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Numerous animals have declining populations due to habitat loss, illegal wildlife trade, and climate change. The cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) is a Critically Endangered primate species, endemic to northwest Colombia, threatened by deforestation and illegal trade. In order to assess the current state of this species, we analyzed changes in the population of cotton-top tamarins and its habitat from 2005 to 2012. We used a tailor-made “lure strip transect” method to survey 43 accessible forest parcels that represent 30% of the species’ range. Estimated population size in the surveyed region was approximately 2,050 in 2005 and 1,900 in 2012, with a coefficient of variation of approximately 10%. The estimated population change between surveys was -7% (a decline of approximately 1.3% per year) suggesting a relatively stable population. If densities of inaccessible forest parcels are similar to those of surveyed samples, the estimated population of cotton-top tamarins in the wild in 2012 was 6,946 individuals. We also recorded little change in the amount of suitable habitat for cotton-top tamarins between sample periods: in 2005, 18% of surveyed forest was preferred habitat for cotton-top tamarins, while in 2012, 17% percent was preferred. We attribute the relatively stable population of this Critically Endangered species to increased conservation efforts of Proyecto Tití, conservation NGOs, and the Colombian government. Due to continued threats to cotton-top tamarins and their habitat such as agriculture and urban expansion, ongoing conservation efforts are needed to ensure the long-term survival of cotton-top tamarins in Colombia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three experiments examined the implicit learning of sequences under conditions in which the elements comprising a sequence were equated in terms of reinforcement probability. In Experiment 1 cotton-top tamarins ( Saguinus oedipus) experienced a five-element sequence displayed serially on a touch screen in which reinforcement probability was equated across elements at .16 per element. Tamarins demonstrated learning of this sequence with higher latencies during a random test as compared to baseline sequence training. In Experiments 2 and 3, manipulations of the procedure used in the first experiment were undertaken to rule out a confound owing to the fact that the elements in Experiment 1 bore different temporal relations to the intertrial interval (ITI), an inhibitory period. The results of Experiments 2 and 3 indicated that the implicit learning observed in Experiment 1 was not due to temporal proximity between some elements and the inhibitory ITI. The results taken together support two conclusion: First that tamarins engaged in sequence learning whether or not there was contingent reinforcement for learning the sequence, and second that this learning was not due to subtle differences in associative strength between the elements of the sequence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seventeen captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus) were individually tested on their use of spatial relationships between landmarks to locate multiple hidden food items. In two experiments, the tamarins were presented with a spatial-foraging task in which positions of hidden food rewards were fixed in relation to an array of visual cues. In Experiment 1, the cues+hidden food configuration was rotated 90° and the tamarins were successful in locating the food items significantly above chance levels (P<0.01). In Experiment 2 the cues+hidden food configuration was translated (up, down or sideways) from the previously learned configuration, and the monkeys successfully localized the hidden food items (P<0.001). Results indicate that the tamarins relied on the spatial relationship between the multiple landmarks to locate hidden food items rather than on an associative or beacon strategy. The results of these experiments support the contention that when contextually appropriate these captive New World monkeys have the capacity to rely on the spatial relationship or positions of several cues as an array to localize points in their environment. Am. J. Primatol. 71:316–323, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To address a controversy in the literature concerning whether monkeys show an aversion to inequity, individuals of a New World monkey species, cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) were tested in an offering task and in a bartering task. At issue was whether the monkeys rejected rewards because of a violation of expectancy of the preferred reward, or whether they rejected rewards because of a sensitivity to socially mediated inequity. The data from both tasks indicated that the subjects were more likely to reject when preferred rewards were presented, either because of another animal eating the reward (the social condition) or because of rewards being presented but inaccessible. The bartering task led to the only behavioral indication of aversion due specifically to social inequity, which was demonstrated when tamarins' sensitivity to the difference in rewards increased with exposure to other tamarins working to receive the preferred rewards. The results suggest that social inequity aversion will be assessed by tamarins, and possibly by other primates, only under conditions of limited resources and a requirement of work, which may make the situation a bit more competitive and thus