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Developmental exposure to carbamates, organophosphates, and pyrethroids has been associated with impaired neurodevelopmental outcomes. Sex-specific differences following chronic insecticide exposure are rather common in vivo. Therefore, we assessed the chronic effects of in vitro exposure to different carbamates (carbaryl, methomyl and aldicarb), organophosphates [chlorpyrifos (CPF), chlorpyrifos-oxon (CPO), and 3,5,6,trichloropyridinol (TCP)], and pyrethroids [permethrin, alpha-cypermethrin and 3-phenoxy benzoic acid (3-PBA)] on neuronal network development in sex-separated rat primary cortical cultures using micro-electrode array (MEA) recordings. Our results indicate that exposure for 1 week to carbaryl inhibited neurodevelopment in male cultures, while a hyperexcitation was observed in female cultures. Methomyl and aldicarb evoked a hyperexcitation after 2 weeks of exposure, which was more pronounced in female cultures. In contrast to acute MEA results, exposure to ≥ 10 µM CPF caused hyperexcitation in both sexes after 10 days. Interestingly, exposure to 10 µM CPO induced a clear hyperexcitation after 10 days of exposure in male but not female cultures. Exposure to 100 µM CPO strongly inhibited neuronal development. Exposure to the type I pyrethroid permethrin resulted in a hyperexcitation at 10 µM and a decrease in neuronal development at 100 µM. In comparison, exposure to ≥ 10 µM of the type II pyrethroid alpha-cypermethrin decreased neuronal development. In female but not in male cultures, exposure to 1 and 10 µM permethrin changed (network) burst patterns, with female cultures having shorter (network) bursts with fewer spikes per (network) burst. Together, these results show that MEA recordings are suitable for measuring sex-specific developmental neurotoxicity in vitro. Additionally, pyrethroid exposure induced effects on neuronal network development at human-relevant concentrations. Finally, chronic exposure has different effects on neuronal functioning compared to acute exposure, highlighting the value of both exposure paradigms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pyrethroids are widely used insecticides with huge applications for household as well as agricultural purposes and contribute to improved product quality and higher yields. In recent decades, the demand for pyrethroids has increased significantly due to advantages such as broad-spectrum efficacy, high insecticidal potential, and lower pest resistance. However, several studies have suggested that human exposure to pyrethroids leads to reproductive problems. Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) is an important hormone transport protein regulating the availability of steroids at their target site. The aim of our study was to investigate the structural interactions of commonly used pyrethroids, cypermethrin and deltamethrin, with ligand binding pocket of SHBG. Cypermethrin and deltamethrin were docked into the steroid binding pocket of SHBG using Schrodinger's induced fit docking (IFD) followed by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies. The resultant SHBG-pyrethroid complexes from IFD experiments were subjected to structural analysis including the molecular interactions followed by binding energy estimation. The analysis revealed that both the ligands were tightly bound in the SHBG pocket with high percentage of commonality among the SHBG residues between the indicated pyrethroid ligands and the SHBG native ligand, dihydrotestosterone (DHT). The estimated binding energy values for cypermethrin were less but close to the values calculated for the SHBG native ligand, DHT. However, the estimated binding energy values for deltamethrin were higher compared to the values calculated for SHBG native ligand, DHT. Furthermore, the MD simulation results also revealed the higher stability of SHBG-deltamethrin than SHBG-cypermethrin complex. To sum up, the results suggested that deltamethrin has a greater capability than cypermethrin to prevent sex steroid hormone from binding to SHBG, even though both pyrethroids have this ability. Consequently, this might hamper the circulatory transport of sex steroid hormones and their availability at the target site, subsequently interfering with reproductive function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Studies evaluating the attrition, physical and insecticidal durability of dual active ingredient (AI) insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are essential for making programmatic decisions regarding their deployment. We performed a prospective study embedded in a cluster randomised controlled trial (cRCT) to evaluate the attrition, fabric integrity and insecticidal durability of Interceptor® G2 (alpha-cypermethrin-chlorfenapyr) and Royal Guard® (alpha-cypermethrin–pyriproxyfen), compared to Interceptor® (alpha-cypermethrin) in Benin. Methods: A total of 2428 study nets in 1093 randomly selected households in five clusters per arm of the cRCT were monitored for ITN attrition and fabric integrity every 6–12 months post-distribution. Householders were further surveyed to investigate non-study net use and their preference for ITN fabric types used in the study nets. A second cohort of 120 nets per ITN type were withdrawn every 12 months and assessed for chemical content and insecticidal activity in laboratory bioassays. Alpha-cypermethrin bioefficacy was investigated using the susceptible Anopheles gambiae Kisumu strain, and chlorfenapyr and pyriproxyfen bioefficacy were investigated using the pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles coluzzii Akron strain. Net pieces were tested in WHO cone bioassays and tunnel tests for alpha-cypermethrin and in tunnel tests for chlorfenapyr; pyriproxyfen activity was assessed in cone bioassays as the reduction in fertility of blood-fed survivors using ovary dissection. Bioefficacy was expressed as the proportion of ITNs passing predetermined WHO criteria, namely knock-down ≥ 95% or 24/72 h mortality ≥ 80% or reduction in fertility ≥ 50%. Results: Overall ITN survivorship was 52% at 24 months and fell to 15% at 36 months. Median ITN survival time was lower with Royal Guard® relative to Interceptor® [1.6 vs 2.3 years; hazard ratio (HR) 1.49, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.36–1.66; p < 0.001] and Interceptor® G2 (1.6 vs 2.1 years; HR 1.33, 95% CI 1.20–1.47; p < 0.001). Householders overwhelmingly preferred polyester nets over polyethylene nets (96%), and more Royal Guard® nets were replaced with spare polyester nets from previous campaigns. All Royal Guard® nets passed efficacy criteria for alpha-cypermethrin at all time points (100%) while ITN pass rates after 24 months had fallen to < 40% for pyriproxyfen and chlorfenapyr. The chemical content analysis showed a higher loss rate of the non-pyrethroid insecticides relative to the pyrethroids in each dual ingredient AI ITN; 74% vs 47% for Royal Guard® and 85% vs 63% for Interceptor® G2 at 36 months. Conclusions: The median ITN survival time for Interceptor® G2 (2.1 years) and Royal Guard® (1.6 years) in Benin is substantially lower than 3 years. Royal Guard® nets were discarded more quickly by householders, partly due to their low preference for polyethylene nets. The insecticidal activity of the non-pyrethroid insecticides in both dual AI ITNs was short-lived compared to alpha-cypermethrin. The results corroborate the findings from the cRCT conducted in Benin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ips typographus (L.) is the most significant insect pest in the European spruce forests. Methods of control and monitoring are in the period of Ips typographus (L.) outbreaks supplemented with suppressive procedures applying insecticides. The aim of our study was to determine the necessary length of Ips typographus (L.) imagoes movement across the treated surface, resulting in their death also in the case of their flying away from the trap tree. Insecticides Forester (active substance cypermethrin) and Dinastia (active substance deltamethrin) were tested in laboratory conditions. Exposure times the beetles moved on the intoxicated bark were 30–300 s. Then the beetles were placed in Petri dishes and their survival rate up to twenty-four hours was established. Experiment duration was 8 weeks from spraying with repeated week control tests. High efficiency of tested pyrethroids ensuring the death of also flying away imagoes within six hours after contamination was established at three weeks. The rate of their survival was increasing from Week 4 independently on the exposure times (deltamethrin). In cypermethrin, the survival rate of imagoes was high and dependent on the exposure times. The efficiency of deltamethrin was higher than that of cypermethrin. During the outbreaks, the pheromone-baited poisoned trap trees causing the death also to flying away imagoes of Ips typographus (L.) have to be sprayed with the above-mentioned pyrethroids in a monthly interval at the time of swarming culmination. The efficiency of both insecticides decreased more rapidly on the upper unprotected side of the trap tree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study investigated the behavioral asymmetries and mating success of Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) under sublethal exposures to α-cypermethrin. Control males exhibited a right-side bias, which increased the likelihood of successful copulation, especially when head butts preceded mounting. A similar pattern was observed for LC10-exposed males, though their success rate slightly declined. In females, the right-side approach also enhanced copulation success. The direction of approach and mounting influenced the time required for key mating behaviors like mate detection and mounting. Males exposed to LC30 of α-cypermethrin needed a longer time for mate detection compared to control and LC10, especially when approaching from the back or front side. Females of the LC30 group were also influenced, with shorter copulation times when approaching from the right. These findings demonstrate that α-cypermethrin affects both mating success and the duration of related behaviors. Sublethal exposure to insecticides can adversely impact various biological and behavioral characteristics of insects. Although α-cypermethrin has been previously tested for its effects on control of Alphitobius diaperinus, there is no knowledge about the effect of this insecticide on its behavioral asymmetries and mating success. Μales at all exposures (control, LC10, and LC30), that first approached