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Our combined data show that GDF15 does not increase in response to a liquid meal. Moreover, we show for the first time that ingestion of sucrose, isomaltose, glucose, fat, or protein also does not increase plasma GDF15 concentrations, questioning the role of GDF15 in regulation of food source preference. Finally, we find that neither fasting nor postprandial plasma GDF15 concentrations are increased in individuals with previous bariatric surgery compared with unoperated body mass index (BMI)-matched controls.

Glucose‐dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon‐like peptide‐2 (GLP‐2) are gut hormones secreted postprandially. In healthy humans, both hormones decrease bone resorption accompanied by a rapid reduction in parathyroid hormone (PTH). The aim of this study was to investigate whether the changes in bone turnover after meal intake and after GIP‐ and GLP‐2 injections, respectively, are mediated via a reduction in PTH secretion. This was tested in female patients with hypoparathyroidism given a standardized liquid mixed‐meal test (n = 7) followed by a peptide injection test (n = 4) using a randomized crossover design. We observed that the meal‐ and GIP‐ but not the GLP‐2‐induced changes in bone turnover markers were preserved in the patients with hypoparathyroidism. To understand the underlying mechanisms, we examined the expression of the GIP receptor (GIPR) and the GLP‐2 receptor (GLP‐2R) in human osteoblasts and osteoclasts as well as in parathyroid tissue. The GIPR was expressed in both human osteoclasts and osteoblasts, whereas the GLP‐2R was absent or only weakly expressed in osteoclasts. Furthermore, both GIPR and GLP‐2R were expressed in parathyroid tissue. Our findings suggest that the GIP‐induced effect on bone turnover may be mediated directly via GIPR expressed in osteoblasts and osteoclasts and that this may occur independent of PTH. In contrast, the effect of GLP‐2 on bone turnover seems to depend on changes in PTH and may be mediated through GLP‐2R in the parathyroid gland. © 2021 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Follistatin is secreted from the liver and is involved in the regulation of muscle mass and insulin sensitivity via inhibition of activin A in humans. The secretion of follistatin seems to be stimulated by glucagon and inhibited by insulin, but only limited knowledge on the postprandial regulation of follistatin exists. Moreover, results on postoperative changes after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) are conflicting with reports of increased, unaltered, and lowered fasting concentrations of follistatin. In this study, we investigated postprandial follistatin and activin A concentrations after intake of isocaloric amounts of protein, fat, or glucose in subjects with obesity with and without previous RYGB to explore the regulation of follistatin by the individual macronutrients. Protein intake enhanced follistatin concentrations similarly in the two groups, whereas glucose and fat ingestion did not change postprandial follistatin concentrations. Concentrations of activin A were lower after protein intake compared with glucose intake in RYGB. Glucagon concentrations were also particularly enhanced by protein intake and tended to correlate with follistatin in RYGB. In conclusion, we demonstrated that protein intake, but not glucose or fat, is a strong stimulus for follistatin secretion in subjects with obesity and that this regulation is maintained after RYGB surgery.

Enhanced meal-related enteroendocrine secretion, particularly of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), contributes to weight-loss and improved glycemia after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB). Dietary glucose drives GLP-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) secretion postoperatively. Understanding how glucose triggers incretin secretion following RYGB could lead to new treatments of diabetes and obesity. In vitro, incretin release depends on glucose absorption via sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1). We investigated the importance of SGLT1/SGLT2 for enteropancreatic hormone concentrations and glucose metabolism after RYGB in a randomized, controlled, crossover study. Ten RYGB-operated patients ingested 50 g of oral glucose with and without acute pretreatment with 600 mg of the SGLT1/SGLT2-inhibitor canagliflozin. Paracetamol and 3- O-methyl-d-glucopyranose (3-OMG) were added to the glucose drink to evaluate rates of intestinal entry and absorption of glucose, respectively. Blood samples were collected for 4 h. The primary outcome was 4-h plasma GLP-1 (incremental area-under the curve, iAUC). Secondary outcomes included glucose, GIP, insulin, and glucagon. Canagliflozin delayed glucose absorption (time-to-peak 3-OMG: 50 vs. 132 min, P < 0.01) but did not reduce iAUC GLP-1 (6,067 vs. 7,273·min·pmol−1·L−1, P = 0.23), although peak GLP-1 concentrations were lowered (−28%, P = 0.03). Canagliflozin reduced GIP (iAUC −28%, P = 0.01; peak concentrations −57%, P < 0.01), insulin, and glucose excursions, whereas plasma glucagon (AUC 3,216 vs. 4,160 min·pmol·L−1, P = 0.02) and amino acids were increased. In conclusion, acute SGLT1/SGLT2-inhibition during glucose ingestion did not reduce 4-h plasma GLP-1 responses in RYGB-patients but attenuated the early rise in GLP-1, GIP, and insulin, whereas late glucagon concentrations were increased. The results suggest that SGLT1-mediated glucose absorption contributes to incretin hormone secretion after RYGB.