drives attention toward both social and reward evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animals living in stable home ranges have many potential cues to locate food. Spatial and color cues are important for wild Callitrichids (marmosets and tamarins). Field studies have assigned the highest priority to distal spatial cues for determining the location of food resources with color cues serving as a secondary cue to assess relative ripeness, once a food source is located. We tested two hypotheses with captive cotton-top tamarins: (a) Tamarins will demonstrate higher rates of initial learning when rewarded for attending to spatial cues versus color cues. (b) Tamarins will show higher rates of correct responses when transferred from color cues to spatial cues than from spatial cues to color cues. The results supported both hypotheses. Tamarins rewarded based on spatial location made significantly more correct choices and fewer errors than tamarins rewarded based on color cues during initial learning. Furthermore, tamarins trained on color cues showed significantly increased correct responses and decreased errors when cues were reversed to reward spatial cues. Subsequent reversal to color cues induced a regression in performance. For tamarins spatial cues appear more salient than color cues in a foraging task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our longitudinal study explored the role of socially biased learning in the acquisition of a novel foraging task that could be solved in two ways in captive juvenile cottontop tamarins. We trained parents to adopt a single solution (pole or ceiling strategy). We tested 13 different juvenile offspring–parent pairs on the task over the course of 11 weeks. Our objective was (1) to investigate the extent to which juveniles match their parent, and (2) to analyse the influence of behavioural feedback between parent and juvenile offspring on learning trajectories, behavioural acquisition and performance. Although not all juveniles matched the modelled solution, both groups of juveniles significantly spent more time at the targeted location being modelled for them. Parent and offspring correlated well in time spent at the demonstrated location. We investigated predictors of performance and success by analysing data prior to first success. Juveniles'' exploration of the apparatus was important in dictating their success at the task, whereas observation of the parent had no influence. Both juvenile scrounging and adult food calling, which encouraged begging, drew the attention of the juveniles away from the task and impeded learning. High adult refusals per beg predicted task success in young. Adults monitored their offspring''s performance and increased their refusals per begs upon the first success of their offspring. Cottontop tamarins also showed some behavioural scaffolding. Solving the task did not simply reflect a maturational change in juveniles, but was rather influenced by an intricate behavioural feedback between parent and offspring. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Cooperation among nonhuman animals has been the topic of much theoretical and empirical research, but few studies have examined systematically the effects of various reward payoffs on cooperative behaviour. Here, we presented heterosexual pairs of cooperatively breeding cottontop tamarins with a cooperative problem-solving task. In a series of four experiments, we examined how the tamarins'' cooperative performance changed under conditions in which (1) both actors were mutually rewarded, (2) both actors were rewarded reciprocally across days, (3) both actors competed for a monopolizable reward and (4) one actor repeatedly delivered a single reward to the other actor. The tamarins showed sensitivity to the reward structure, showing the greatest percentage of trials solved and shortest latency to solve the task in the mutual reward experiment and the lowest percentage of trials solved and longest latency to solve the task in the experiment in which one actor was repeatedly rewarded. However, even in the experiment in which the fewest trials were solved, the tamarins still solved 46±12% of trials and little to no aggression was observed among partners following inequitable reward distributions. The tamarins did, however, show selfish motivation in each of the experiments. Nevertheless, in all experiments, unrewarded individuals continued to cooperate and procure rewards for their social partners. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Lombard effect—an increase in vocalization amplitude in response to an increase in background noise—is observed in a wide variety of animals. We investigated this basic form of vocal control in the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) by measuring the amplitude of a contact call, the combination long call (CLC), while simultaneously varying the background noise level. All subjects showed a significant increase in call amplitude and syllable duration in response to an increase in background noise amplitude. Together with prior results, this study shows that tamarins have greater vocal control in the context of auditory feedback perturbation than previously suspected. Am. J. Primatol. 