients without inflammation. Patients with systemic inflammation had more AE in the previous year; lower inspiratory capacity, greater dyspnea during the six minutes walk test and worse SGRQ and CRQ scores. Conclusions: Low-grade systemic inflammation was found in 56 of 104 ex-smokers with COPD. This group showed a greater degree of lung hyperinflation, dyspnea on exercise and poor quality of life.

La tos convulsiva o coqueluche está siendo reconocida cada vez con mayor frecuencia como causa de tos prolongada en adolescentes y adultos. La vacunación sistemática de la población pediátrica ha determinado un cambio en el perfl epidemiológico de la enfermedad, aumentando su prevalencia en la población adulta. Se presenta el caso clínico de una paciente de 45 años, fumadora, enfermera de unidad de hemodiálisis, que consulta por malestar general y tos seca de seis semanas de evolución. La radiografía de tórax era normal y la inmunofuorescencia directa de hisopado nasofaríngeo fue positiva para Bordetella pertussis. A propósito de este caso clínico, revisamos las principales causas de tos crónica: asma bronquial, enfermedad rinosinusal y refujo gastroesofágico; el cuadro clínico, evaluación diagnóstica y tratamiento de la infección por B. pertussis en población adulta.

Background: Streptococcus pneumoniae is the main cause of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Aim: To describe baseline characteristics, risk factors and clinical outcomes of adult patients hospitalized with pneumococcal pneumonia. Material and methods: Prospective study of adult patients admitted for a community acquired pneumonia in a clinical hospital. Immune deficient patients and those with a history of a recent hospitalization were excluded. Results: One hundred fifty one immuno-competent patients, aged 16 to 92 years, 58% males, were studied. Seventy-five percent had other diseases, 26% were admitted to the intensive care unit and 9% needed mechanical ventilation. There were no differences in clinical features, ICU admission or hospital length of stay among bacteremic and non-bacteremic patients. Thirty days lethality for bacteremic and non-bacteremic patients was 10.9% and 11.5%, respectively. The predictive values for lethality of Fine pneumonia severity index and CURB-65 (Confusion, Urea nitrogen, Respiratory rate, Blood pressure, 65 years of age and older) had an area under the ROC curve of 0.8 and 0.69, respectively. Multivariate analysis disclosed blood urea nitrogen over 30 mg/ dL (odds ratio (OR), 6.8), need for mechanical ventilation (OR, 7.4) and diastolic blood pressure below 50 mmHg (OR, 3.9), as significant independent predictors of death. Conclusions: Pneumococcal pneumonia was associated with a substantial rate of complications and mortality. Clinical presentation and outcome did not differ significantly among patients with and without bacteremia.

Background: A National Consensus Guideline published in 2005 established the basis for the diagnostic, severity assessment and treatment of community acquired pneumonia (CAP) in the adult population. The compliance with pneumonia clinical guidelines has been associated to a reduction in hospital stay healthcare-related costs, morbidity and mortality. Aim To describe the management and outcome of non-severe CAP in hospitalized adult patients treated in a rural hospital, based on the national clinical guidelines. Patients and methods: Ninety six patients aged 74 ± 13 years (50 males) hospitalized with non-severe pneumonia (group 3) at a community-based primary care center between January 1, 2006, and March 31, 2007, were evaluated. Results: Eighty percent of patients had concomitant diseases such as hypertension in 49%, diabetes in 23% and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 18%. All were treated with a third generation cephalosporin (ceftriaxone 1-2 g/day TV) as empirical therapy. Only 9% of patients also received a macrolide. Early switch to oral antimicrobial therapy was successful in two third of cases. Mean hospital length of stay was 5.0 ± 2.5 days, and 30-day mortality was 6.3%. Conclusions: Following the recommendations of the national clinical guidelines, most of these patients had a favorable response to monotherapy with a B-lactam antimicrobial. Early switch therapy to oral antibiotic was effective and safe, reducing significantly hospital length of stay as compared to previous national clinical studies.

