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The green paradox describes an undesirable and socially inefficient phenomenon caused by the expansionary reactions of the supply as a response to the various mechanisms that combat climate change. This article seeks to understand and aggregate the different drivers of this phenomenon portrayed in the literature, as well the empirical evidence associated and the proposed solutions. For this purpose, compilation and systematization of the various scientific contributions up to date in this context have been elaborated and the driver's effective impact on the European scenario was evaluated, using a balanced panel for 28 countries in Europe over 1996-2018 and the generalized method of moments (GMM) econometric procedure. Proxies for all provocateurs identified in the state of the art were incorporated in this study: (i) environmental taxes, (ii) green support, (iii) uncertain property rights, (iv) emissions limit (cap), and (v) temporal lag. The dependent variables used are (1) the ratio between the annual production/extraction of oil and the consumption of primary energy and (2) the carbon dioxide (CO2) intensity. We have obtained evidences that the hiatus in the implementation of the European emission cap mechanism has generated a strong green paradox. Moreover, a robust reflection regarding the economic and environmental adequacy of green supports should be considered due to its questionable net benefits. Lastly, we offer some recommendations of public environmental policies that escape the paradoxical phenomenon, through the enunciation of the conditionalities of these provocateurs., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between sectoral renewable energy consumption and economic growth in the US economy for the period 1950-2020 by using the Fourier component augmented unit root, cointegration, and causality analyses for the transportation, industrial, residential, electric power, and commercial sectors. Our results reveal in the long run that renewable energy will Granger cause growth through the new jobs it will create, the restructuring of the economy which is a prerequisite for replacing fossil energy with renewable energy. On the other hand, causal relationships are less stable and methodology and sector specific in the short run. Accordingly, the electric power and industrial sectors experience conservation patterns in terms of renewable energy consumption, while the growth hypothesis is confirmed for the commercial sector. Different implications are generated for each sector, which are now more important than ever given the current energy crisis in Europe and the urgent need to reduce dependence on fossil fuels., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

The aim of this paper is to investigate the nexus between natural resources, gross capital formation, globalization, and economic growth in the developing countries from European, Asian, African, and American continents. It adopted the panel vector autoregression (PVAR) approach to test this relationship for the period from 1980 to 2018. Results suggest that natural resources and globalization have a positive impact on economic growth in European, Asian, and American countries, while capital formation negatively affects growth. In African countries, the effect of globalization and gross capital formation is positive, but natural resources have a negative impact on GDP. Evidence from all continents illustrate that there is bidirectional causality between globalization and economic growth. Also, there is bidirectional causality detected between capital formation and growth in Europe and Asia and between natural resources and growth in Asia and America, while there is unidirectional causality from GDP to natural resources in Europe, from capital formation to GDP in Africa and America, from GDP to natural resources in Europe, and from natural resources to GDP in America. Based on these results, it can be said that new growth models can no longer be independent of natural resource rents and globalization., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature.)

The present study aims to investigate the impact of climate change technologies on green growth for a panel of overall European economies, Eastern, and Western European economies over 2000 to 2017. The study estimates the STIRPAT (stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence, and technology) and IPAT (human impact, population, affluence, and technology) models with a particulate focus to address the issue of cross-sectional dependence and cross-sectional heterogeneity in the model by using Westerlund cointegration approach and fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) approach. After confirming the cointegration relationship, the findings indicate that in the case of IPAT model, energy-related climate change technology contributes towards green growth, while in case of STRIPAT model, environment-related budget tends to have favorable impact on green growth. However, other variables, such as transport and production-related climate change technologies along with energy consumption, tend to have negative impact on green growth. The findings are almost robust concerning Eastern and Western Europe. The findings indicate that renewable energy is pro-growth and thus the authorities concerned need to promote and encourage the use of renewable energy. In this regard, the role of public-private-partnership is important as well as policymakers need to allocate environment-related specific budget and extend exemption in taxes on the use of environment-friendly technologies. Renewable energy programs ensure an improved return on green growth, although costly to implement. Attention needs to be focused on technologies related to wind power, solar electricity, biogas for electricity and heat generation, and biofuels for transport from low initial levels. Thus, policymakers should focus on the positive impact of environmental regulations. Polluting industries should be taxed to adopt clean technologies and clean industries should be supported with tax exemption as an incentive. Moreover, the research and development (R&D) budget should be increased.

This research work examines the nexus among renewable, non-renewable energy consumption, CO 2 emissions, and economic growth in 26 European countries with data obtained from the World Bank database within the time period of 1990 to 2018. Firstly, unit root and panel cointegration approach analyses are conducted to test the stationary. The results indicate that there exists a long-run nexus among non-renewable, renewable energy, carbon-monoxide, and economic growth. Granger causality test was also used to explore the direction among economic growth, carbon emissions, and energy consumption. The results from this test are inconsistent, while it indicated bidirectional causality between economic growth and renewable energy consumption, there was also a unidirectional causality between renewable energy and non-renewable energy consumption as well as renewable energy and CO 2 emissions. This result proves an interdependency and substitutability between both renewable and non-renewable sources of energy.