68:1183–1190, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data were used to classify forested areas within the historic distribution of the endangered cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) in Colombia. This species continues to be threatened by habitat destruction, and we observed a 31% decrease of the forested habitat within the tamarins' historic distribution in 1990–2000. It is estimated that since the establishment of some protected areas for cotton-top tamarins and other native Colombian wildlife (Parque Nacional Natural Paramillo, Santuarío de Fauna y Flora Los Colorados, and Reserva Forestal de Montes de Maria), almost 43% of the original forested area has been lost. Given that the human population of Colombia increases annually by 1.6% [Patel, 2002], it is important to target specific areas for tamarin protection while creating mitigation strategies to compensate for economic growth. The results of this study provide valuable information to assist in the long-term development of effective conservation strategies for this endangered primate. Am. J. Primatol. 64:451–457, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study selected 5 cotton-lop tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) located at the Frank Buck Zoo in Gainesville, Texas, for a food preference assessment. The study used a paired-choice procedure across 7 different food items for all 5 tamarins. Preferences for the food items across all the tamarins varied, although general trends were noted as well. This article discusses the benefits of using paired-choice preference assessments in zoo settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the results of an experiment designed to investigate whether captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus ) selectively call back to an absent cagemate. We removed 2 individuals living in separate cages (cycling through the colony so that each individual was removed 10 times) from the homeroom and played back calls produced by one of them. The caller's cagemate, residing in the homeroom, was more likely to be the first individual to call back antiphonally than any other individual in the colony was. In support of previous work using both habituation-discrimination and phonotaxic techniques, our results show that cotton-top tamarins can recognize cagemates and possibly individuals by voice alone, and that the antiphonal playback method provides yet another tool for investigating acoustic perception in nonhuman primates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the cotton-top tamarin, a primate where paternal care is critical to the survival of the offspring, we found that expectant fathers experienced multiple hormonal changes during their mate''s pregnancy. Fathers that had experienced several previous births showed significant changes in urinary estrogens, androgens, prolactin and cortisol in the last 2 months before birth, whereas less-experienced fathers (LEF) did not. The female''s midpregnancy rise in glucocorticoids was followed within 1–2 weeks by a peak of cortisol and corticosterone in her paired male in 70% of all males and 100% of all experienced males. Examination of behavioral interactions between the pairs did not reveal changes in rates of interactions between the experienced pairs over pregnancy. However, the less-experienced pairs had significantly higher levels of affiliative and sexual interactions. Therefore, behavioral communication between the pair did not appear to account for the hormonal changes occurring within the experienced fathers (EF). The midpregnancy rise of glucocorticoids in females may stimulate a glucocorticoid response in male tamarins and thereby activate other hormonal changes in males to prepare them for their parenting role. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We present the results of experiments on cottontop tamarins designed to explore the relationship between problem solving, inhibitory control and domain-specific experience. The colony was divided into two groups: tool-experienced (TE) and tool-inexperienced (TI). The TE group had previously participated in a series of tool-use experiments and revealed that, when selecting a tool, they used featurally relevant dimensions (e.g. shape, material, orientation) over featurally irrelevant dimensions (e.g. colour). The TI group, although experienced in other laboratory-based experiments, had never been tested on tool or other object manipulation problems. In Phase 1, involving three conditions, all subjects were tested on a series of means–end problems involving the use of a cloth to access a piece of food. Although the correct choice always involved picking the supporting cloth, we also built in an association between the correct cloth and its colour. Once the subjects reached criterion, we reversed the association between the cloth colour and the food reward in Phase 2. If the subjects solved the problems in Phase 1 by attending to cloth colour, then in Phase 2 they should have difficulty, especially given prior findings on tamarins demonstrating that reversal learning is difficult. If the subjects solved Phase 1 by attending to the functionality of the problem (i.e. the physical/causal relationship between the cloth and food), then reversing the colours in Phase 2 should have no effect on the subjects'' performances. Finally, if the subjects attended to both colour and functionality, then reversing the colours should cause some decrement in performance, but less so than in the case where colour alone dominates. In Phase 2, although both groups showed a decrement in performance, indicating problems with reversal learning, TE subjects significantly outperformed TI subjects. Furthermore, the pattern of performance for TE subjects suggested that they had solved the initial problem