Chronic organizing pneumonia (COP) has often been reported as a pulmonary manifestation of collagen vascular diseases, mainly rheumatoid arthritis, but the association of COP and dermatomyositis (DM) has rarely been documented. We report a 55 year-old woman with well-documented DM and a COP. She was refractory to steroids and two other immunosuppressive agents therapy (cyclophosphamide and azathioprine). Therefore, rituximab (2 x 1 g infusions) was used for treatment. During the following weeks her strength gradually increased while creatine kinase (CK), C reactive protein and erythrocyte sedimentation rate normalized. After 6 months, she had a relapse with increased muscle enzymes, fever and moderate muscle weakness. After a second course of rituximab (2 x 1 g infusions), the patient demonstrated a remarkable clinical response as indicated by an increase in muscle strength and moderate decline in creatine kinase levels. Lung abnormalities resolved significantly on high resolution chest CT scan. Thus, B-cell depletion therapy with rituximab used alone or in combination with other immunosuppressants may be a viable option in patients with polymyositis-dermatomyositis and pneumonia refractory to current therapies.

Short term effects of acute exacerbations in COPD patients Acute exacerbations of COPD (AECOPD) are associated with decline of FEV1 and health related quality of life. Our aim was to evaluate the short-term effects of AECOPD on several functional and clinical indices in a cohort of 60 ex-smokers patients with COPD. During a 6-month follow up, 40 patients experienced one exacerbation (Group 1), mainly moderate, evaluated 30 days after by measuring BMI, dyspnea, FVC, FEV1, inspiratory capacity (IC), SpO2, six-min walking distance (6MWD), BODE index and quality of life (SGRQ). Values were compared with those measured at recruitment in stable conditions and with those obtained in the 20 patients without AECOPD during a similar period (Group 2). Baseline values were similar in both groups. Group 1 showed a significant worsening in FVC, FEV1, SpO2, BMI, 6MWD, and BODE index. Improvement in SGRQ and BODE was found in group 2. Significant differences in changes between groups were found for all variables, except IC and SpO2. The most noteworthy differences were found for BODE index (p = 0.001) and SGRQ (p = 0.004). Results demonstrate that moderate AECOPD produces significant short term functional and clinical impairment in ex-smokers COPD.

El mieloma múltiple es una neoplasia maligna de células plasmáticas que invade la médula ósea y otros tejidos. Las manifestaciones extramedulares son relativamente raras. El derrame pleural en el mieloma múltiple es poco frecuente (6% de los casos), y el derrame pleural neoplásico es extremadamente raro. La leucemia de células plasmáticas, que se produce de novo o en pacientes con mieloma múltiple, es la variedad menos común de discrasia de células plasmáticas. Los autores describen el cuadro clínico de un paciente de 63 años con leucemia de células plasmáticas, donde la primera manifestación de la enfermedad fue una neumonía neumocócica bacteriémica asociado a un derrame pleural contralateral, que correspondió a un exudado predominio mononuclear. El examen citológico reveló abundantes células plasmáticas inmaduras en el líquido pleural y la sangre periférica. El derrame pleural desapareció después del primer ciclo de quimioterapia (vincristina, adriamicina, dexametasona). Después de tres meses de remisión, la enfermedad neoplásica recidivó, siendo el paciente sometido a trasplante autólogo de médula ósea. El paciente se ha mantenido en remisión completa un año después del diagnóstico. El derrame pleural es una complicación poco común, pero importante, del mieloma múltiple y no necesariamente conlleva un mal pronóstico.