their mate, showed right-biased tendency (approached their mate from their right side) in mate recognition. Females, however, showed variation in this behavior between the three exposures. Right-biased tendency of males in all treatment scenarios led to a higher percentage of successful copulations compared to the three other directions. For males that first approached their mate, the insecticide did not affect their lateralization of the first approach but did affect their copulation success. The duration of copulation time was reduced after the exposure to the insecticide, with the longest duration noted in the control females (63.0 s) and the lowest in the α-cypermethrin LC30 females (46.9 s). Moreover, at the α-cypermethrin LC10 exposure, mate recognition time was reduced, as opposed to α-cypermethrin LC30 exposure where mate recognition time was increased. These results can be further utilized to uncover the behavioral impacts of insecticides, enhancing the effectiveness of pest management in warehouses and poultry production facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cypermethrin, a Class II pyrethroid pesticide is well-documented for its toxicity to non-target organisms. Its environmental breakdown and the resulting harmful effects in various species have been widely researched because of its high toxicity. In this context, the present study aimed to evaluate the acute toxicity of cypermethrin (25% EC) on juvenile Cyprinus carpio, var. communis. Juvenile fish, each weighing 12±2 grams were used for the study. Initial range-finding tests were followed by definitive tests, and the acute toxicity data was analyzed using Finney's Probit Method. The 96-hour LC50 for Cyprinus carpio was determined to be 1.239 µg/L in a static bioassay setup. The mean values of the physicochemical parameters of the aquarium water measured during the bioassay showed slight variations, indicating that fish mortality was due to pesticide exposure rather than suffocation. The average laboratory temperature was recorded at 17°C, while the water temperature was measured at 12°C. The mean dissolved oxygen levels were 6 mg/L and the pH was 7.5. Total dissolved solids were 4.0 × 10³ mg/L and CO2 levels remained constant at 1.2 mg/L. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Mortality caused by various pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids has been studied for stored‐product insects in the past, yet limited information exists on the sublethal effects they can induce to Oryzaephilus surinamensis. In the current study, the sublethal effects of deltamethrin, λ‐cyhalothrin, α‐cypermethrin, etofenprox, and the mixture of acetamiprid with d‐tetramethrin and piperonyl butoxide on the mobility of O. surinamensis in the presence or the absence of a food source was investigated. RESULTS: Lethal concentrations (LCs) were lower for deltamethrin, α‐cypermethrin, and λ‐cyhalothrin (LC10 = 0.000233, 0.000211, and 0.000271 mg active ingredient (a.i.) cm−2, LC30 = 0.000413, 0.000398, and 0.000447 mg a.i. cm−2, respectively), followed by etofenprox, and the mixture of acetamiprid with d‐tetramethrin and piperonyl butoxide (LC10 = 0.00228 and 0.003267 mg a.i. cm−2, LC30 = 0.00437 and 0.01188 mg a.i. cm−2, respectively). Deltamethrin and λ‐cyhalothrin negatively impacted adult walking behavior, increasing stop durations compared to controls. Adults exposed to LC10 and LC30 of λ‐cyhalothrin, and LC30 of deltamethrin exhibited prolonged periods on their backs compared to the remaining treatments and the controls. The α‐cypermethrin LC30‐exposed adults exhibited significantly shorter walking and stopping durations than controls but demonstrated prolonged climbing on the arena walls compared to adults exposed to the remaining a.i. and the control. A similar trend was observed for etofenprox. CONCLUSIONS: Under sublethal concentrations, λ‐cyhalothrin and deltamethrin increased stop intervals and reduced the duration of climbing attempts of O. surinamensis versus α‐cypermethrin. These findings advance comprehension of the underexplored sublethal impacts of the tested a.i. on O. surinamensis adults, holding potential for leveraging insecticide‐induced behavioral effects to enhance warehouse pest management. © 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of exposure to sublethal concentrations of cypermethrin on growth, phenotypic traits, and metabolic and antioxidant enzymes activities of monosex tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The median lethal concentration (LC50) of cypermethrin was initially ascertained to be 0.04 ppm after 12 h of exposure to three concentrations (0.04, 0.20, and 1.0 ppm) via the Probit analysis method. The sublethal exposures were obtained for 3 months at 0.0016, 0.008, and 0.04 ppm of cypermethrin. The growth performance, phenotypic traits, and enzymatic activity were analyzed. The research findings revealed a notable impact of cypermethrin on the growth performance of monosex tilapia, with a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in weight observed as the concentration increased. The experiment documented a significant change (p < 0.05) in the phenotypic traits of standard length, total length, tail length, trunk length, eye diameter, body area, and color patterns, but not dressing percentage. Furthermore, it was observed that the activities of amylase and protease in both the intestine and muscle decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing concentrations of cypermethrin, except for amylase in the muscle, where no significant change was noted (p > 0.05). The results also demonstrated significant reductions (p < 0.05) in the activity of metabolic enzymes, specifically superoxide dismutase and catalase, following exposure to sublethal levels of cypermethrin. The study suggested that sublethal exposure of pyrethroid alters the growth, phenotypic traits, metabolic enzymes activities, and immunity of monosex tilapia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two of the most-commonly used pyrethroid insecticides were subjected to static bioassays to determine their acute toxicity to Clarias gariepinus fingerlings, followed by comparisons of their impact on mortality and behavioural changes in the fish. The LC50 values for deltamethrin (DMT) at exposure durations of 24, 48 and 96 h were 12, 9 and 8 µg l−1, respectively; the LC50 values for cypermethrin (CYP) at the same exposure durations were 55, 44 and 26 µg l−1, respectively. The estimated safe limits ranged from 8×10−1 to 8×10−5 µg l−1 for DMT, and 26×10−1 to 26×10−5 µg l-1 for CYP. The tested substances had an acute toxicity effect on fish development as they caused death, and chronic toxicity effects as they changed fish behaviour. Fish exposed to either one of these pesticides showed behavioural alterations, such as loss of static balance, excessive mucous secretion, irregular swimming, gulping of air and skin discolouration. The results reveal that CYP was less toxic (96-h LC50 = 26 µg l−1) than DMT (96-h LC50 = 8 µg l−1) based on the greater LC50 value and a lower percentage of mortality. To avoid potential ecotoxicological risks to aquatic life, use of these pyrethroids in both terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems must be treated with caution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work proposes a spectrophotometric method for deltamethrin determination using silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). The AgNPs are spherical with a diameter of~11 nm and a negative surface charge with zeta potential ranging from −4.1 mV (pH 2) to −48 mV (pH 10). The AgNP colloidal system showed greater stability at higher pH values and for a molar ratio of 6 between the sodium borohydride and silver nitrate in the synthesis. This is because the borate ions from the oxidation of borohydride are present on the surface of the nanoparticles, promoting an electrostatic repulsion between them which keeps them dispersed. The method was validated, obtaining satisfactory results of veracity and precision, and the limits of detection and quantification were 0.17 and 0.51 mg L−1, respectively. The method was selective for deltamethrin compared to the compounds cypermethrin, endosulfan, thiamethoxam, atrazine, chlorpyrifos and parathion. Deltamethrin promotes the formation of dendritic silver nanostructures, changing the color of the system. The results demonstrate the development of a reliable and selective method for the detection of deltamethrin using AgNPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One method of crop protection is the application of a widely used group of pesticides—pyrethroids. As xenobiotics, sub-lethal doses of insecticides cause stress in pests, resulting in a change in the shape and size of their organs or bodies. The stress caused by pesticides may lead to acute destabilization of development, but also to transgenerational canalization through the process of genetic assimilation. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA), small random deviations between the right and left sides of bilaterally symmetrical traits, is an outcome of developmental instability and is a measurable indicator of phenotypic response to stress. We exposed four populations of the seed beetle Acanthoscelides obtectus to sub-lethal doses of cypermethrin for ten generations in a laboratory evolution experiment. Using geometric morphometrics, we analyzed size and shape changes and the level of fluctuating asymmetry in untreated beetles and in samples from the fifth and tenth generation. Exposure over ten generations led to an increase in the body size of the beetles, shortening of their pronotum and elongation of their thorax and abdomen. After ten generations of exposure to cypermethrin, FA levels decreased, indicating a canalization of development. This study provides new insights into the phenotypic markers of environmental pollution from agricultural activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: While there are limited data on the environmental impact of administering equine parasiticide drugs, evidence from other species indicates significant negative ecological effects. Anthelmintic drugs are excreted unchanged or metabolised to other active and/or toxic metabolites that enter the environment through direct excretion. These chemicals can have significant toxic effects on insects, such as dung beetles, earthworms and aquatic animals. Of the frequently used equine anthelmintics, ivermectin is the most ecotoxic; available evidence indicates that moxidectin is less toxic and fenbendazole