Weight regain after weight loss is a major problem in the treatment of persons with obesity.In a randomized, head-to-head, placebo-controlled trial, we enrolled adults with obesity (body-mass index [the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters], 32 to 43) who did not have diabetes. After an 8-week low-calorie diet, participants were randomly assigned for 1 year to one of four strategies: a moderate-to-vigorous-intensity exercise program plus placebo (exercise group); treatment with liraglutide (3.0 mg per day) plus usual activity (liraglutide group); exercise program plus liraglutide therapy (combination group); or placebo plus usual activity (placebo group). End points with prespecified hypotheses were the change in body weight (primary end point) and the change in body-fat percentage (secondary end point) from randomization to the end of the treatment period in the intention-to-treat population. Prespecified metabolic health-related end points and safety were also assessed.After the 8-week low-calorie diet, 195 participants had a mean decrease in body weight of 13.1 kg. At 1 year, all the active-treatment strategies led to greater weight loss than placebo: difference in the exercise group, -4.1 kg (95% confidence interval [CI], -7.8 to -0.4; P = 0.03); in the liraglutide group, -6.8 kg (95% CI, -10.4 to -3.1; P0.001); and in the combination group, -9.5 kg (95% CI, -13.1 to -5.9; P0.001). The combination strategy led to greater weight loss than exercise (difference, -5.4 kg; 95% CI, -9.0 to -1.7; P = 0.004) but not liraglutide (-2.7 kg; 95% CI, -6.3 to 0.8; P = 0.13). The combination strategy decreased body-fat percentage by 3.9 percentage points, which was approximately twice the decrease in the exercise group (-1.7 percentage points; 95% CI, -3.2 to -0.2; P = 0.02) and the liraglutide group (-1.9 percentage points; 95% CI, -3.3 to -0.5; P = 0.009). Only the combination strategy was associated with improvements in the glycated hemoglobin level, insulin sensitivity, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Increased heart rate and cholelithiasis were observed more often in the liraglutide group than in the combination group.A strategy combining exercise and liraglutide therapy improved healthy weight loss maintenance more than either treatment alone. (Funded by the Novo Nordisk Foundation and others; EudraCT number, 2015-005585-32; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT04122716.).

Neurotensin (NT) is released from enteroendocrine cells and lowers food intake in rodents. We evaluated postprandial NT secretion in humans after surgeries associated with accelerated small intestinal nutrient delivery, and after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) when glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) signalling and dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) were inhibited, and during pharmacological treatments influencing entero-pancreatic functions.We measured NT concentrations in plasma from meal studies: (I) after truncal vagotomy with pyloroplasty (TVP), cardia resection +TVP (CTVP), and matched controls (n = 10); (II) after RYGB, sleeve gastrectomy (SG), and in matched controls (n = 12); (III) after RYGB (n = 11) with antagonism of GLP-1 signalling using exendin(9-39) and DPP-4 inhibition using sitagliptin; (IV) after RYGB (n = 11) during a run-in period and subsequent treatment with, sitagliptin, liraglutide (GLP-1 receptor agonist), verapamil (calcium antagonist), acarbose (alpha glucosidase inhibitor), and pasireotide (somatostatin analogue), respectively.(I) NT secretion was similar after TVP/CTVP (p = 0.9), but increased vs. controls (p 0.0001). (II) NT secretion was increased after RYGB vs. SG and controls (p 0.0001). NT responses were similar in SG and controls (p = 0.3), but early postprandial NT concentrations were higher after SG (p 0.05). (III) Exendin (9-39) and sitagliptin did not change NT responses vs placebo (p 0.2), but responses were lower during sitagliptin vs. exendin(9-39) (p = 0.03). (IV) Pasireotide suppressed NT secretion (p = 0.004). Sitagliptin tended to lower NT secretion (p = 0.08). Liraglutide, verapamil, and acarbose had no effect (p 0.9).Neurotensin secretion is increased after surgeries associated with accelerated gastric emptying and lowered by pasireotide.

Bariatric surgery results in marked body weight loss and improves type 2 diabetes in most patients with obesity. The growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) has recently emerged as a novel satiety factor. To begin to understand whether GDF15 is involved in mediating the effects of bariatric surgery on body weight and glycemia in humans, we measured plasma GDF15 in patients with obesity ( n = 25) and in patients with obesity and diabetes ( n = 22) before and after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery. GDF15 was increased 1 wk after RYGB compared with before surgery (689 ± 45 vs. 487 ± 28 pg/ml, P < 0.001) and GDF15 remained elevated at 3 mo (554 ± 37 pg/ml, P < 0.05), at 1 yr (566 ± 37 pg/ml, P < 0.05), and at 2.5–4 yr (630 ± 50 pg/ml, P < 0.001) after RYGB surgery. Both age and insulin sensitivity correlated with GDF15 before the surgery ( r = 0.46, P < 0.0001 and r = 0.34, P < 0.001, respectively). These correlations disappeared at 2.5–4 yr following the surgery. Conversely, weight loss magnitude correlated with GDF15, measured 2.5–4 yr postsurgery ( r = 0.21, P < 0.0055). In summary, circulating GDF15 increases and correlates with body weight loss following RYGB surgery.

Sulfonylurea monotherapy is the standard treatment for patients with the most common form of permanent neonatal diabetes, KCNJ11 neonatal diabetes, but it is not always sufficient. For the first time, we present a case of successful use of a GLP-1 receptor agonist as add-on therapy in the treatment of a patient with KCNJ11 neonatal diabetes and insufficient effect of sulfonylurea monotherapy. Good glycaemic control was maintained with a HbA1c level of 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) at the end of 26 months' follow-up. LEARNING POINTS Genetic testing is important in patients with neonatal diabetes.Sulfonylurea is the standard treatment for patients with the most common mutation (KCNJ11).We present the novel use of a GLP-1 receptor agonist as effective add-on therapy in a patient with KCNJ11 neonatal diabetes and insufficient effect of sulfonylurea monotherapy.

The Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) and sleeve gastrectomy (SG) bariatric procedures lead to remission or improvement of type 2 diabetes. A weight loss-independent augmentation of postprandial insulin secretion contributes to the improvement in glycemic control after RYGB and is associated with a ∼10-fold increase in plasma concentrations of the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). However, the physiologic importance of the markedly increased postprandial GLP-1 secretion after RYGB has been much debated. The effect of GLP-1 receptor blockade after RYGB has been investigated in 12 studies. The studies indicate a shift toward a more prominent role for GLP-1 in postprandial β-cell function after RYGB. The effect of GLP-1 receptor antagonism on glucose tolerance after RYGB is more complex and is associated with important methodological challenges. The postprandial GLP-1 response is less enhanced after SG compared with RYGB. However, the effect of GLP-1 receptor blockade after SG has been examined in 1 study only and needs further investigation.