During the past two decades there has been a resurgence of invasivegroup A streptococcal (GAS) infection, specially pneumonia and bacteremia. We report a 35 year-old female previously subjected to a thyroidectomy for a thyroid cancer, that five days afteroperation, presented with a severe community-acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcuspyogenes (Lancefield Group A Streptococcus) that was complicated by acute respiratory failureand septic shock. She was treated with a combination of 3 g/day of cefotaxime and 1.8 g/day ofclindamycin with a good clinical response and discharged from the hospital in good conditions.Although this microorganism is an uncommon cause of community-acquired pneumonia,previously healthy individuals may be infected and the clinical course may be fulminant. Patientswith invasive GAS infection admitted to ICU have a high mortality rate. Treatment of choice ofGroup A streptococcal infection is penicillin. However, clindamycin should be added in severeinfections (Rev Med Chile 2008; 136: 1564-9).(

la enfermedad pulmonar difusa asociada al consumo de tabaco no ha sido claramente definida, la bronquiolitis respiratoria (RB) es un hallazgo morfologico frecuente en fumadores asintomaticos, se caracteriza por la acumulacion de macrofagos pigmentados en los bronquiolos respiratorios. Solo una pequena proporcion de los sujetos fumadores presenta una respuesta inflamatoria exagerada que compromete el intersticio y espacio alveolar, lo cual corresponde a la bronquiolitis respiratoria asociada a enfermedad pulmonar difusa (RBIID), que se manifiesta por disnea de esfuerzos y tos. la neumonia intersticial descamativa (DIP) se caracteriza por compromiso panlobular, fibrosis intersticial discreta e infiltracion masiva del espacio aereo por macrofagos. El patron histopatologico de RBIID y DIP se pueden sobreponer, siendo los principales elementos diferenciadores entre ambas entidades, la distribucion y extension de las lesiones: compromiso bronquiolo-centrico en RBIID y difuso en DIP. Se ha planteado que la RB, RBIID y DIP pueden constituir diferentes fases de una misma enfermedad asociada al consumo de tabaco, lo cual aun es motivo de controversia. Con el proposito de ilustrar este problema, se presenta el caso clinico de un paciente fumador que consulto por disnea progresiva, tos e infiltrados pulmonares bilaterales sugerentes de enfermedad pulmonar difusa asociada al tabaquismo.

Resumen La prevalencia, al igual que la mortalidad de la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva cronica(EPOC), ha aumentado en las mujeres. Esto ultimo sugiere que la enfermedad seria mas grave en elsexo femenino. El proposito de este estudio fue evaluar si existen diferencias en la gravedad segungenero en 95 pacientes (38 mujeres) con EPOC ingresados consecutivamente a un protocolo deseguimiento. Evaluamos la magnitud del tabaquismo, caracteristicas demograficas, gravedad segunVEF 1 e indice BODE y compromiso de la calidad de vida. Los resultados no demostraron diferen-cias entre hombres y mujeres en ninguno de los indices de gravedad. Sin embargo, la magnitud deltabaquismo fue inferior en las mujeres que en los hombres (35,5 ± 19,4 vs 45,7 ± 21 paquetes-ano;p = 0,02). Nuestros resultados sugieren una mayor susceptibilidad de las mujeres para desarrollarEPOC, pero no demuestran que la gravedad de la enfermedad dependa del genero. Palabras clave: EPOC, funcion pulmonar, indice BODE, genero. * Departamento de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile.** Ayudante alumno de la Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile.