appears to have little impact on dung‐colonising insects but may be toxic to aquatic organisms and fungi. There are little data regarding the ecotoxicity of pyrantel and praziquantel, although their ecotoxic effects are thought to be low. Pasture hygiene reduces pharmaceutical contamination and also helps to break the endoparasitic cycle of infectivity, thus reducing reliance on anthelmintics. Judicious and targeted use of endoparasiticides, along with pasture hygiene measures, will limit the ecotoxic effects of these drugs as well as reduce the selection pressure that drives anthelmintic resistance. Anthelmintics may also negatively impact the equine gastrointestinal microbiota. Ectoparasiticides (such as fipronil, permethrin and cypermethrin) may also have significant negative ecological effects, with a risk of contamination of both the immediate environment and water courses following topical use of these drugs. The half‐life of fipronil in the environment is variable, but it degrades into compounds which are more toxic; for example, it is highly toxic to bees and is reported to bioaccumulate in fish and can be toxic to birds. Of the synthetic pyrethroids, permethrin degrades at a faster rate than cypermethrin and may therefore have a lower ecotoxic effect. The ecotoxic effects of injectable doramectin are likely to be similar to oral ivermectin, although persistence in faeces may be significantly prolonged compared to the oral treatment route for ivermectin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of this study were to evaluate the exposure to permethrin and cypermethrin of young children aged between 2 and 5 years in Nakhon Pathom and Sing Buri provinces, Thailand. A questionnaire that included general demographic information, household characteristics, insecticide usage and exposure-related behavior in children was used to interview parents or family caregivers. Permethrin and cypermethrin concentrations on floor surfaces and children's hands, as well as their urinary metabolites, were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The results showed that permethrin and cypermethrin were detected in 62% and 83% of the children's hand wipe samples, with geometric mean (GM) levels of 0.02 µg and 0.04 µg, respectively. Permethrin and cypermethrin were detected in 79% and 93% of floor surface wipe samples, with GM levels of 0.90 µg/m2, and 1.49 µg/m2, respectively. For children's urine, the GM concentrations of cis- and trans-DCCA, 3-PBA, and total pyrethroid metabolites were 0.84, 0.31 and 1.23 nmol/g creatinine, respectively. This study found that household insecticide product usage and having a tile floor were associated with increased permethrin concentrations on the children's hands and floor surfaces. However, cypermethrin concentrations on floor surfaces were significantly higher in families using aerosol insecticide sprays and insecticide products in the living room and bedroom. The predictors of the total pyrethroid, DCCA and 3-PBA metabolites are permethrin on children's hands or floor surfaces and cypermethrin on floor surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) receive growing interest as a potential alternative animal feed source. These insects may be exposed to insecticide residues in the rearing substrate. This study aimed to investigate the effects of six different pyrethroid and organophosphate insecticides on this insect species' performance. The toxicity of two "model" substances for each of these classes (cypermethrin; pirimiphos‐methyl) was quantified, with and without the synergist piperonyl butoxide (PBO). Critical effect doses corresponding to 10% yield (CED10) for cypermethrin (0.4 mg/kg) and pirimiphos‐methyl (4.8 mg/kg) were determined. The addition of PBO to cypermethrin enhanced its relative potency with a factor 2.6. These data were compared against the relative toxicity of two analogue substances in each class (permethrin, deltamethrin; chlorpyrifos‐methyl, malathion). Results suggest that exposure to concentrations complying with legal limits can cause significant reductions in yield. Exposure to multiple substances at lower concentrations resulted in negative additive and synergistic effects. Of the tested substances, deltamethrin was most toxic, causing 94% yield at 0.5 mg/kg. Analytical results suggested that transfer of tested substances to the larval biomass was substance‐ and concentration‐specific, but appeared to be correlated to reduced yields and the presence of PBO. Transfer of organophosphates was overall low (<2%), but ranged from 8% to 75% for pyrethroids. Due to very low limits in insect biomass (∼0.01 mg/kg), high transfer may result in noncompliance. It is recommended that rearing companies implement lower contractual thresholds, and that policymakers consider adjusting legally allowed maximum residue levels in insect feed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cypermethrin (CYP) is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide, used in agriculture, and one of the most common contaminants in freshwater aquatic systems. This paper reports an evaluation of the toxicity of CYP in the mosquitofish, exposed to two concentrations (0.2 ng/L and 6.25 ng/L). The result revealed a significant modulation in the activity of antioxidants enzymes, superoxide dismutase, catalase and decreased acetylcholinesterase after 7 days. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde levels remained elevated throughout the exposure duration. CYP causes gills and liver oxidative stress, modifying the antioxidant enzymes. Principal component analysis highlighted relationship between biomarkers in functional response. These findings suggest that exposure to CYP can lead to various antioxidant processes in the fish gills and liver. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regular monitoring of pesticide residues in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) is important to ensure a low risk of pesticide toxicity to consumers. An efficient, modified quick easy cheap effective rugged safe‐dispersive‐solid‐phase extraction (QuEChERS‐ d‐SPE) was optimized and validated for quantification of pesticide residues (metalaxyl, chlorpyrifos, λ‐cyhalothrin, and cypermethrin) in popular Kenyan potato varieties "Shangi," "Tigoni," and "Dutch Robyjn," grown under controlled field conditions using gas chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (GC‐MS/MS). An evaluation of the effect of five spraying frequencies (unsprayed, 5, 7, 10, and 14‐day intervals) of metalaxyl‐based fungicides on residue levels in harvested potatoes was simultaneously done. Metalaxyl residue levels in the varieties were determined for each spraying regime. Method validation showed good linearity (r2) of 0.988–0.999, detection limit (0.37–0.61 µg/L), quantification limit (1.20–1.84 µg/L) while recovery (71%–94%), and precision (relative standard deviation of 2.3%–24.1%) were used to determine the accuracy of the method. Pyrethroids (cypermethrin and λ‐cyhalothrin) and organophosphates (metalaxyl and chlorpyrifos) were detected in the potato samples. Residue levels of the compounds were not significantly different (p = 0.05) between varieties except for chlorpyrifos. Cypermethrin was the residue compound detected at the highest mean level with 17.4 µg/L, followed by metalaxyl, chlorpyrifos, and λ‐cyhalothrin, at 2.88, 1.05, and 0.15 µg/L, respectively. Residue levels at different spraying frequencies varied statistically between varieties (p = 0.05). Dutch Robyjn sprayed at seven days' intervals had the highest residue level of 9.49 ± 0.26 µg/L. QuEChERS‐d‐SPE with GC‐MS/MS has shown suitability for routine pesticide residue monitoring in potatoes. The potatoes grown under the controlled experimental conditions did not present any concern for human health, as the pesticide residues detected were below Codex maximum residue levels of 500 µg/L. Core Ideas: Potato field production in Kenya is characterized by intensive pesticide application.There is limited data available locally about the type of pesticide or their residue levels present in potatoes.Pyrethroids and organophosphates were detected and quantified in the potato samples.Cypermethrin was the highest residue compound detected, though below Codex MRLs while λ‐cyhalothrin was the lowest.Highest residue in cypermethrin in Dutch Robyjn, metalaxyl in Shangi, and chlorpyrifos and λ‐cyhalothrin in Tigoni. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This work aimed to define the histopathological severity of fluorinated, brominated and chlorinated pyrethroid insecticides on endocrine pancreas of mice. Methods: Fourty male mice (Mus musculus) were categorized into four groups and each group containing ten animals. 0.1mL dose of corn oil was given to the vehicle contro (VC) group animals for three days. This group was kept as a reference group. The 0.1mL corn oil containing 5mg/kg dose of each insecticide such as Cypermethrin (CYP), Deltamethrin (DLT) and Lambda cyhalothrin (LC) was given to three group of mice for three days, followed by three days of none treatment. Dissection procedure was carried out at 7th day. Results: All the micrometric results and histopathological alterations have shown that pyrethroid insecticides were highly toxic to endocrine pancreatic tissues. The various histopathological sign such as strip arrangements of endocrine cells in islets, endocrine cellular necrosis mainly in the central and pericentral areas of islets and increased vacuolation in surviving endocrine cells etc. In three insecticides treated groups, there were significantly decline in the relative abundance of endocrine cells per unit area (1230µm²) such as CYP (8.8±0.25) DLT (7.5±0.23) and the LC (7.5±0.23) as compare to control group (9.7± 0.24). It indicates that type II pyrethroid insecticides are generally pancreo-toxic and they specifically target the islets of langerhans cells. Conclusions: The severity of the mentioned pathological sign in LC and DLT groups indicated that these non-dietary halogenated (fluorinated and brominated respectively) pyrethroid inflict more severe histopathological impacts on the endocrine pancreas as compare to the simple chlorinated type II pyrethroid the CYP. The findings reflects that these otherwise consider comparatively safer or less toxic insecticides for the non-target organisms like mammals have come out to be highly toxic to the endocrine tissues particularly the pancreas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although pyrethroids are increasingly being used to control a number of agricultural