by attending to a combination of colour and functionality or functionality alone, while TI subjects had attended to colour alone. We conclude that for tamarins with experience as tool users, colour represents a less salient feature, even when it is systematically associated with a food reward. For inexperienced tamarins, however, colour is salient and reversal learning is difficult. Together, these findings highlight the importance of exploring the relationship between inhibitory control and domain-specific problem solving. Copyright 2002 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Presents several abstracts related to primates published in the May 2003 issue of the "American Journal of Primatology." "Conservation Education Efforts in Colombia: Cotton-Top Tamarins as Ambassadors for Habitat Preservation," by A. Savage, L. H. Giraldo, C. LaRotta, L. H. Soto and E. F. Garcia; "A Capuchin's (Cebus apella) Performance in Two- and Three-Dimensional Mazes," by S. Cummins-Sebree, D. Fragaszy, J. Johnson-Pynn and E. Hirsh; "Survey of Lorises (Nycticebus pygmaeus and N. coucang) in Ben En National Park, Northern Vietnam," by H. Fitch-Snyder and V. Ngoc Thanh.

Reproductive patterns of wild cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus ) females located in La Reserva Forestal Protectora Serranía de Coraza-Montes de María in Colosó, Colombia, were examined using long-term behavioral observations and fecal steroid analysis. Using an enzyme immunoassay, we analyzed fecal samples for E[sub 1] C and PdG. Comparisons of reproductive cycles of a reproductively active female and her daughters were made. An inhibition of ovarian cycles has been observed in daughters living in their families. However, daughters also exhibited normal ovarian cycling that subsequently resulted in pregnancy. Factors influencing the fertility are discussed as they relate to the reproductive strategies of wild cotton-top tamarin females. Am. J. Primatol. 43:329–337, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groups of individual marked cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), located in La Reserva Forestal Protectora Serranía de Coraza-Montes de Marí in Colosó Colombia, were studied over a period of 5 years. Data on group composition, stability, birthing seasons, and dispersal patterns are used to examine the reproductive strategies and tactics used by males and females. Both monogamous groups and groups containing two pregnant females have been observed. All groups contained at least one adult female and male, with several groups containing several adult males and females. Both males and females dispersed to neighboring groups, and there were no sex differences in rates of emigration. Males were more likely to immigrate into a new group following the death/emigration of a resident male. Females appeared to tolerate immigrating females but would actively defend their breeding position during fertile periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present reliable field techniques for capturing, anesthetizing, and identifying individual cotton-top tamarine (saguinus oedipus oedipus). A new technique is presented for radio-tracking small bodied primates. A backpack-style harness was designed to carry a transmitter. This system appears effective in minimizing potential injury and does not appear to interfere with the normal behavior of the animal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of the mother's absence on the fertility status and expression of scent marking behavior was examined in 12 sexually mature female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) living in four motherless families. Behavioral data and urine samples were collected on an average of five times per week and levels of estrone-glucuronide (E1G) were quantified directly by radioimmunoassay to establish whether the females showed ovarian cyclicity. Of the females investigated only the dominant female in each motherless group exhibited regular E1G cycles. By contrast, low and acyclic hormonal profiles were found for subordinate sisters. In addition to differences in the patterns and levels of E1G, scent gland morphology and rates of scent marking differed between females: dominant, cycling females had elaborate glands and significantly higher rates of scent marking than subordinates. These results indicate that the presence of the mother (breeding female) is one important factor regulating ovarian function in cotton-top tamarin daughters. The findings also show that dominance status is a vital determinant of each female's subsequent physiological reproductive competence, with only the dominant female obtaining complete fertility and probably inhibiting ovulatory activity in her subordinate sisters. Scent marking behavior seems to be involved in the regulation of this phenomenon of intrasexual reproductive competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The excretion of three gonadal steroids was studied in the urine and feces of female cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus oedipus). Each steroid, 14C-estrone, 14C-estradiol, and 14C-progesterone, was injected into a separate female cotton-top tamarin. Urine and feces were collected at 8 hr intervals for 5 days on the three tamarins. Samples were analyzed to determine the proportion of free and conjugated steroids. Steroid excretion patterns were determined by sequential ether extraction, enzyme hydrolysis, and chromatography. Labeled estrone was excreted in a slow and continuous manner into