Plasma concentrations of the two pancreatic enzymes, amylase and lipase, are increased within the normal physiological range after initiation of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA) treatment. An association between the use of GLR-1RA and incidence of acute pancreatitis or pancreatic cancer has not been found - neither in rodent studies nor in preclinical studies or in the large cardiovascular outcome trials with GLP-1RAs. The increased concentrations of pancreatic enzymes have been suggested to be explained by increased DNA or protein synthesis found in rodent and acinar cell studies. However, whether this translates into humans is unknown. We therefore investigated the effect of liraglutide, a GLP-1RA, on pancreatic volume, edema and DNA synthesis reflected by 18F-flourothymidine (FLT)-uptake using state-of-the-art positron emission tomography (PET)-magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) before initiation, after four weeks during titration of liraglutide and after six weeks during steady state on maximum dose of liraglutide 3.0 mg in 14 obese men (age 38 ± 3 years, BMI 32 ± 1 kg/m2) without diabetes. Plasma concentrations of amylase and lipase were assessed in parallel. Amylase (+7 U/L [95% confidence intervals, 3 - 11] p In conclusion, six weeks of treatment with liraglutide did not affect pancreatic volume, edema or cellularity in obese individuals. Increased DNA synthesis reflected by FLT-uptake in the pancreas seen after four weeks of liraglutide treatment may be responsible for the increase in pancreatic enzymes. Disclosure M.S. Svane: None. H.H. Johannesen: None. C. Martinussen: None. K.N. Bojsen-Moller: None. M.L. Hansen: None. A.E. Hansen: None. C.F. Deacon: Employee; Spouse/Partner; Merck & Co., Inc. Stock/Shareholder; Spouse/Partner; Merck & Co., Inc. Other Relationship; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Eli Lilly and Company, Merck & Co., Inc., Novartis AG, Novo Nordisk A/S. B. Hartmann: None. S.H. Keller: None. T.L. Klausen: None. A. Loft: None. A. Kjaer: None. S. Madsbad: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Novo Nordisk A/S, Sanofi-Aventis. Research Support; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Novo Nordisk A/S. Speaker’s Bureau; Self; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Novo Nordisk A/S. J.O. Löfgren: None. J.J. Holst: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Novo Nordisk A/S, Zealand Pharma A/S. Other Relationship; Spouse/Partner; Antag Therapeutics. N.J. Wewer Albrechtsen: Research Support; Self; Mercodia, Novo Nordisk A/S, Novo Nordisk Foundation. Speaker’s Bureau; Self; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.

Background: Weight loss decreases energy expenditure and increases appetite, leading to weight regain. Energy expenditure can be targeted with exercise, and appetite with the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, liraglutide.The objective was to investigate 1-year weight loss maintenance and change in body composition with liraglutide, exercise, and the combination in individuals with obesity after a very low-calorie diet (VLCD). Methods: Double-blinded, randomized placebo-controlled trial. Following 8-weeks of VLCD (800 kcal/day), inducing a body weight loss of ≥ 5%, the participants were randomized to 1-year of treatment with 1) liraglutide 3.0 mg/day (LIRA), 2) exercise 150 min/week + placebo (EX), 3) exercise 150 min/week + liraglutide 3.0 mg/day (LIRA + EX), or 4) placebo (PLA). Results: Participants with obesity were included (n = 215, 64% women, age 42 years (IQR 30.7 to 51.9), BMI 36.6 kg/m2 (34.5 to 39.2)). See Table 1 for all results. Conclusion: The combination of liraglutide and exercise was superior to placebo and exercise alone, and numerically better to liraglutide, in weight loss maintenance and further weight reduction. Fat percentage loss with the combination treatment was superior to liraglutide and exercise alone, supporting the combined treatment for healthy weight loss maintenance. Disclosure C. Janus: Research Support; Spouse/Partner; Mercodia, Novo Nordisk A/S. Research Support; Self; Novo Nordisk Foundation. Research Support; Spouse/Partner; Novo Nordisk Foundation. Speaker’s Bureau; Spouse/Partner; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. J.R. Lundgren: None. S. Jensen: None. L.M. Olsen: None. C. Juhl: None. M.B. Blond: None. R.M. Christensen: None. K.N. Bojsen-Moller: None. M.S. Svane: None. T. Bandholm: Employee; Spouse/Partner; Novo Nordisk A/S. Stock/Shareholder; Spouse/Partner; Novo Nordisk A/S. J.B. Jensen: None. B. Stallknecht: None. J.J. Holst: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Novo Nordisk A/S, Zealand Pharma A/S. Other Relationship; Spouse/Partner; Antag Therapeutics. S. Madsbad: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Novo Nordisk A/S, Sanofi-Aventis. Research Support; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Novo Nordisk A/S. Speaker’s Bureau; Self; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Novo Nordisk A/S. S.S. Torekov: Research Support; Self; Novo Nordisk Inc. Funding Novo Nordisk Foundation (NNF16OC0019968); Novo Nordisk Center for Metabolic Research; Helsefonden