insect pests, especially the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.), pyrethroid resistance is a major obstacle limiting effective control. With the aim of maintaining the effectiveness of pyrethroids in managing pests, a study was undertaken to evaluated the effectiveness of oxidase and esterase inhibitors for synergizing pyrethroids in S. littoralis larvae. Compared with the insecticide-susceptible strain (L-SS) of S. littoralis, the resistance ratio (RR) in the field population (F-RS) was 271.43-fold to cypermethrin. The use of profenofos as an esterase inhibitor significantly increased larval susceptibility to cypermethrin in the F-RS strain, with a synergy ratio (SR) of up to 192.57-fold. Significant inhibition of esterase by profenofos in the F-RS strain was found in vivo. Also, piperonyl butoxide (PB) as an oxidase inhibitor had slight effect of cypermethrin toxicity, so its addition is not a solution for pyrethroid resistance. Thus, modifying the toxicity of cypermethrin by mixing it with organophosphorus compounds (OPs) increased its toxicity and decreased the population of S. littoralis, which is a successful strategy for managing pyrethroid resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pesticides are substance that are used to manage pests, such as aquatic weeds, plant diseases and insects. It has been shown that these substances are highly hazardous to fish as well as other organisms that are part of the food chain. The presence of cypermethrin in food and groundwater has raised environmental concerns, there is a need to develop economical, rapid, and reliable techniques that can be used for field applications Many studies have shown that Cypermethrin (CYP) can cause toxic effect in various animals including fishes. But the molecular mechanism behind the toxicity mediated Cypermethrin (CYP) at genome levels and proteome levels is still need to be studied. However, there is a gap in emerging and undeveloped nations to begin to use these methods and several other recently developed approaches to inhibit the negative consequences and enhance health which may be profitable. The toxicological information currently available might be used to gain a clear understanding of the possibilities of these synthetic pyrethroid insecticides causing various health hazards to environmental and provides insight for future research evaluating the toxic effects of pyrethroid insecticides. This present review article is concerned with the toxicological effects of pesticides and a brief overview of sources, classification of pesticides with an emphasis on the effects of Cypermethrin (CYP) on fish as well mode of toxicity and the mechanism of action (CYP) and toxicity signs in several fish species have been illustrated. The primary controls and appropriate preventive measures that must be adopted are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: South Africa is one of the largest importers of pesticides in Africa. Pesticides play an integral role in food security and ensuring economic survival. Cypermethrin is a type II pyrethroid and is commonly and widely used as an insecticide. Poisoning arises from exposure through inhalation, skin contact or ingestion. Its toxic effects manifest predominantly as neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms. Severe pyrethroid poisonings are rare but can present as an organophosphate-like toxidrome. This poses a diagnostic conundrum. Case report: This case concerns a 36-year-old male from a rural town in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, who was diagnosed with intentional cypermethrin poisoning after a suicide attempt. He was initially diagnosed as a suspected organophosphate poisoning with coma. He made a full recovery after mechanical ventilation and symptomatic treatment with a low dose muscarinic antagonist, atropine sulphate. Conclusions: With the ease of over-the-counter procurement, cypermethrin and other pyrethroid poisonings pose an increasing diagnostic dilemma to frontline and critical care personnel. This case report intends to raise awareness about the organophosphate-like toxidrome at presentation and the potential complications of high dose atropine treatment, commonly used to treat organophosphate poisoning. The treatment of cypermethrin is largely supportive with dermal decontamination of skin as an essential component. Low dose atropine may be utilized if required.

Synthetic pyrethroid contamination in water is a serious environmental concern as this pesticide is highly toxic to aquatic animals. Phytoremediation using aquatic plants that can tolerate and accumulate pyrethroid pesticides is an interesting alternative. In this study, the phytotoxicity of cypermethrin and deltamethrin, alone or in combination, to three aquatic plants, Azolla microphylla, Salvinia cucullata, and Spirodela polyrrhiza were tested. The results show that S. cucullata was the most sensitive species because the pigment content in the fronds significantly decreased when exposed to pyrethroid in water. Azolla microphylla was the most tolerant species because the pigment content in their fronds significantly increased when exposed to pyrethroid and cypermethrin, which could also significantly increase the plant fresh weight of A. microphylla. Both species could accumulate synthetic pyrethroid pesticides in their tissue. The bioconcentration factors of cypermethrin and deltamethrin in A. microphylla were 3,508.8 and 2,323.5, respectively, while the bioconcentration factors of cypermethrin and deltamethrin in S. cucullata were 453.0 and 381.7, respectively. Azolla microphylla is appropriate for use in pyrethroid phytoremediation in water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanoparticles have been shown to inhibit major life cycle stages of ticks, indicative of the promising application of nanomaterials against hard ticks. The study thus probed into one of the alternative options to curtail Hyalomma by employing nanocomposites consisting of pyrethroids (cypermethrin and deltamethrin) coated nanoparticles of iron oxides and iron sulfides keeping alongside the evaluation of their toxicity through plant and mammalian cell lines. The nanoparticles used in this study were roughly spherical in morphology and exhibited various size dimensions upon characterization using SEM, EDX, and FTIR. The application of nanomaterials on female ovipositioning tick showed a decline up to 15% (females ovipositioned) in deltamethrin-coated FeO NPs, whereas this decline was up to 18% in Cyp-FeS NPs and up to 5% in Cyp-FeO NPs. Similarly, the larval hatching was also impacted, leading to a hatching percentage of 5% and only 1% by application of Cyp-FeS NPs and Cyp-FeO NPs, respectively. Similarly, the larval groups had LC90 of 4.1 and 4.73 mg/L for the Cyp-FeO NPs and Cyp-FeS NPs groups. The delta-FeO NPs and delta-FeS NPs demonstrated a promising effect against adult ticks, showing LC50= 3.5 mg/L, LC90= 6.7 mg/L and LC50= 3.8 mg/L, LC90= 7.9 mg/L, respectively. MTT assay revealed that the pyrethroids coupled with iron oxide nanoparticles showed the least cytotoxicity even at the highest concentration (10–1 µL) among other nanomaterials. The study thus concluded a safer spectrum of non-target effects of pyrethroids-coated nanomaterials in addition to their significant anti-tick activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)), a key pest of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L. (Fabales: Fabacae)) across the US, has developed resistance to pyrethroids lambda-cyhalothrin and zeta-cypermethrin in at least 6 western US states. Unfortunately, 6 pyrethroid active ingredients represent most commercial insecticides registered for alfalfa weevil control in forage alfalfa systems. Thus, the loss of efficacy of this mode of action group due to multiple resistance represents a significant agricultural challenge because of a limited registered alternative mode of actions. To evaluate the extent and severity of resistance among pyrethroids around the United States, laboratory bioassays using larvae from Arizona, California, Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming, including both the Egyptian and western strains, were conducted. Results indicated that similar degrees of resistance among type II pyrethroids as determined by both laboratory bioassays and field trials exist. The LC50 values of alpha-cypermethrin, beta-cyfluthrin and zeta-cypermethrin produced significant correlations with the LC50 values of lambda-cyhalothrin. In contrast, resistance did not include type I pyrethroid, bifenthrin (registered for seed alfalfa production), whose LC50 values yielded a slope not significantly different from zero when correlated with lambda-cyhalothrin. Field trials conducted in Arizona, Montana, and Washington corroborated laboratory results, as commercial formulations with type II pyrethroid active ingredients failed to adequately control alfalfa weevils resistant to lambda-cyhalothrin. Integrated resistance management recommendations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Histopathological and micrometric effects of Cypermethrin (CYM) and lambda-cyhalothrin (LCH), the type II pyrethroid insecticides, were explored on adrenals of 6 weeks old sixty male mice (28-30g). Additionally the ameliorative capacity of extra virgin olive oil treatment were also investigated against their pathologies. Methods: Sixty male mice (28-30g) were randomly distributed in six groups (10 mice each): 1. Negative control group (Cont) (100µL corn oil for two days followed by one day rest (no dose) and 100µL corn oil for next three days), 2. Positive control group (Virgin Olive Oil/VOO) (100µL corn oil for two days followed by one day rest (no dose) and 100µL extra virgin olive oil for next three days), 3. CYM group (100µL of 5mg/kg CYM solution in corn oil for two days, one day rest (no dose) and three day post treatment of 100µL corn oil), 4. LCH group (100µL of 5mg/kg LCH solution in corn oil for days 1-2, no dose on day 3 followed by 100µL corn oil from day 4-6), 5. CYM+VOO group (CYM treatment as in group three followed by extra virgin olive oil treatment as in group two after one day rest) and 6. LCh+VOO group (LCH treatment as in group four followed by extra virgin olive oil treatment as in group two after one day rest). All solutions were given to mice through gavage. Results: The results showed various characteristic effects of insecticide exposure upon adrenal cortex (lesions in zona fasciculata leaving behind wide empty spaces between adjacent fascicles), medulla (cellular