la exposición a humo de tabaco constituye un importante factor de riesgo para adquirir infecciones respiratorias bacterianas y virales. En adultos sin enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica, el tabaquismo está asociado a un aumento significativo del riesgo de neumonía (OR: 2,0; IC95%: 1,24-3,24), enfermedad neumocócica invasiva (OR: 2,6; IC95%: 1,9-3,5) e infección por legionella spp. (OR: 3,48; IC95%: 2,09-5,79). Además, el tabaquismo está asociado a mayor riesgo de influenza (OR: 2,4; IC95%: 1,5-3,8), tuberculosis (OR: 2,6; IC95%: 2,2-3,1) y neumonía por virus varicela. En niños pequeños expuestos al humo de tabaco en sus hogares aumenta el riesgo de infecciones respiratorias bajas (bronquitis, neumonía) (OR: 1,72; IC95%: 1,55-1,91) y otitis media recurrente (OR: 1,88; IC95%: 1,02-3,49). El tabaquismo pasivo también aumenta el riesgo de neumonía en adultos (OR: 2,5; IC95%: 1,2-5,1). El aumento del riesgo de infecciones respiratorias en el fumador activo y pasivo puede ser parcialmente atribuido al aumento de la adherencia y colonización bacteriana de la mucosa respiratoria, disminución de la depuración mucociliar nasal y de la vía aérea, y alteraciones específicas de la inmunidad humoral y celular. Conclusión: la exposición a humo de tabaco aumenta al doble el riesgo de infecciones respiratorias en niños y adultos. El aumento de las consultas por infecciones respiratorias constituye una elevada carga para el sistema de salud. En los pacientes que consultan por infecciones respiratorias agudas se debería evaluar el riesgo individual de exposición a humo de tabaco y el equipo de salud debería implementar actividades educativas específicas para intentar controlarlo

Distinguishing pneumonia from other causes of respiratory illnesses,such as bronchitis, influenza and upper respiratory tract infections, has important therapeuticand prognostic implications. This decision is usually made by clinical assessment alone or byperforming a chest x-ray. The reference standard for diagnosing pneumonia is chest radiography,but many physicians rely on history and physical examination to diagnose or exclude thisdisease. A review of published studies of patients suspected of having pneumonia reveals that thereare no individual clinical findings, or combination of findings, that can predict with certaintythe diagnosis of pneumonia. Prediction rules have been recommended to guide the order ofdiagnostic tests, to maximize their clinical utility. Thus, some studies have shown that the absenceof any vital sign abnormalities or any abnormalities on chest auscultation substantially reducesthe likelihood of pneumonia to a point where further diagnostic evaluation may be unnecessary.This article reviews the literature on the appropriate use of the history and physical examinationin diagnose community-acquired pneumonia (Rev Med Chile 2007; 135: 517-28).(

Background: Community-acquired pneumonia in adults is a serious health problem in the ambulatory care setting. Aim: To define clinical variables associated with the presence of pneumonia in adult patients presenting with fever or respiratory symptoms to the emergency department. Material and methods: Prospective study carried out in the emergency department from the Catholic University Hospital in Santiago, Chile. Three hundred twenty-five patients (53±22 years) presenting fever or acute respiratory symptoms were included. After obtaining a clinical history and physical examination, the physician established a tentative diagnosis. Subsequently, a definitive diagnosis was made with the chest X rays. Results: Thirty-four percent of the patients had pneumonia. The clinical diagnosis of pneumonia before X-ray examination was variable among emergency physicians (positive likelihood ratio: 1.5-4.8) and showed only moderate sensitivity (79%) and specificity (66%). The clinical variables significantly associated with the presence of pneumonia were: advanced age (over 75 years), cardiovascular disease, fever, chills, sputum production, orthopnea, altered mental status, cyanosis, dullness on percussion, bronchial breath sounds, crackles, any abnormal vital sign (heart rate ³100 beats/min, respiratory rate ³20 breaths/min or temperature ³38°C) and oxygen saturation below 90% breathing air. Conclusions: Clinical judgment prior to observation of chest X rays had moderate sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of pneumonia. There were no individual clinical findings, or combination of findings, that could confirm or exclude the diagnosis of pneumonia for a patient suspected of having this illnes