Background: Altered meal-associated secretion of gut peptides is key for the metabolic changes and weight-loss observed after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB). Parenteral administration of the gut peptide neurotensin (NT) reduces food intake in rodents, and, like glucagon-like peptide-1 and peptide YY, the secretion of NT is markedly increased after RYGB. We therefore investigated the effect of intravenous (IV) NT on ad libitum food intake and appetite sensations. Design: Using a double-blinded, randomized placebo-controlled design, NT (2.5pmol/kg/min) or saline was infused IV in healthy young men to obtain NT concentrations similar to NT levels observed postprandially after RYGB. Four visits were performed in random order, after an acclimatization visit, to evaluate the main outcomes - ad libitum food intake and appetite sensations (visual analogue scale (VAS) questionnaires). Blood samples were collected for plasma and serum analyses (including entero-pancreatic peptides and glucose). NT or saline was infused after a basal period (t= -60 to 0 min). On two study days (n=18), an ad libitum meal was served after one hour of infusion (t= 60 min) followed by blood sampling/VAS until t= 120 min (infusion discontinued). On two other study days (n=16), a liquid mixed meal was ingested after one hour of infusion (t = 60 min) followed by blood sampling and VAS until an ad libitum meal was served at t= 240 min (infusion discontinued at t=270min). Results: Food intake was similar on the ad libitum meal (t = 60 min) days - NT (4150 (3607-4696)kJ, mean (95% confidence interval) vs. saline (3820 (3250-4405) kJ, P=0.062 (paired t-test)) and on the LMM + ad libitum meal (t= 240 min) days - NT (4320 (3698-5008)kJ vs. saline (4250 (3739-4870)kJ, P=0.80). NT infusions did not influence appetite sensations or elicit gastrointestinal side effects. Conclusions: Despite obtaining NT concentrations similar to what is observed postprandially after RYGB, we did not observe any differences in appetite sensations or food intake. Disclosure S. Veedfald: None. C. Martinussen: None. M.S. Svane: None. T. Justinussen: None. M.G. Hindsø: None. N. Hedbäck: None. C.B. Christiansen: None. N.J. Wewer Albrechtsen: Research Support; Self; Mercodia, Novo Nordisk A/S, Novo Nordisk Foundation. Speaker’s Bureau; Self; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. K.N. Bojsen-Moller: None. B. Hartmann: None. M. Fenger: None. J.F. Rehfeld: None. S. Madsbad: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Novo Nordisk A/S, Sanofi-Aventis. Research Support; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Novo Nordisk A/S. Speaker’s Bureau; Self; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Novo Nordisk A/S. J.J. Holst: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Novo Nordisk A/S, Zealand Pharma A/S. Other Relationship; Spouse/Partner; Antag Therapeutics. Funding Desirée og Niels Ydes Fond; Læge Sophus og hustru Olga Friis Legat; Beckett Fonden; Hørslev Fonden; Aase og Ejnar Danielsens Fond; Fabrikant Frands Køhler Nielsen og hustrus legat; Carl og Ellen Hertz’ Legat

AIM To investigate the effect of a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1RA), liraglutide, on pancreatic volume, oedema, cellularity and DNA synthesis in humans. MATERIALS AND METHODS We performed an open-label study in 14 obese men (age 38 ± 11 years, body mass index 32 ± 4 kg/m2 ) without diabetes. Subjects were examined at baseline, during titration (week 4) of liraglutide towards 3.0 mg/day, and 2 weeks after steady-state treatment (week 6) of a final dose of liraglutide. The primary endpoint was pancreatic volume determined by magnetic resonance imaging. Secondary endpoints included pancreatic oedema and cellularity, positron emission tomography-based [18 F]fluorothymidine (FLT) uptake (DNA synthesis) and plasma pancreatic enzymes. RESULTS Plasma amylase (+7 U/L [95% confidence intervals 3-11], P

Postprandial gut hormone responses change after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), and we investigated the impact of glucose, protein, and fat (with and without pancreas lipase inhibition) on plasma responses of gut and pancreas hormones, bile acids, and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21) after RYGB and in nonoperated control subjects. In a randomized, crossover study 10 RYGB operated and 8 healthy weight-matched control subjects were administered 4 different 4-h isocaloric (200 kcal) liquid meal tests containing >90 energy (E)% of either glucose, protein (whey protein), or fat (butter with and without orlistat). The primary outcome was glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretion (area under the curve above baseline). Secondary outcomes included responses of peptide YY (PYY), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), cholecystokinin (CCK), glicentin, neurotensin, ghrelin, insulin, glucagon, bile acids, and FGF-21. In the RYGB group the responses of GLP-1, GIP, glicentin, FGF-21, and C-peptide were increased after glucose compared with the other meals. The neurotensin and bile acids responses were greater after fat, while the glucagon and CCK responses were greater after protein ingestion. Furthermore, compared with control subjects, RYGB subjects had greater responses of total PYY after glucose, glucagon after glucose and fat, glicentin after glucose and protein, and GLP-1 and neurotensin after all meals, while GIP and CCK responses were lower after fat. Ghrelin responses did not differ between meals or between groups. Orlistat reduced all hormone responses to fat ingestion, except for ghrelin in the RYGB group. In conclusion, after RYGB glucose is a more potent stimulator of most gut hormones, especially for the marked increased secretion of GLP-1 compared with fat and protein. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We investigated the impact of glucose, protein, and fat meals on intestinal and pancreatic hormones, bile acid, and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21) secretion in gastric bypass-operated patients compared with matched nonoperated individuals. The fat meal was administered with and without a pancreas lipase inhibitor. We found that the impact of the different meals on gut hormones, bile, and FGF 21 secretion differ and was different from the responses observed in nonoperated control subjects.

To describe glucose metabolism in the late, weight stable phase after Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass (RYGB) in patients with and without preoperative type 2 diabetes we invited 55 RYGB-operated persons from two existing cohorts to participate in a late follow-up study. 44 (24 with normal glucose tolerance (NGT)/20 with type 2 diabetes (T2D) before surgery) accepted the invitation (median follow-up 2.7 [Range 2.2–5.0 years]). Subjects were examined during an oral glucose stimulus and results compared to preoperative and 1-year (1 y) post RYGB results. Glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, beta-cell function and incretin hormone secretion were evaluated. 1 y weight loss was maintained late after surgery. Glycemic control, insulin resistance, beta-cell function and GLP-1 remained improved late after surgery in both groups. In NGT subjects, nadir glucose decreased 1 y after RYGB, but did not change further. In T2D patients, relative change in weight from 1 y to late after RYGB correlated with relative change in fasting glucose and HbA1c, whereas relative changes in glucose-stimulated insulin release correlated inversely with relative changes in postprandial glucose excursions. In NGT subjects, relative changes in postprandial nadir glucose correlated with changes in beta-cell glucose sensitivity. Thus, effects of RYGB on weight and glucose metabolism are maintained late after surgery in patients with and without preoperative T2D. Weight loss and improved beta-cell function both contribute to maintenance of long-term glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes, and increased glucose stimulated insulin secretion may contribute to postprandial hypoglycemia in NGT subjects.