This study analyzes how economic resources invested in roads may affect mortality, depending on the level of economic development of a country. To this end, 23 European countries were classified into two groups-high-income countries and low-income countries-according to their average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita over the period 1998-2016. The economic resources are considered through the investment in construction and the maintenance expenditure. Further variables are included to control for several factors related to the infrastructure, socioeconomics, legislation, and meteorology. Fixed-effects panel data models were built separately for the interurban road network of each group of countries. These models also capture the international inequalities within each group and the country-specific national trend for the study period. The main results indicate a reduction effect on the fatality rate of road maintenance expenditure (in both groups), and of the investment in construction (in the low-income countries). Other variables-such as proportion of motorways, motorization rate, unemployment rate, GDP per capita, alcohol consumption, Demerit Point System, and mean annual precipitation-showed statistically significant results as well. Finally, the country-specific fixed effects and the country-specific trend were mapped geographically, to better reflect national conditions for achieving lower fatality rates in the high-income countries, and greater progress in reducing fatalities in the low-income countries. In the end, this study provides evidence to policy-makers that can help to achieve a safer and more sustainable transport system, namely, how to tackle an ongoing major problem-traffic-related deaths-when attending and allocating the economic resources that road infrastructure needs., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

This paper empirically examines the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis using a country's water stress as an indicator of the pressure on renewable water resources. The sample consists of 9 European countries by covering the period 1995-2013. The paper adopts a panel threshold regression model which can predict the threshold level endogenously to analyze whether income per person has an impact on water stress. The empirical findings strongly demonstrate the existence of a threshold beyond which environmental pressures of GDP (real) per capita growth on renewable water resources tend to increase. The growth below the threshold levels has no statistically significant effect on water stress, while the growth rate above the threshold increases stress on water resources. The available empirical findings obtained, albeit limited, tend not to support the EKC hypothesis, which postulates an inverted-U-shaped relationship.

This study aims to explore the relationship of environmental degradation with economic growth and energy innovation by utilizing the panel data of 33 European countries by covering the period of 1996 to 2017. We use the cross-sections independence and control the heterogeneity between cross-sections by using the second-generation econometric of panel data. The Westerlund bootstrap co-integration, CIPS unit root test, Pedroni co-integration, panel causality techniques, and FMOLS have been used to analyze the relationship. The result of the study shows that all the variables are integrated in the long run. Energy innovation has a negative and significant impact on environmental degradation. On the other hand, gross domestic product has a U-shape and significant relationship with environmental degradation by supporting Kuznets curve. Therefore, this study helps not only the policymaker and government but also the people and businessmen on how they can increase the growth of the business and economy without effecting the environment.

Climate change has generated intense concerns from public authorities and international institutions with regard to shaping the behavior of companies, consumers, investors, and other stakeholders so as to manage this challenge as efficiently as possible. In order to address the climate emergency in the post-pandemic era, recovery plans need to trigger decarbonization, and a green transition, including specific investments and providing a more adaptive structure of the sources of energy in different regions, able to meet the need for a systemic shift towards a more sustainable economy that works for both people and the planet. The main measurable effect of energy production and consumption is by far represented by carbon emissions. In the present paper, we aim to identify the statistical significance of several factors influencing the carbon dioxide emission per capita in the European countries-level of economic development, level of globalization, trade openness, and the intensity of energy transition measured by the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption. The results show an increased interest of the experts in energy consumption model shift through green energy increased share, with relatively high differences among the 42 European countries analyzed. The analysis was conducted for the period 1990-2018 and policy differences depending on variables (GDP/capita, globalization index, trade openness, and renewable energy share in total energy consumption) were identified. The results showed that the carbon dioxide emission per capita evaluation designed model is representative of the European countries. The fact that the targets set by European non-EU member states for reducing CO2 emissions are lower than for the EU is influencing the dynamics of the energy transition, with implications for the size and destination of funds to finance the development of renewable energy., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Renewable energy production is necessary for digital society; it is also beneficial for labor market and sustainable development. This paper examines the impact of renewable energy production on unemployment rate by employing panel NARDL-PMG and robust asymmetric quantile regression for European countries from 1991 to 2019. The results reveal that renewable energy production significantly reduced unemployment in European countries in long run. The renewable energy production effect is found significant in the asymmetric model, specifically, in European countries; a positive change in renewable energy production has a negative significant impact on unemployment, and a negative change in renewable energy production has a positive significant impact on unemployment in long run. The GDP, investment, and technology innovation process are found to be triggered in labor market by reducing the unemployment rate in the long run. In addition, the asymmetric effects of renewable energy production on unemployment growth are robust in the different quantile regression. The findings suggest some insightful policy implications for government officials and policymakers., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This paper marks the changes that have taken place in the Senegalese higher education system. As Senegalese citizens and leaders have worked diligently to improve their economy and society as a whole, they have experienced a great deal of obstacles in moving forward. Throughout this process, education has been an important aspect to improving the economic and social development of the country. Included in this economic, social, and educational overhaul, higher education was a component that required a great deal of work. In order to contend in the global society, the higher education system needed to be reformed. This paper included a discussion of the reformation process of Senegal's higher education from the French model at the heart of its inception to the adoption of the Bologna process. This process has allowed higher education in Senegal to become better with time and grow in its success.