Background: Severity assessment of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) patients allows the clinician to decide the place of management and guide empirical antimicrobial treatment. Aim: To assess admission prognostic factors and outcome of CAP in immunocompetent adult patients hospitalized in 21 medical centers in Chile. Material and methods: Prospective evaluation of non immunocompromised adults with CAP admitted to 21 Chilean hospitals between July and August, 1999. All patients were assessed on admission and followed until discharge or death. Results: During the study period, 1,194 patients (aged 68±17 years, 573 males) were evaluated. Seventy two percent had an underlying disease (especially chronic cardiovascular, neurological, respiratory diseases and diabetes mellitus), and 90% were treated with ß-lactamic agents (especially a third generation cephalosporin or penicillin). Mean hospital length of stay was 11±9 days, 10% were admitted to Intermediate Care or Intensive Care Units (ICU), 6% were mechanically ventilated and in-hospital mortality was 15.7%. Admission prognostic factors associated with hospital mortality were: advanced age, male gender, presence of comorbidity (chronic cardiovascular, renal, neurological and hepatic disease), undernutrition, suspicion of aspiration, altered mental status, low blood pressure, tachypnea, absence of fever, high blood urea nitrogen, multilobar radiographic pulmonary infiltrates, high risk categories from Chilean Respiratory Diseases Society Consensus, admission to Intermediate Care Units or ICU, and mechanical ventilation. In the multivariate analysis, prognostic factors associated with high hospital mortality were: mental confusion, high blood urea nitrogen, multilobar pneumonia, presence of comorbidity and absence of fever on admission. Conclusions: These results validate in Chile, findings from foreign studies

La neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) constituye una causa frecuente de consulta ambulatoria y hospitalización en la población adulta. Objetivos: describir el manejo de la NAC del adulto en el Servicio de Salud de Viña del Mar y Quillota durante la Campaña de Invierno de 2003. Resultados: Entre Abril y Septiembre, se atendieron 3.701 consultas por neumonía comunitaria del adulto, 73% en los servicios de urgencia y 27% en los consultorios de atención primaria. El 14% de los episodios de NAC requirieron hospitalización en el área de Viña del Mar y 21% en el área de Quillota. Se examinó una cohorte prospectiva de 229 adultos inmunocompetentes con NAC (± DE = 56 ± 21 años de edad) de bajo riesgo y manejo ambulatorio según las recomendaciones de la Sociedad Chilena de Enfermedades Respiratorias, quienes fueron atendidos en los hospitales de Quillota, Viña del Mar y Limache durante el período de otoño-invierno. El 40% de los episodios correspondieron a NAC tipo I y 60% a NAC tipo II. Los pacientes con NAC tipo I fueron manejados con Claritromicina (67,4%) o Amoxicilina (32,6%) y los pacientes con NAC tipo II fueron manejados con Amoxicilina-Acido clavulánico (74,5%) o Levofloxacina (24,8%) durante 10 días. El 98,7% de los casos evolucionaron favorablemente sin requerir hospitalización, y sólo tres pacientes fueron admitidos al hospital debido a fracaso del tratamiento ambulatorio. Los tres pacientes fallecieron debido a la infección pulmonar y/o descompensación de una comorbilidad (1,3%). Conclusión: La mayoría de los enfermos con NAC, sin criterios de gravedad, pueden ser manejados en el medio ambulatorio con bajos índices de hospitalización, riesgo de complicaciones y muerte

There is limited information about the effectiveness of the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in Chilean emergency rooms. Aim: To assess the treatment of CAP in emergency rooms at the Viña del Mar Health Service in Chile. Material and methods: Prospective study of immunocompetent adult patients consulting for a CAP in emergency rooms. Those that required hospital admission were considered ineligible. The initial clinical and laboratory assessment, antimicrobial treatment and their condition after 30 days of follow up, were recorded. Results: Three hundred eleven adult patients aged 57±22 years (152 males), were evaluated. Patients with class I CAP (40% of cases) were treated with Clarithromycin (71.8%) or Amoxicillin (26.6%) for 10 days. Patients with class II CAP (60%) were treated with Amoxicillin-clavulanate (80.7%) or Levofloxacin (18.2%) for 10 days. Three hundred eight patients (99%) were cured without need of hospital admission; three patients (1%) were subsequently hospitalized because of clinical failure of ambulatory treatment. Overall, three patients (1%) died; all deaths occurred during or immediately after hospitalization and were related to the severity of lung infection but not to the choice of antibiotic treatment. Conclusions: The outpatient management of CAP by general practitioners working at emergency rooms was clinically effective with low rates of hospital admission and mortality