Background Roux-en-Y gastric bypass is associated with an increased risk of postprandial hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia, but the underlying pathophysiology remains poorly understood. We therefore examined the effect of re-routing of nutrient delivery on gut-islet cell crosstalk in a person with severe postprandial hypoglycaemia after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Case report A person with severe postprandial hypoglycaemia, who underwent surgical reversal of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, was studied before reversal and at 2 weeks and 3 months after reversal surgery using liquid mixed meal tests and hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamps. The nadir of postprandial plasma glucose rose from 2.8 mmol/l to 4.1 mmol/l at 2 weeks and to 4.4 mmol/l at 3 months after reversal. Concomitant insulin- and glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion (peak concentrations and area under the curve) clearly decreased after reversal, while concentrations of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and ghrelin increased. Insulin clearance declined after reversal, whereas clamp-estimated peripheral insulin sensitivity was unchanged. The person remained without symptoms of hypoglycaemia, but had experienced significant weight gain at 15- month follow-up. Discussion Accelerated nutrient absorption may be a driving force behind postprandial hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Re-routing of nutrients by reversal of the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass diminished postprandial plasma glucose excursions, alleviated postprandial insulin and glucagon-like peptide-1 hypersecretion and eliminated postprandial hypoglycaemia, which emphasizes the importance of altered gut-islet cell crosstalk for glucose metabolism after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) induces weight loss and improves insulin sensitivity when evaluated by the hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp (HEC). Surrogate indices of insulin sensitivity calculated from insulin and glucose concentrations at fasting or after an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) are frequently used, but have not been validated after RYGB. Our aim was to evaluate whether surrogate indices reliably estimate changes in insulin sensitivity after RYGB. Four fasting surrogates (inverse-HOMA-IR, HOMA2-%S, QUICKI, revised-QUICKI) and three OGTT-derived surrogates (Matsuda, Gutt, OGIS) were compared with HEC-estimated peripheral insulin sensitivity ( Rd or Rd/I, depending on how the index was originally validated) and the tracer-determined hepatic insulin sensitivity index (HISI) in patients with preoperative type 2 diabetes ( n = 10) and normal glucose tolerance ( n = 10) 1 wk, 3 mo, and 1 yr postoperatively. Post-RYGB changes in inverse-HOMA-IR and HOMA2-%S did not correlate with changes in Rd at any visit, but were comparable to changes in HISI at 1 wk. Changes in QUICKI and revised-QUICKI correlated with Rd/I after surgery. Changes in the Matsuda and Gutt indices did not correlate with changes in Rd/I and Rd, respectively, whereas OGIS changes correlated with Rd changes at 1 yr post-RYGB. In conclusion, surrogate measures of insulin sensitivity may not reflect results obtained with gold standard methodology after RYGB, underscoring the importance of critical reflection when surrogate endpoints are used. Fasting surrogate indices may be particularly affected by post-RYGB changes in insulin clearance, whereas the validity of OGTT-derived surrogates may be compromised by surgical rearrangements of the gut.

The increasing prevalence of obesity represents a huge threat to public health and the current pharmacological treatment options are limited. Bariatric surgery is by far the most effective treatment for severe obesity, highlighting the urgent need for new and improved drug therapies. Areas covered: Based on the physiological regulation of energy homeostasis, pharmacological strategies to treat obesity are evaluated with focus on drugs in phase 2 and 3 clinical development. The potential impact of these drugs on current treatment standards and the barriers for development are discussed and set in a historical perspective of previous antiobesity medications. Expert opinion: The radical effects of bariatric surgery have extended our understanding of the mechanisms controlling appetite and boosted the search for new drug targets in obesity treatment. Accordingly, several compounds targeting the central nervous system and/or periphery are in pipeline for obesity. These drugs should be evaluated over a wide array of end-points; in particular, long-term safety monitoring is necessary as serious adverse events may appear. Combination therapy targeting more than one pathway controlling energy balance might be necessary to achieve substantial weight loss while minimising side effects.

BACKGROUND: Hypoglycemia is an increasingly recognized complication of bariatric surgery. Mechanisms contributing to glucose lowering remain incompletely understood. We aimed to identify differentially abundant plasma proteins in patients with post-bariatric hypoglycemia (PBH) after roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), compared to asymptomatic post-RYGB. METHODS: Proteomic analysis of blood samples collected after overnight fast and mixed meal challenge in individuals with PBH, asymptomatic RYGB, severe obesity, or overweight recruited from outpatient hypoglycemia or bariatric clinics. RESULTS: The top-ranking differentially abundant protein at 120 minutes after mixed meal was fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF-19), an intestinally-derived hormone regulated by bile acid/FXR signaling; levels were 2.4-fold higher in PBH vs. asymptomatic post-RYGB (mean ± SEM: 1094±141 vs. 428±45, P