necrosis, vacuolization in cytoplast and nuclear disintegration, enlarged nuclei and cytoplast). In addition to that various significant micrometric alterations were also noted. Extra virgin olive oil significantly rehabilitated the derailments in the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. Conclusions: On basis of present findings it is obvious that the type II pyrethroid insecticides bear cortico-medullary adrenal toxic potentials. As these pathologies were found effectively ameliorated upon OV treatment, it is concluded that such pathological implications are rescuable by the extra virgin olive oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of pyrethroids is very broad and shows increasing trends. Human biomonitoring studies represent the best approach for realistic risk estimations, but their interpretation requires a tiered approach. A previous HBM4EU study indicated levels in European children groups just around the threshold for concern, requiring further refinement. The main difficulty is that several pyrethroids with different toxicity potencies generate the same urinary metabolites. As diet is the main pyrethroid source for the general population, EU food monitoring data reported by EFSA have been used to estimate the relative contribution of each pyrethroid. The main contributors were cypermethrin for DCCA and 3-PBA and lambda-cyhalothrin for CFMP. Urinary levels predicted from food concentration according to the EFSA diets were mostly within the range of measured levels, except 3-PBA and CFMP levels in children, both below measured levels. The predicted lower levels for 3-PBA can be explained by the very low Fue value, initially proposed as conservative, but that seems to be unrealistic. The discrepancies for CFMP are mostly for the highest percentiles and require further assessments. The refined assessments included the revision of the previously proposed human biomonitoring guidance values for the general population, HBM-GV Gen Pop, following recent toxicological reevaluations, and the estimation of hazard quotients (HQs) for each individual pyrethroid and for the combined exposure to all pyrethroids. All HQs were below 1, indicating no immediate concern, but attention is required, particularly for children, with HQs in the range of 0.2–0.3 for the highly exposed group. The application of probabilistic methods offers assessments at the population level, addressing the variability in exposure and risk and providing relevant information for Public Health impact assessments and risk management prioritization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the occurrence and environmental partition of urban pesticides and the dependence of these compounds on the physicochemical properties of the sediment and water of the Ceará River (fluvial and mangrove regions) located on the tropical coast of northeast Brazil. Surface sediment and water were collected from each site. Dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, conductivity, depth, turbidity, and salinity were measured in situ. Bifenthrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, imiprothrin, and malathion were analysed in both environmental matrices. An ecological risk assessment was performed using the risk quotient (RQ) calculated from responses of aquatic organisms to the target compounds compiled in the United States Environmental Protection Agency ECOTOXicology knowledgebase (ECOTOX). The highest concentrations were found for the urban pesticides cypermethrin, permethrin, and deltamethrin, ranging from 37.39 to 367.60, 44.49 to 226.45 ng L−1, and 60.99 to 170.56 ng L−1 in water and 270.99 to 623.99, 27.00 to 307.00 ng g−1 and 0.27 to 443.48 ng g−1, in sediment in dry weight, respectively. Malathion, cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, and deltamethrin are related to chemical control performed for combatting vectors of diseases. The main sources of permethrin and imiprothrin are household insecticides. Bifenthrin may be related to its use by specialised pest control services. The study of toxic effects and the ecological risk assessment revealed cyfluthrin to be extremely toxic to marine and estuarine organisms, followed by deltamethrin, bifenthrin, cypermethrin, and permethrin, whereas imiprothrin and malathion were classified as toxic and non-toxic, respectively. The urban pesticides investigated in this study were on the same level of magnitude as those found in agricultural areas, except for malathion and imiprothrin, the levels of which were higher due to the fact that these compounds are commonly used in urban pest control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pyrethroid-PBO nets have demonstrated improved impact against clinical malaria transmitted by pyrethroid resistant mosquito vectors and are being scaled up across Africa. However very little is known about their physical and insecticidal durability under operational conditions. This study will investigate the attrition, fabric integrity, insecticide content and bioefficacy of DuraNet® Plus, a new WHO prequalified alphacypermethrin and PBO incorporated net developed by Shobikaa Impex Private Limited over 3 years of field use in communities in Benin, Cameroon and Tanzania. Methods: The study will be conducted in parallel in selected villages in Zakpota District in Benin, Mbalmayo, District in Cameroon and Muheza District in Tanzania. In each country, ~ 1800 households will be recruited and randomised to receive DuraNet® Plus or DuraNet® (a WHO prequalified alphacypermethrin-only ITN). Follow up surveys will be performed at 1 month post distribution to investigate adverse events and subsequently every 6–12 months to assess ITN attrition and fabric integrity following standard WHO procedures. A second cohort of nets will be withdrawn every 6–12 months and assessed for alpha-cypermethrin and PBO content and for entomological activity in laboratory bioassays (cone bioassays and tunnel tests). Alpha-cypermethrin bioefficacy will be monitored using the susceptible Anopheles gambiae Kisumu strain in cone bioassays while PBO bioefficacy will be monitored using pyrethroid resistant strains with overexpressed P450 enzymes in tunnel tests to determine the proportion of efficacious nets (≥ 95% knockdown, ≥ 80% mortality or ≥ 90% blood feeding inhibition in tunnels) at each time point. Nets withdrawn at 12, 24 and 36 months from each country will also be tested in experimental hut trials against wild free-flying pyrethroid resistant Anopheles gambiae sl in Côvè Benin to investigate the superiority of DuraNet® Plus over DuraNet® at each time point under semi field conditions. Conclusion: This large-scale multi country trial will provide useful information on the durability of a pyrethroid-PBO net (DuraNet® Plus) in 3 different regions in sub-Saharan Africa. The methods proposed for bioefficacy testing could also contribute towards the development of new standardised guidelines for monitoring the insecticidal efficacy of pyrethroid-PBO nets under operational conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wide use of synthetic pyrethroids has increased their contamination in agricultural soil, so removing this pollutant from agricultural sites is necessary. Phytoremediation offers promise for agricultural soil decontamination as it is an environmentally friendly and green method. In this study, Napier grass cv. Pakchong 1 (Pennisetum purpureum x Pennisetum Americanum), cuttings with or without soaking in gibberellic acid (GA3) with and without the surfactant Tween 20, were planted in synthetic pyrethroid contaminated soil for 20 days. The results showed that the synthetic pyrethroid reduced shoot and root growth, reduced the pigment content and increased the proline content in the leaves of Napier grass cv. Pakchong 1, and GA3 soaking alone was the most appropriate method to alleviate synthetic pyrethroid phytotoxicity. However, planting with Napier grass cv. Pakchong 1 did not enhance soil biodegradation of cypermethrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, and fenvalerate. Napier grass did not accumulate synthetic pyrethroids within the shoot and root tissue, as the bioconcentration factor for each compound was below 1. Indigenous soil microorganisms caused a decrease in these synthetic pyrethroids. Napier grass could tolerate and grow well in pyrethroid-contaminated soil, and a method to enhance the plant's capacity to remove pyrethroid from the soil should be developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research was carried out to assess the negative impacts of water cypermethrin concentrations on certain hematological and biochemical parameters and stress hormones in the juvenile common carp Cyprinus carpio L. for 96 hours. The experiment was arranged in completely randomized design (CRD) and data were analyzed through one-way ANOVA. The percentage of mortality was increased significantly following the exposure of common carp to cypermethrin and increasing the exposure level. Cypermethrin has a detrimental impact on fish hematological and biochemical parameters. Hematological profiles (LYM, MON, GRA, Hb, RBC, MCV, and Hct) decreased significantly with exposure of common carp to cypermethrin and increasing the level of exposure. Exposing fish to cypermethrin led to a significant rise in the level of triglycerides, AST, ALT, and ALP and a significant decline in the level of cholesterol. The levels of cortisol and T3 were significantly increased following the exposure of common carp to cypermethrin. While, significant reduction in AChE level was found by exposing common carp to cypermethrin. This research concluded that hematological, biochemical, and stress hormone parameters were adversely affected by exposing juvenile common carp to cypermethrin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glutathione S‐transferases (GSTs) were reported to participate in insecticide resistance by metabolic and antioxidant activities. In our previous study, an ε class gene of GSTs, SlGSTe8 in Spodoptera litura, was screened out to be upregulated in a population resistant to pyrethroids and organophosphates. SlGSTe8 was highly expressed in the larvae stage, and the digestive tissue, foregut, midgut and hindgut, while the relative expression level was low in the pupae stage and other tissues. To further explore its role in the resistance to pyrethroids and organophosphates, the metabolic activity to insecticides by its recombinant protein was determined by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography, and its antioxidant enzyme activity was evaluated