the urine (57%) and feces (43%) with 90% of the steroid conjugated. The nonconjugated form had an elution profile identical to enzyme. Labeled estradiol was excreted primarily in the urine (87%) and was released rapidly. Over 90% of the injected 14C-estradiol was excreted in urine as a conjugate, of which 41% was converted to an estrone conjugate and the remaining 59% was excreted as a polar estradiol conjugate. Labeled progesterone was excreted primarily in the feces (95%), 61% of which was free steroid. Four to six individual peaks of radioactivity were found when using celite chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), indicating that progesterone is metabolized into several urinary and fecal metabolites. One of these peaks matched 3H-progesterone and others may be pregnanetriols, pregnanetriols, and 17-hydroxyprogesterone. These steroidal excretion patterns help explain the atypical hormonal patterns seen during the tamarin ovarian cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The involvement of parents and siblings in infant care in similarly composed groups of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and cotton-top tamatins (Saguinus oedipus) was compared during the infants' first 8 weeks of life. The results indicate an earlier infant independence in C. jacchus than in S. oedipus due primarily to a more frequent rejection of carried infants in C. jacchus. There was no species difference in extent of maternal involvment in carrying infants. However, S. oedipus fathers carried infants significantly more often during weeks 5–8 than did C. jacchus fathers. Siblings were generally more involved in infant care at an earlier infant age in C. jacchus than in S. oedipus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 3-month field study was conducted in Panama to determine presence and relative abundance of Saguinus geoffroyi, the Geoffroy's tamarin, and status of its habitat (see Acknowledgments for taxonomic note). This primate has a wide geographical distribution in eastern Panama; however, local distribution is highly variable. Tropical forest habitat is rapidly being converted for agriculture and timber. Areas where human access was strictly limited showed tamarin densities significantly greater than in less protected areas. Disturbance has a distinct impact on population densities. There may also be a relationship between tamarin abundance and specific types of vegetation. Future actions regarding the conservation of S. geoffroyi and its habitat are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of various social environments on estrogen excretion, scent marking, and the expression of sociosexual behavior was examined in cotton-top tamarins (Sanguinus a oedipus). Behavioral observations and urine collections were conducted on five females while first housed in their natal family group or in the presence of another cycling adult female and then while housed with an unrelated adult male in a separate cage. Behavioral observations only were conducted on males in natal family groups and while hound with an unrelated adult female. Levels of urinary estrone and estradiol for females were measured by specific radioimmunoassays. Females housed in family groups or in the presence of an adult cycling female showed low and noncyclic patterns of estrogen excretion. Removal from these environments resulted in a rapid increase in urinary estrone and estradiol and three of five females demonstrated cyclic patterns of estrone excretion. Rates of anogenital marking in females were elevated after the social change, and sexual interactions, virtually absent in the original environments, were observed in all five females. In males, similar manipulations of the social environment affected the expression of sexual behavior, but not scent marking. The social environment, therefore, has a profound impact on fertility and sociosexual behavior in cotton-top tamarin groups, with implications for callitrichid social structure and behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hypothesis tested was that Saguinus oedipus oedipus females housed with adult males would mature, sexually, at an earlier age than females remaining in their natal family groups. Six females were housed with strange, unrelated males. Five females remained in their natal groups. Blood samples were taken twice weekly, and the plasma was assayed for progesterone. Sexual maturation was operationally defined as that age at which plasma progesterone levels became consistently detectable. Females housing with males did mature at an earlier age than females remaining in their natal groups. In addition, it was noted that the presence or absence of a healthy, reproductive mother in the natal group was not related to the daughter's maturation age. However, whether the natal group, as a whole, inhibited maturation of young females, or an unrelated male accelerated maturation, or both, remains unknown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes the characteristics of monkeys coming from several countries housed in zoos in the U.S. Called as bared-faced tamarins, cotton-tops which came from Costa Rica are the size of squirrels and named for the mop of white hair on the tops and backs of their heads. The Hamadryas baboons that came from Egypt have fluffy shoulder name and thich whiskers. Sea monkeys are a species of brine shrimp that came from Salt Lake, Utah. The adults lay their eggs, which then was ashore in great masses. All of the monkeys are housed several zoos in the U.S.