Postprandial GLP-1 secretion is greatly enhanced after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) and seems important for the reduced food intake and improved insulin secretion postoperatively. Understanding the mechanisms of gut hormone release after RYGB could aid the discovery of new drugs for the treatment of diabetes and obesity. Glucose is particularly potent for stimulating the release of GLP-1 as well as GIP compared with protein and fat in RYGB operated patients. It is unclear how glucose triggers gut hormone secretion in humans, but animal studies suggest a crucial role of sodium-glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1). Our aim was to investigate secretion of GLP-1 and GIP in response to an oral glucose load (50 g) on two separate days with or without acute pretreatment of 600 mg of the dual SGLT1/SGLT2 inhibitor canagliflozin (CANA) in 10 RYGB operated patients with no history of diabetes (age 47 ± 5 years, BMI 36 ± 7 kg/m2, HbA1c 35 ± 4 mmol/mol, time from surgery 6 ± 1 years, mean ± SD). CANA lowered peak glucose (11.8 vs. 8.4 mmol/l, p0.01, and AUC above basal by 28%, p=0.01, respectively). In addition, CANA reduced the postprandial rise in lactate concentrations and pulse rate and caused marked glucosuria (0.2 vs. 11 g). SGLT1/2 inhibition by canagliflozin during glucose ingestion reduced glycemic excursions and diminished early release of GLP-1 and GIP in RYGB operated patients. The results support that glucose absorption via SGLT1 is important for incretin hormone secretion after gastric bypass. Disclosure C. Martinussen: None. S. Veedfald: None. K.N. Bojsen-Moller: None. C. Dirksen: None. M.S. Svane: None. V. Kristiansen: None. J.J. Holst: Advisory Panel; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. S. Madsbad: None. Funding European Union Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program (695069-Bypass Without Surgery); Danish Diabetes Academy; Novo Nordisk Foundation (NNF15OC0017188); Research Foundation for Health Research of the Capital Region of Denmark; Hvidovre Hospital

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) induces large and sustained weight loss in most patients. However, a minority of patients (5-10%) never obtain a successful weight loss after RYGB. The aim of this study was to characterize the role of gut hormones for appetite regulation in patients with primary weight loss (WL) failure defined as maximal excess BMI loss (EBLmax= ΔBMIpreoperative-postoperative/ΔBMIpreoperative-25) 60%) after RYGB. Twenty women with primary WL failure (EBL 24% [9;27], median [IQR]) were matched to 20 women with successful WL (EBL 74% [70;83]) on age (51±9 vs. 51±9 years, mean ± sd), preoperative BMI (43.1±4.0 vs. 43.0±3.6 kg/m2) and time from RYGB (4.8±2.0 vs. 4.8±1.4 years). On separate days, a patient blinded subcutaneous injection of the somatostatin analogue Octreotide (Oct) 1 µg/kg bodyweight (max 100 µg) or saline (placebo) was given in randomized order followed by a mixed meal test at T=30 min and an ad libitum meal with measurement of food intake at T=270 min. The WL failure group had similar GLP-1 (tAUC, median [IQR], 4039 [3336;6018] vs. 4669 [3006;5891] pM·min, p=0.30) and PYY secretion (tAUC, 1935 [1493;2783], 1778 [1163;2756] pM·min, p=0.65) on the placebo day compared with the successful WL group. Injection of Oct diminished GLP-1 and PYY secretion in both groups. Oct had no effect on ad libitum food intake in the WL failure group (-0.5% [-13, 12], mean [95% CI]), while food intake was increased after Oct in the successful WL group (+23% [1.6, 44]) (ANOVA Group x Oct p=0.04). In conclusion, primary WL failure after RYGB was not explained by lower secretion of GLP-1 or PYY. However, inhibition of hormone secretion with octreotide increased food intake only in patients with successful WL, whereas the effect was absent in patients with primary WL failure. These results support that an impaired gut-hormone mediated suppression of appetite could contribute to primary weight loss failure after RYGB. Disclosure K.N. Bojsen-Moller: None. M.S. Svane: None. C. Martinussen: None. C. Dirksen: None. N.B. Jørgensen: Stock/Shareholder; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. V. Kristiansen: None. B. Hartmann: None. J.J. Holst: Advisory Panel; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. S. Madsbad: None. Funding Danish Council for Independent Research

BACKGROUND Altered meal-related gut hormone secretion seems important for weight loss and diabetes remission after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB). Elucidating the responsible meal components and receptors could aid discovery of new treatments of obesity and diabetes. Enteroendocrine cells respond to digestion products of dietary triacylglycerol, especially long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) and 2-oleoyl-glycerol (2-OG), but not medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs). OBJECTIVE We examined the impact of olive oil (20 mL) and its derivates, LCFAs and 2-OG, on enteroendocrine secretions [glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), cholecystokinin (CCK), peptide YY (PYY), and neurotensin (NT)] and on glucose, lipid, and bile acid metabolism in RYGB-operated and unoperated individuals. METHODS In an exploratory randomized crossover design, 10 RYGB-operated patients and 10 matched controls ingested 3 equimolar triacylglycerol formulations on separate days: olive oil (digested to 2-OG + LCFAs), C8-dietary oil (2-OG + MCFAs), and tricaprylin (MCFAs; negative control). Hormone responses were calculated as area under the curve (AUC). RESULTS Independent of group status, olive oil had greater effects than C8-dietary oil on AUCs of plasma GLP-1 (+32%; 95% CI: 23%, 43%; P

Background Glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) both inhibit bone resorption in humans but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In vitro, GLP-2 activates the GIP-receptor (GIPR). Objective Based on in vitro studies, we hypothesized that the antiresorptive effect of GLP-2 was mediated through the GIPR. This was tested using the selective GIPR-antagonist GIP(3-30)NH2. Methods The study was a randomized, single-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study conducted at Hvidovre University Hospital, Denmark. Eight healthy young men were included and studied on four study days: GIP (200 μg), GLP-2 (800 μg), GIP(3-30)NH2 (800 pmol/kg/min) + GLP-2 (800 μg), and placebo. The main outcomes were bone resorption measured as collagen type 1 C-terminal telopeptide (CTX) and bone formation measured as procollagen type 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP). Results CTX (mean ± SEM) significantly decreased after both GIP (to 55.3 ± 6.3% of baseline at t = 90 min) and GLP-2 (to 60.5 ± 5.0% of baseline at t = 180 min). The maximal reduction in CTX after GIP(3-30)NH2 + GLP-2 (to 63.2 ± 3.1% of baseline) did not differ from GLP-2 alone (p = 0.95) nor did net AUC0–240 (−6801 ± 879%*min vs −6027 ± 648%*min, p = 0.56). At t = 30 min, GIP significantly (p Conclusions GIPR antagonism did not inhibit the GLP-2-induced reduction in bone resorption (CTX) in healthy young men. In contrast to GLP-2, GIP increased P1NP despite decreasing CTX indicating an uncoupling of bone resorption from formation. Thus, GLP-2 and GIP seem to exert separate effects on bone turnover in humans. Clinical trials information ClinicalTrials.gov ( NCT03159741 ).