by disc diffusion assay. The recombinant protein showed significant metabolic activity to phoxim and chlorpyrifos, but not to fenvalerate, cyhalothrin or β‐cypermethrin. After incubation, the depletion rate of chlorpyrifos is 85.3%, higher than that of phoxim (17.5%). Also, the inhibition zone around filter discs decreased significantly after exposure to cumene hydroperoxide in recombinant plasmid than vector only, suggesting significant antioxidant activity of SlGSTE8. Further modelling and docking analysis indicated that the 3D structure of SlGSTE8 was well shaped for phoxim and chlorpyrifos, with the binding energy −5.58 and −5.15 kcal/mol, respectively. Our work provides evidence that SlGSTe8 in S. litura plays important roles in phoxim and chlorpyrifos resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amblyomma sculptum is a relevant tick species from a One Health perspective, playing an important role as a vector of Rickettsia rickettsii, the main agent of spotted fever rickettsiosis in Brazil. In this study, we evaluated the susceptibility of two A. sculptum populations from Goiás state (midwestern Brazil) to different acaricides. The first tick population (GYN strain) originated from an experimental farm, where the ticks are annually exposed to acaricides. The second (PNE strain) was collected in a national park (Emas National Park), where the ticks had not been exposed to acaricides. Immersion tests were conducted with 21-day-old laboratory-reared larvae and nymphs originating from adult ticks collected in the areas mentioned above. The chosen acaricides were two synthetic pyrethroids (cypermethrin and deltamethrin), one organophosphate (chlorfenvinphos), one formamidine (amitraz), and two combinations of pyrethroids and organophosphates (cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos and citronellal; cypermethrin, fenthion and chlorpyrifos). Mortality data were used to determine the lethal concentration (LC) values at which 50%, 90%, and 99% of the ticks died (LC50, LC90, and LC99, respectively), and resistance ratios (RR) were calculated based on the LC values. The RR revealed differences between the acaricide-exposed (GYN) and unexposed (PNE) tick strains. The PNE strain larvae and nymphs were susceptible to all the tested acaricides. The GYN strain larvae were tolerant to cypermethrin, whereas the nymphs were tolerant to deltamethrin, chlorfenvinphos, and the combination of cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, and citronellal (2 < RR ≤ 10). The GYN strain nymphs were resistant to amitraz (RR > 10). This is the first report of A. sculptum nymphs with resistance to amitraz and tolerance to deltamethrin, chlorfenvinphos, and the combination of cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, and citronellal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In present study, comparative andrological histopathologies of Cypermethrin (CP) (a chlorinated type II pyrethroid) and Lambda-Cyhalothrin (LN) (a fluorinated type II pyrethroid) insecticide exposure and their amelioration with post treatment with Extra Virgin Olive oil (EVO) in testes, epididymis and vas deferens were explored. Sixty male albino mice (12-14 weeks old) were randomly distributed in six groups (n=10): 1. Negative Control (NC) is vehicle control so received 0.1mL corn oil on day 1&2, no treatment (day 3) and 0.1mL corn oil (day 4-6) through gavage; 2. Positive Control (PC) (the olive oil EVO antidote group) were given 0.1mL corn oil on day 1&2, no treatment (day 3) and 0.1mL EVO (day 4-6); 3,4) CP and LN were treated with 0.1mL of their respective 5mg/kg insecticides dissolved in corn oil on day 1&2, no treatment (day 3) and 0.1mL corn oil (day 4-6); 5,6) CP+EVO and LN+EVO were given 0.1mL of their respective 5mg/kg insecticides on day 1&2, no treatment (day 3) and 0.1mL EVO (day 4- 6). Animals were dissected on day 7 to recover testes, epididymis and vas deferens. Excised organs were processed for serial sectioning and micrometry. Exposure with CP and LN results in severe damage to seminiferous tubules and interstitial tissues of testes and endothelium of epididymis and vas deferens. Toxic effects were depicted as empty spaces in seminiferous tubules, interstitial tissues and epididymis and vas deferens, wavy margins of seminiferous tubules and corpus epididymis and necrosis in spermatogonia. Simultaneously the mean cross-sectional area of seminiferous tubules was significantly (p<0.05) decreased in CP (10.34±3.00µm2) and LN (12.63±3.23µm²) than PC (15.30±6.25 µm²) and NC (14.69±4.96µm²) groups. The EVO post treatment groups CP+EVO and LN+EVO indicate signs of rehabilitation in the mean CSA of seminiferous tubules (13.04±5.45µm², 13.07±5.80µm²) and interstitial tissues (30.47±0.67µm², 33.60±1.23µm²) as well as the mean number of spermatogonia. There was significant (P≤0.05) decrease in the mean epithelial height of caput (22.78±0.56µm², 22.42±0.49µm²), corpus (20.29±0.42µm², 20.15±0.55µm²) and cauda epididymis convoluted tubing (18.29±0.59µm², 17.93±0.52µm²) and epithelial thickness of vas deferens (29.17±1.49µm², 28.91±0.88 µm²) in CP and LN groups. The recovery signs of extra virgin olive oil in CP+EVO and LN+EVO groups were observed as rehabilitation in epithelial height of caput (23.58±0.49µm², 23.04±0.51µm²), corpus (20.97±0.54µm², 20.69±0.55 µm²) and cauda epididymis (21.43±0.65 µm2, 20.13±0.70 µm²) and epithelial thickness of vas deferens (34.06±1.07µm², 31.24±0.96µm²). The results indicate that both insecticides inflicted almost similar histopathologies which were convincingly recovered by the olive oil post treatment. It is thus concluded that irrespective of the presence of fluoride the type II pyrethroids can inflict severe testicular, epididymal and vas deferens damage in the exposed animals whereas the olive oil has immense rehabilitative capacity and thus can be used against insecticide inflicted testicular, epididymal and vas deferens histopathologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examines the thyro-parathroid toxicological impacts of a fluoridated (Lambda cyhalothrin) and a non-fluoridated (Cypermethrin) pyrethroid in male albino mice and the amelioration of these toxicities with post treatment with extra virgin olive oil (EVOO). Study plan included 6 groups. 1: Vehicle control (Cnt group) received 0.1 mL corn oil for days 1,2, 4-6) and 2: Positive control (Olv group) received 0.1 mL corn oil for days 1-3 and 0.1mL EVOO for days 4-6) 3: cypermethrin group (Cpr group) and 4: Lambda Cyhalothrin group (Lch group) received 5 mg/Kg cypermethrin or Lambda Cyhalothrin respectively for days 1-2, no treatment on day 3, 0.1mL corn oil for days 4-6) 5: Cypermethrin+Olive group (Cpr+Olv group) and 6: Lambda cyhalothrin+Olive group (Lch+Olv group) received 5mg/kg cypermethrin or Lambda Cyhalothrin respectively for days 1-2, no treatment on day 3, 0.1mL EVOO for days 4-6). Results of the present study indicate that both of the insecticides are toxic to the endocrine tissue examined in the study. However lambda cyhalothrin led to severe histopathological (Cords seemed to be merged and focal degenerations can also be observed in central and peripheral regions) and micrometric changes compared to the cypermethrin. Various significant alterations occurred in micrometric parameters, such as mean CSA of follicular cells, Para-follicular cells and follicles were significantly higher in lambda cyhalothrin groups as compared to cypermethrin group. The morphometric data also showed a significant (p≤0.05) decrease in mean cross-sectional area of follicular cells (Cnt: 51.33±1.05, Olv: 51.16±1.16, Cpr: 62.45±1.8, Lch: 61.00±2.1, Cpr+olv: 54.3±1.8 and Lch+olv: 55.2±1.7), CSA of follicles (Cnt: 2083±128.6, Olv: 2019.84±189.7, Cpr: 1946.6±94.03, Lch: 1712.6±139.6, Cpr+olv: 2041.7±114 and Lch+olv: 1483.3±134.4), Para-follicular cells (Cnt: 55±11.09, Olv: 51.76±9.0, Cpr: 73.8±15.7, Lch: 60.9±10.7, Cpr+olv: 54.1±8.8 and Lch+olv: 51.9±11.8) indicating that the fluoridation has contributed significantly to the pathological potential of this insecticide. On the other hand olive oil has been found to contain rescuing and rehabilitation potentials and ameliorated the mean CSA of follicular cells, CSA of follicles and parafollicualr cells, against the histopathologies of these insecticides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Histopathological and micrometric alterations of mice liver and kidney against gastro-intestinal exposure of (lambda-cyhalothrin) (LCT) and (cypermethrin) (CYP) were investigated along with the rescuing potential of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO). The study comprised 60 male albino mice randomly distributed in 6 groups (n=10). The vehicle control group (VC) was maintained and treated with 0.1ml corn oil. The positive control group was treated with EVOO, whereas the (CYP) and (LCT) groups were treated with 5mg/kg of the respective insecticides for two consecutive days and corn oil for 4-6 days. The last 2 groups Cypermethrin+extra virgin olive oil (CYP+EVOO) and Lambda-cyhalothrin+extra virgin olive oil (LCT+EVOO) were treated with olive oil only on day 4-6 along with respective insecticide exposure on first two days. All animals were sacrificed on day 7 to recover body organs (Liver and Kidney). Results show various histopathological alterations both in Liver (enormously enlarged hepatocytes, disruption of hepatic cords, etc.) and kidney (lesions in the endothelial wall of bowman's capsule, endothelial cells apoptosis, etc.) on CYP and LCT exposures. Significant micrometric changes were also noted along with pathological signs. The olive oil post treatment groups have shown rehabilitative effects against the reported histopathologies. On the basis of these findings, it is concluded that both insecticides harbor hepato-renal histopathological potentials that are at least partially rescued on EVOO treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cardio-genic disruptions of in utero exposure of a non-fluoridated Cypermethrin (CP) and a fluoridated λ-Cyhalothrin (LC) type 2 pyrethroid insecticide were explored in albino mice. Pregnant dams were divided into three groups (n=10); 1) Vehicle Control Group (VCG) (intra-gastric treatment of 0.1mL corn oil); 2) Cypermethrin Group (CPG) and; 3) λ-Cyhalothrin Group (LPG) (intra-gastric treatment of 5mg/kg Cypermethrin (CP) and λ-Cyhalothrin respectively in corn oil). These treatments were applied on 7--10th days of pregnancy. Embryos were removed from the gravid uteri of the euthanized dams on 18th day of pregnancy and fixed in formyl ethanol for 