Fundamento: Hay escasos estudios que examinen la etiología de la neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC) en población adulta chilena. Objetivo: Identificar la etiología de la NAC en adultos inmunocompetentes hospitalizados. Método: Estudiamos, prospectiva y consecutivamente durante 16 meses, a 130 pacientes (edad promedio ± DS: 68 ± 18 años; letalidad en el hospital: 6,2%). La evaluación microbiológica incluyó cultivo de expectoración y hemocultivos para bacterias; Financiamiento: Fondo de Investigación de la Sociedad Chilena de Enfermedades Respiratorias (2002) y fondo de la Dirección de Investigación de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (DIPUC 2003/10E). serología para C. pneumoniae, C. psittaci, M. pneumoniae; antígeno urinario para L. pneumophila e hisopado nasofaríngeo para virus respiratorios. Resultados: Se identificó la etiología en 64 (49%) pacientes (dos o más patógenos en 6). Los principales microorganismos fueron: S. pneumoniae (34%), virus Parainfluenza 1 a 3 (22%), virus Influenza A o B (14%), C. pneumoniae (6%), M. pneumoniae (6%), H. influenzae (5%) y S. marcescens (5%). El 93% (25/27) de los virus respiratorios se identificaron en otoño-invierno. Los pacientes con neumonía neumocócica (19) comparados con aquéllos infectados por virus respiratorios (23) eran más jóvenes (59 ± 18 versus 72 ± 17 años; p = 0,021) y tenían menos comorbilidades (47% versus 87%; p = 0,0001). Ninguno de los 13 (11%) pacientes con bacteremia falleció en el hospital. Conclusiones: S. pneumoniae sigue siendo el principal patógeno a cubrir por el tratamiento antibiótico empírico; los virus respiratorios y los "agentes atípicos" fueron los que siguieron en frecuencia. Las futuras guías clínicas nacionales deberían incluir recomendaciones para el manejo de los pacientes infectados por estos dos últimos grupos de agentes etiológicos

Background: In Chile, the emergence of drug-resistant strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae has complicated treatment decisions and may lead to treatment failures. Aim: to examine antimicrobial resistance trends among pneumococcal isolates from the Catholic University Hospital between 1997 and 2003. Material and methods: During a seven-year period, we examined 901 strains of S. pneumoniae isolated from sterile and non-sterile samples from adult and pediatric population. Results: Overall, 20% of isolates showed intermediate resistance to penicillin (MIC: 0.12-1 µg/ml) y 10.8% high level of resistance to penicillin (MIC ³ 2 µg/ml). Pneumococcal resistance to penicillin did not change significantly during the study period, but it was more common in pediatric patients and isolates from non-sterile samples. No isolate had a MIC ³ 8 µg/ml for penicillin. Twenty one percent of pneumococcal strains were resistant to erythromycin, 41.6% to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and 3.6% to chloramphenicol. Macrolides resistance tended to increase between 1997 and 2003. Fourteen percent of strains showed intermediate resistance (MIC: 1 µg/ml) and 2.5%, a high level of resistance to cefotaxime (MIC: ³ 2 µg/ml). No isolate had a CIM ³ 4 µg/ml for cefotaxime. Among those isolates with intermediate or high level of resistance to penicillin, there were significantly more isolates highly resistant to erythromycin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and cefotaxime. Conclusions: Multidrug-resistant pneumococci are common and are increasing in our country, particularly in pediatric population, probably associated to indiscriminate ambulatory prescription of antimicrobials (Rev Méd Chile 2005; 133: 42-49)