Exaggerated secretion of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is important for postprandial glucose tolerance after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), whereas the role of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) remains to be resolved. We aimed to explore the relative importance of endogenously secreted GLP-1 and GIP on glucose tolerance and β-cell function after RYGB. We used DPP-4 inhibition to enhance concentrations of intact GIP and GLP-1 and the GLP-1 receptor antagonist exendin-(9–39) (Ex-9) for specific blockage of GLP-1 actions. Twelve glucose-tolerant patients were studied after RYGB in a randomized, placebo-controlled, 4-day crossover study with standard mixed-meal tests and concurrent administration of placebo, oral sitagliptin, Ex-9 infusion, or combined Ex-9-sitagliptin. GLP-1 receptor antagonism increased glucose excursions, clearly attenuated β-cell function, and aggravated postprandial hyperglucagonemia compared with placebo, whereas sitagliptin had no effect despite two- to threefold increased concentrations of intact GLP-1 and GIP. Similarly, sitagliptin did not affect glucose tolerance or β-cell function during GLP-1R blockage. This study confirms the importance of GLP-1 for glucose tolerance after RYGB via increased insulin and attenuated glucagon secretion in the postprandial state, whereas amplification of the GIP signal (or other DPP-4-sensitive glucose-lowering mechanisms) did not appear to contribute to the improved glucose tolerance seen after RYGB.

Exaggerated postprandial secretion of GLP-1 seems to contribute importantly to the metabolic effects of Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB). The surgery accelerates nutrient entry to the distal intestine, which is believed to augment GLP-1 secretion. In un-operated individuals, slowly digested carbohydrates are also absorbed in the distal intestine and may accordingly produce greater GLP-1 responses than rapidly absorbed ones. Our aim was to investigate GLP-1 secretion in response to isomolar (0.1385 mol) oral loads of glucose (glu) and fructose (fru), either given as separate monosaccharides (25 g glu and 25 g fru) or as disaccharides in the form of 47.5 g sucrose (suc) +/- alpha glucosidase inhibition (by acarbose (aca)) or 47.5 g isomaltulose (iso), which is slower digested than suc, on 4 separate days in 10 RYGB patients and 10 controls (CON) matched on BMI, age and sex. Glu/fru and suc induced similar glucose excursions and responses of C-peptide and GLP-1, the latter being 3-fold greater in RYGB compared to CON. Digestion of iso was slow in comparison with suc in both groups. Mean GLP-1 response (positive iAUC) to iso was ∼50% and ∼160% greater than to suc in RYGB (p=0.11) and CON (p=0.01), respectively. Aca effectively slowed suc digestion in both groups, resulting in lower peak concentrations of glucose (RYGB: 9.3 vs. 6.7 mmol/l, CON: 7.7 vs. 6.6 mmol/l) and C-peptide (RYGB: 2762 vs. 1341 pmol/l, CON: 2367 vs. 1520 pmol/l) compared with suc alone (p The slowly absorbed disaccharide isomaltulose elicits a greater GLP-1 response than sucrose. The same effect is not evident when digestion of sucrose is inhibited by acarbose, which in RYGB diminishes sucrose induced GLP-1 secretion. Understanding the digestive processes involved in carbohydrate induced GLP-1 release after gastric bypass is an important step towards mimicking the effects of the surgery by pharmacological means. Disclosure C. Martinussen: None. K.N. Bojsen-Moller: None. C. Dirksen: None. M.S. Svane: None. J.J. Holst: Advisory Panel; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. Board Member; Self; Zealand Pharma A/S. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., AstraZeneca. Research Support; Self; Danish Diabetes Academy, Novo Nordisk Foundation. Other Relationship; Self; Antag Therapeutics. Other Relationship; Spouse/Partner; Antag Therapeutics. S. Madsbad: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca. Speaker's Bureau; Self; AstraZeneca. Research Support; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.. Advisory Panel; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Eli Lilly and Company, Eli Lilly and Company. Advisory Panel; Self; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Sanofi-Aventis, Novo Nordisk A/S. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. Research Support; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S.

Sleeve gastrectomy (SG) and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) induce comparable weight loss and improvements in glycemic control despite marked differences in gastrointestinal rearrangements. We hypothesized that absorption rates of oral glucose and protein derived amino acids (AA) were accelerated after both procedures resulting in comparable gut hormone responses. 12 SG and 12 RYGB operated and 12 control (C) subjects carefully matched on BMI, age, sex and post-operative weight loss received primed-continuous infusions of stable isotopes of glucose, glycerol, phenylalanine (phe), tyrosine and urea combined with a 6-hour mixed meal test (400 kcal, 50E% carb, 35E% fat, 15E% protein) containing a glucose isotope and intrinsically phe labelled casein. Peak rate of appearance (Ra) of oral glucose was higher after RYGB and SG compared with C (RYGB 36±1 µmol/kg FFM/min, SG 27±1, C 22±1; p Disclosure M.S. Svane: None. K.N. Bojsen-Moller: None. C. Martinussen: None. C. Dirksen: None. S. Reitelseder: None. L. Holm: None. V.B. Kristiansen: None. G. van Hall: None. J.J. Holst: Advisory Panel; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. Board Member; Self; Zealand Pharma A/S. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., AstraZeneca. Research Support; Self; Danish Diabetes Academy, Novo Nordisk Foundation. Other Relationship; Self; Antag Therapeutics. Other Relationship; Spouse/Partner; Antag Therapeutics. S. Madsbad: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca. Speaker's Bureau; Self; AstraZeneca. Research Support; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.. Advisory Panel; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Eli Lilly and Company, Eli Lilly and Company. Advisory Panel; Self; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Sanofi-Aventis, Novo Nordisk A/S. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. Research Support; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S.