24hrs to finally remove their hearts for histological and histometric analyses. Both insecticides were found to cause micro-anatomical derangements like decreased ventricular wall thickness, rudimentary appearance or complete absence of inter-ventricular (AV) septa, abnormalities of the cardiac valves, and decreased thickness of the muscular layer of the aortic trunk. However, these disruptions were much more pronounced in LCG. Morphometric results revealed a significant decrease (P>0.05) in the thickness of left ventricular wall in CPG (295.90±12.3µ) and LCG (104.27±5.6µ) as compared to VCG (346.68±9.5µ). The mean thickness of interventricular septum was significantly decreased in CPG (440.03±20.4µ) and LCG (214.3±10.2µ) groups than the VCG (2641.75±186.2µ). The thickness of the aortic intima also showed a significant (P>0.05) decrease in CPG (12.70±0.25µ) and LCG (11.03±0.3µ) than the VCG (18.44±0.37µ). Similarly, the thickness of aortic adventitia remained significantly (P>0.05) lower in CPG (26.96±1.1µ) and LCG (23.97±1.5µ) than the VCG (41.09±2.1µ). The relative abundance of myocardiocytes and cardio-myoblasts (per 5000µ2) also showed significant decrease in both CPG (8.98 ±0.45, 2.50±0.24 respectively) and LCG (4.7 ±0.48, 6.26±0.79) to the VCG (18.19±0.56, 1.02±0.13). The results show that type-2 pyrethroid insecticides inflict a highly toxic impact on the developing heart in mammals and the fluoridated LC is more toxic than the CP in this context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cypermethrin (Cyp) is a pyrethroid that has been associated with the toxicity of various organs. The aim of our study was to evaluate the hepatoprotective and antioxidant activities of nano-piperine (NP) against Cyp toxicity. Cyp (50 mg/kg) was administered orally in all animals of groups III–VI for 15 days. Groups IV–VI each received three doses of NP (125, 250, and 500 µg/kg/day) for 10 days after receiving the Cyp dosage, which was given after 1 h. A rise in serum biomarkers (ALT, AST, ALP, total protein, and albumin), which are indicators of toxicity alongside anomalous oxidative stress indices (lipid peroxidation (LPO), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase), was detected. After Cyp treatment, we observed upregulated cytokines, caspase expression, and histological analysis that the showed distortion of cell shape. However, the administration of NP dramatically reversed all of the Cyp-induced alterations, inducing reductions in serum marker levels, stress level, the production of cytokines, and caspase expression. Additionally, all of the histopathological alterations were minimized to values that were comparable to normal levels. The present findings suggested that NP exhibits potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities that can protect rats' livers against Cyp-induced liver damage through hepatoprotective activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cypermethrin (CYP), a pyrethroid insecticide, exerts the detrimental effect on the reproductive system, while astaxanthin (AST), a xanthophyll carotenoid, possesses the powerful antioxidant property and can protect oocyte maturation. However, the toxicity of CYP and the protective role of AST against CYP during oocyte maturation remain unclear. Here, porcine oocytes were applied to investigate the potential effects and underlying mechanisms of CYP and AST during oocyte maturation. This work demonstrated that CYP significantly decreased oocyte maturation rate and subsequent embryo development in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05). And, CYP obviously induced the overproduction of reactive oxygen species and the reduction of glutathione content by downregulating the expression of redox genes in oocytes (P < 0.05). Moreover, CYP significantly caused oocyte DNA damage and disturbed the function of endoplasmic reticulum by altering the transcription of DNA damage repair and endoplasmic reticulum stress related genes (P < 0.05). Whereas CYP-exposed oocytes were treated with AST, these defects caused by CYP were significantly ameliorated (P < 0.05). In conclusion, this study demonstrated that CYP exerted the toxic effect on porcine oocytes, while AST effectively alleviated CYP-induced defects. This work provides a potential strategy to prevent pesticide toxicity and protect oocyte maturation in mammalian reproduction. • Cypermethrin decreased oocyte maturation rate in a dose-dependent manner. • Cypermethrin induced ROS overproduction and GSH reduction. • Cypermethrin caused DNA damage. • Cypermethrin disturbed the function of endoplasmic reticulum. • Astaxanthin alleviated CYP-induced oocyte defects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deltamethrin (DM), a Type II pyrethroid, is widely used worldwide in agriculture, household applications, and medicine. Recent studies have shown that DM exerts a variety of toxic effects on organs such as the kidney, heart muscle, and nerves in animals. However, little is known about the effects of high-dose DM on growth and development, and the mechanism of toxicity remains unclear. Using the Caenorhabditis elegans model, we found that high-dose DM caused a delay in nematode development. Our results showed that high-dose DM reduced the activation of the endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response (UPRER). Further studies revealed that high-dose DM-induced developmental toxicity and reduced capacity for UPRER activation were associated with the IRE-1/XBP-1 pathway. Our results provide new evidence for the developmental toxicity of DM and new insights into the mechanism of DM toxicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Pyrethroids are popular insecticides. Shortness of breath and dyspnea are key signs of exposure; however, their respiratory effects are rarely studied. This study investigated the combination and ratios of specific blood tests and lung lesions as respiratory effects of cypermethrin (CY) in rabbits. The effects of CY at various doses and times are the novelty of this study. Doses (50, 100, and 150 mg.kg-1 body weight) of CY were injected intraperitoneally every week for up to 9 weeks in rabbits assigned into four equal groups. Data analysis revealed various respiratory signs, significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower fibrinogen, higher neutrophils-lymphocytes (NL), LDH-lymphocytes (LL), and De-Ritis ratios (DR), and lesions in the lungs. The frequency and incidence of these effects were dose and dosage dependent. The CY leads to pulmonary signs and allergic effects. Lung injury increases cell-free heme in plasma, causing pulmonary edema with hemolysis. Emphysema and fibrosis followed the migration of basophils and mononuclear cells to the lungs. This study inferred that CY exposure caused lower fibrinogen, higher NL, LL, and DR ratios, and pulmonary lesions, which forecast poor immunity, especially increased risk for cardiac and lung diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The common practice worldwide to get rid of unwanted crawling and flying insects using commercially available insecticides represents a potential danger of leakage of containers, and pollution of water and soil that can harm both target and non‐target species. Cypermethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid, is one of the most widely used household broad‐spectrum insecticides. RESULTS: Silver nanosphere (AgNS)‐, triangular nanoplate (AgNT)‐ and nanodecahedra (AgND)‐based substrates for surface‐enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) were tested, showing that AgND led to high detection sensitivity of cypermethrin with no previous sample treatment, even at low laser power (0.1 mW). Also, reproducibility tests were carried out with one substrate as well as with different substrates. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that AgND substrates are sufficiently sensitive to detect cypermethrin by SERS using a 780 nm laser, in a complex matrix with no photo‐bleaching and without the need for sample treatment. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pyrethroid-chlorfenapyr (CFP) and pyrethroid-piperonyl butoxide (PBO) nets are being scaled across endemic countries to improve control of malaria transmitted by pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes. CFP is a pro-insecticide requiring activation by mosquito cytochrome P450 monooxygenase enzymes (P450s) while PBO improves pyrethroid potency by inhibiting the action of these enzymes in pyrethroid-resistant mosquitoes. The inhibitory action of PBO against P450s may thus reduce the efficacy of pyrethroid-CFP nets when applied inside the same household as pyrethroid-PBO nets. Methods: Two experimental hut trials were performed to evaluate the entomological impact of two different types of pyrethroid-CFP ITN (Interceptor® G2, PermaNet® Dual) when applied alone and in combination with pyrethroid-PBO ITNs (DuraNet® Plus, PermaNet® 3.0) against a pyrethroid-resistant vector population in southern Benin. In both trials, all net types were tested as single and double net treatments. Bioassays were also performed to assess the resistance profile of the vector population at the hut site and investigate interactions between CFP and PBO. Results: The vector population was susceptible to CFP but exhibited a high intensity of pyrethroid resistance that was overcame by PBO pre-exposure. Vector mortality was significantly lower in huts with combinations of pyrethroid-CFP nets plus pyrethroid-PBO nets compared to huts with two pyrethroid-CFP nets (74% vs. 85% for Interceptor® G2 and 57% vs. 83% for PermaNet® Dual, p < 0.001). PBO pre-exposure reduced the toxicity of CFP in bottle bioassays suggesting this effect may be partly attributable to antagonism between CFP and PBO. Higher levels of vector mortality were observed in huts with net combinations that included pyrethroid-CFP nets compared to those that did not and highest mortality was achieved when pyrethroid-CFP nets were applied alone as two nets together (83–85%). Conclusions: This study shows evidence of a reduced performance of pyrethroid-CFP nets when combined with pyrethroid-PBO ITNs compared to when applied alone and higher efficacy with net combinations that included pyrethroid-CFP nets. These findings suggest that in similar contexts, prioritizing distribution of pyrethroid-CFP nets over other net types would maximize vector control impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides (SPIs) are frequently detected in water bodies and sediments, and they show high toxicity to aquatic organisms, but