Background: Community acquired pneumonia (CAP) severity assessment is crucial. Aim: To develop a practical clinical severity assessment model for stratifying immunocompetent adult patients hospitalized with CAP into different management groups. Patients and methods: During a 24 months period, 455 adult patients (250 male, mean age 69±19 years old) were evaluated. All the relevant clinical information recorded and they were followed during hospital stay until discharge or death. Mortality until 30 days after admission was determined. Results: The mean hospital length of stay was 9.9±9.4 days and 76% had an underlying disease. In hospital mortality was 7.6% and 10.1% at 30 days follow up. Admission prognostic factors associated with high mortality at 30 days follow up were: advanced age, presence of comorbidity, suspicion of aspiration, duration of symptoms ­2 days, altered mental status, absence of cough, fever and chills; low blood pressure, tachypnea, hypoxemia and multilobar radiographic pulmonary infiltrates. A clinical prognostic index derived from a logistic regression analysis including five independent variables associated with mortality (confusion, comorbidity, low systolic blood pressure, temperature 20/min), enabled patients to be stratified according to increasing risk of mortality: class 1: 0.9%, class 2: 4.9%, class 3: 14.2%, and class 4: 35.6%. Conclusion: A simple clinical severity assessment tool based on confusion, comorbidity, blood pressure, temperature and respiratory rate could be used to stratify patients with CAP into different risk class categories and management groups (Rev Méd Chile 2004; 132: 1037-46)

Background: Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a serious health problem in Chile. Aim: To study prognostic factors on admission and outcome of CAP, in immune competent adult patients, hospitalized in the Catholic University Clinical Hospital. Patients and methods: All adult patients admitted with a CAP in a period of 2 years were prospectively studied. Patients with immunodeficiency, solid tumors or receiving oral adrenal steroids were excluded from the study. Results: In the study period, 463 patients (69±19 years, 55% male) were evaluated. Ninety four percent were treated with 2nd or 3rd generation cephalosporins. Mean hospital length of stay was 10 days. Mortality during hospital stay was 8% and in the ensuing 30 days, it was 12%. Bacterial etiology was established in 25% of cases. The most frequent pathogens isolated were Streptococcus pneumoniae (10.2%), Haemophilus influenzae (3.7%), Staphylococcus aureus (2.8%) and Gram negative bacilli (5.2%). Admission prognostic factors associated with hospital mortality were: an age over 65 years, presence of comorbidity, chronic neurological and hepatic disease, suspicion of aspiration, duration of symptoms for less than 3 days, presence of dyspnea and altered mental status, absence of cough, fever and chills; low blood pressure, tachypnea, metabolic acidosis, hypoxemia, high blood urea nitrogen, hypernatremia, hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, hypoalbuminemia, multilobar radiographic pulmonary infiltrates, bacteremia, high risk categories of the Fine Index (IV and V), and admission to Intermediate Care Unit or ICU. Conclusions: The features of community acquired pneumonia of these patients are similar to those reported abroad (Rev Méd Chile 2002; 130: 1373-82).

Background: The clinical role of blood cultures (BC) in the management of hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is controversial. Aim: To evaluate the clinical usefulness of blood cultures in CAP. Material and methods: We prospectively studied 244 immunocompetent adults with two or more BC obtained at admission. The diagnostic yield of BC and its impact on antibiotic therapy were assessed. Results: Mean age (x±sd) of patients was 67±20 years, 80% had underlying diseases and 29% received antibiotics prior to admission. Hospital length of stay was 10.4±10 days and global mortality was 7%. The diagnostic yield of BC was only 8.2% (20 patients). Mortality was significantly higher in patients with positive BC (20%) than in those with negative BC (5.8%). In only one of the 20 patients with positive BC (0.4% of total study population), attending physicians changed empiric antimicrobial therapy based on these results. Conclusions: This study confirms that the diagnostic yield of BC in CAP hospitalized patients is low, that mortality in bacteremic patients is high and suggests that clinical usefulness of BC to guide changes on empiric antimicrobial therapy is limited, in part because attending physicians seldom use such information (Rev Med Chile 2002; 130: 993-1000).