their toxicity kinetics remain unknown. In this work, the kinetics of uptake and depuration of three SPIs, fenpropathrin (FP), cypermethrin (CM) and deltamethrin (DM) were evaluated in manila clams (Ruditapes philippinarum) for the first time through a bioconcentration-semi-static test. Clams were exposed to three SPIs of different concentrations (2 ng/mL and 20 ng/mL) for 4 days, followed by a 10-day depuration stage. The results indicated that adult manila clams could absorb SPIs rapidly, and the bioconcentration factor (BCF) values of SPIs were different at high and low concentrations of contaminants. The depuration rate constants (k2) of SPIs in adult manila clams ranged from 0.024 h-1 to 0.037 h-1. The bioaccumulation factors ranged from 319.41 to 574.38. And the half-lives (t1/2) were in the range of 18.49 to 29.22 h. These results showed that manila clams have a high bioconcentration capacity, and SPIs have a high cumulative risk for bivalves. Moreover, after 10 days of elimination, SPIs can still be detected in manila clams at all concentrations, indicating that the complete elimination of SPIs required a longer time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unrestricted utilization of xenobiotic compounds has sparked widespread concern by the world's growing population. A synthetic pyrethroid called cypermethrin (CP) is commonly utilized as an insecticide in horticulture, agriculture, and pest control. The high toxicity levels of accumulated CP have prompted environmental concerns; it damages soil fertility, and an ecosystem of essential bacteria, and causes allergic reactions and tremors in humans by affecting their nervous systems. The damage caused by CP to groundwater, food, and health makes it imperative that new effective and sustainable alternatives are investigated. Microbial degradation has been established as a reliable technique for mineralizing CP into less toxic chemicals. Among the many enzymes produced by bacteria, carboxylesterase enzymes are determined to be the most efficient in the CP breakdown process. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) have been reported as the best methods for determining CP and its metabolized products, with detection limits as low as ppb from diverse environmental samples. The current study describes the ecotoxicological impact of CP and innovative analytical techniques for their detection. The newly isolated CP-degrading bacterial strains have been evaluated in order to develop an efficient bioremediation strategy. The proposed pathways and the associated critical enzymes in the bacterial mineralization of CP have also been highlighted. Additionally, the strategic action to control CP toxicity has been discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Cypermethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide, is frequently spread on agricultural farmlands and is also used in households in Thailand. Conventional pesticide-using farmers (n = 209) were recruited from the Phitsanulok and Nakornsawan provinces. Certified organic farmers (n = 224) were also recruited in the Yasothorn province. The farmers were interviewed via a questionnaire and the urine from their first morning void was collected. The urine samples were analyzed for 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), cis-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid (cis-DCCA), and trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane carboxylic acid (trans-DCCA). The results showed no significant difference in the urinary cypermethrin metabolites between the conventional farmers and the organic farmers, for whom the usage of cypermethrin was not accounted for. However, when conventional farmers who used cypermethrin on the farm and in the home were compared with conventional farmers who did not use any cypermethrin or with organic farmers, a significant difference was noted for all metabolites except for trans-DCCA. These findings show that the most significant exposures to cypermethrin are among conventional farmers who use the insecticide on their farms or in their homes. However, measurable levels of all metabolites were found among both conventional and organic farmers who only used cypermethrin in the home or not at all, suggesting that the at-home use of pyrethroids and other possible exposures from pyrethroid residues on market-bought food may contribute to urinary levels of pyrethroids that exceed those of the general population in the US and Canada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pyrethroids can be ingested by humans through eating contaminated oysters, which is potentially harmful to health. This study aimed to investigate the effects of raw, steaming, and roasting on cypermethrin (CP) and fenpropathrin (FP) in oysters during simulated digestion. Results showed that the amount of released CP and FP was different from raw (CP: 0.617 µg·g−1, FP: 0.266 µg·g−1), steaming (CP: 0.498 µg·g−1, FP: 0.660 µg·g−1), and roasting (CP: 1.186 µg·g−1, FP: 0.588 µg·g−1) at the end of simulated digestion. The share of cis-CP and low-efficiency CP increased significantly (p < 0.05), and the share of high-efficiency trans-CP did not maintain a high level for a long time during simulated digestion. The fluorimetric titration and isothermal titration calorimetry confirmed that CP and FP could spontaneously interact with oyster actin, and CP could bind with oyster actin more tightly than FP. This study reveals that cooking methods affect the binding capacity of CP and FP to oyster tissues and influence the changes of CP and FP in oysters during digestion. Furthermore, the current study provides a reference for assessing the potential harm of pyrethroids in oysters to consumers.

Several studies have shown that the oxidative impact of pesticides is most prevalent in rural environments where they are intensively used. At different levels, pyrethroids are reported to promote neurodegeneration; they share the ability to promote oxidative stress, and to induce mitochondrial impairments, α-synuclein overexpression and neuronal cell loss. The present study evaluates the impact of early-life exposure to a commercial formulation containing deltamethrin (DM) and cypermethrin (CYP) at a dose of 1/100 LD50 (1.28 and 2.5 mg/kg, respectively). Rats aged 30 days old, treated from the 6th to the 21st day of life, were tested for brain antioxidant activity and α-synuclein levels. Four regions of the brain were analyzed: the striatum, cerebellum, cortex and hippocampus. Our data demonstrated a significant increase in catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) antioxidant levels in the brain regions compared to the controls. Pups exhibited no significant changes in protein carbonyl levels and lipid peroxidation. Striatal α-synuclein expression was significantly reduced in the rats exposed to DM + CYP, while the treatment resulted in a non-significant increase in the other brain areas. These findings indicate unexpected effects of postnatal treatment with the commercial formulation containing DM and CYP on brain redox state and α-synuclein expression, suggesting an adaptive response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cypermethrin (CYP), a prototypical synthetic pyrethroid, reportedly causes metabolic disruption, while its stereoselective impact remains elusive. This study initially revealed that only α-CYP caused significant weight loss at 8.5 mg/(kg•day) in rats. All three CYP isomers caused the accumulation of hepatic glycogen, and hyperlipemia phenotype as the increment of total triglyceride. Rats treated with α-CYP had markedly high blood glucose levels and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance index. The systematic inflammation of θ-CYP group rats was evidenced by high lipopolysaccharide-binding protein levels and abnormalities of leukocytes indices. By examining the gut microbiome, we found that α-CYP-treated rats had low contents of Firmicutes and high levels of Verrucomicrobia while Elusimicrobia was enriched in the β-CYP group. The increasing alpha diversity in the θ-CYP group may be due to the dominance of pathogenic bacteria and the increase of probiotics to counteract adverse effects. Exclusively, the α-CYP group enriched total short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), whereas most SCFAs depleted in the θ-CYP group. The correlation analysis further found Firmicutes, an energy storage modulator, was positive to body weight (BW), while SCFAs exerted the opposite, confirming the low BW in α-CYP. Blood glucose that correlated well with SCFAs and Verrucomicrobia can be accounted for the discrepancy between α-CYP and θ-CYP. Overall, the three isomers exerted stereoselective glycolipid disruption in rats, and gut homeostasis acted as vital indicators. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of insecticides Talstar 10 EC (pyrethroid bifenthrin) and Nurelle D (mixture of organophosphorus and pyrethroid: chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin) on the life-cycle parameters (survival, growth, cocoons production, and hatching juveniles) of the non-target organism, earthworm Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826), in the laboratory and their impact on the natural earthworm population in agricultural field. The experiment was conducted from 2017 to 2019. The field experiment was performed at the Rimski Šančevi site, near Novi Sad, Serbia. The laboratory experiment was conducted according to the OECD guidelines. The earthworms were exposed to the artificial soil supplemented with different concentrations of the tested insecticides according to the recommended agricultural doses (RAD). The mixture of pesticides (Nurelle D) was found ecologically more dangerous to E. fetida than Talstar 10 EC. The 50% lethal concentration (LC50) values of both insecticides were higher than the highest concentration used in the experiment. Talstar 10 EC did not affect weight, but affected the production of cocoons and hatching juveniles, even at the RAD. The mixture of pesticides has shown toxicity after a long-time exposure, and it had an impact on the parameters of the life cycle. The results of the field experiment demonstrated that mixtures of pesticides are more toxic than single-component ones. This points out that the chemicals must be used with the maximum responsibility. Information about long-term effects can be important for understanding the field experiment data, which typically show a high variability and, therefore, are difficult to interpret. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]