Introduction: Elevated bile acid (BA) concentrations have been suggested to partly drive metabolic improvements after bariatric surgery but the mechanisms remain poorly understood. We assessed flow of bile and foods using scintigraphy after Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass (RYGB) and Sleeve Gastrectomy (SG). Materials and Methods: 15 RYGB, 10 SG and 15 gender, age and BMI matched controls (C) underwent a combined cholescintigraphy and fatty test-meal with frequent blood sampling, for concomitant visualization of radiolabeled bile and food markers in the GI tract. BA retention was estimated 7 days after ingestion of a radiolabeled taurine-conjugated BA analogue (75Se-HCAT). Results: Prior to meal intake, gallbladder filling was lower (mean ± SEM: RYGB 23% ± 4, SG 39 ± 4, C 36 ± 5, RYGB vs. C p = 0.04) and more bile marker had passed passively into the small intestine in RYGB but not SG (RYGB 48% ± 6, SG 21 ± 5, C 20 ± 6, RYGB vs. C p < 0.01). Postprandial gallbladder emptying was complete in all groups. Gastric retention of foods was negligible in RYGB and lower in SG at 10 min after meal intake (RYGB 12% ± 2, SG 59 ± 7, C 90 ± 4, RYGB vs. C p < 0.01, SG vs. C p < 0.01) resulting in instant mixing of food with bile in RYGB and accelerated mixing in SG (RYGB 78% ± 3, SG 35 ± 8, C 8 ± 4, RYGB vs. C p < 0.01, SG vs. C p < 0.01). BA-retention over 7 days was only increased in RYGB (RYGB 54% ± 6, SG 34 ± 4, C 33 ± 5, RYGB vs. C: p = 0.02). Peak S-cholecystokinin (CCK) was comparably increased in RYGB and SG (RYGB 13 pmol/l ± 3, SG 15 ± 3, C 6 ± 1, RYGB vs. C p = 0.03, SG vs. C p = 0.01). Conclusion: After RYGB, enteric BA appearance is altered (more hepatic less gallbladder derived) and food is instantly mixed with bile due to negligible retention of foods in the gastric pouch. BA retention is increased. In contrast, BA appearance and retention remains normal after SG, although gastric emptying is accelerated. The metabolic impact of the changes in BA circulation after RYGB needs further evaluation. Disclosure A. Eiken: None. S. Fuglsang: None. M.L. Eiken: None. M.S. Svane: None. J.J. Holst: Advisory Panel; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. Board Member; Self; Zealand Pharma A/S. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., AstraZeneca. Research Support; Self; Danish Diabetes Academy, Novo Nordisk Foundation. Other Relationship; Self; Antag Therapeutics. Other Relationship; Spouse/Partner; Antag Therapeutics. K.N. Bojsen-Moller: None. S. Madsbad: Advisory Panel; Self; AstraZeneca. Speaker's Bureau; Self; AstraZeneca. Research Support; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.. Advisory Panel; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Eli Lilly and Company, Eli Lilly and Company. Advisory Panel; Self; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Sanofi-Aventis, Novo Nordisk A/S. Speaker's Bureau; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. Research Support; Self; Novo Nordisk A/S. J.L. Madsen: None. C. Dirksen: None.

Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding (LAGB), laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) and laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy (SG) are the three most commonly performed bariatric procedures. Obesity responds well to bariatric surgery, with major long-lasting weight loss that is most pronounced after RYGB and SG, where the mean weight loss is about 40 kg or 15 body mass index (BMI) units. Some of the benefits after RYGB and SG are independent of weight loss, and the remission of type 2 diabetes is observed a few days after the operation; this depends on changes in insulin sensitivity and gut hormone responses, especially a 10-fold increase in glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), which improves insulin secretion. After gastric banding, the remission of diabetes depends more on weight loss. Bariatric surgery reduces cardiovascular risk factors including hypertension, lipid disturbances, non-alcoholic fatty liver, musculoskeletal pain and reduces mortality of diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancers. Bariatric surgery also improves quality of life. The acute complications of surgery are infection, bleeding and anastomotic leak. Long-term complications are nutritional deficiencies, including vitamins and minerals, and anemia. Some patients have dumping after meals, and a few patients will develop postprandial hypoglycemia after RYGB. About 25% of patients require plastic surgery to provide relief from excessive skin tissue.

BACKGROUND: When patients experience large weight loss, muscle mass may be affected followed by changes in plasma creatinine (pCr). The MDRD and CKD-EPI equations for estimated GFR (eGFR) include pCr. We hypothesised that a large weight loss reduces muscle mass and pCr causing increase in eGFR (creatinine-based equations), whereas measured GFR (mGFR) and cystatin C-based eGFR would be unaffected if adjusted for body surface area.METHODS: Prospective, intervention study including 19 patients. All attended a baseline visit before gastric bypass surgery followed by a visit six months post-surgery. mGFR was assessed during four hours plasma51Cr-EDTA clearance. GFR was estimated by four equations (MDRD, CKD-EPI-pCr, CKD-EPI-cysC and CKD-EPI-pCr-cysC). DXA-scans were performed at baseline and six months post-surgery to measure changes in lean limb mass, as a surrogate for muscle mass.RESULTS: Patients were (mean ± SD) 40.0 ± 9.3 years, 14 (74%) were female and 5 (26%) had type 2 diabetes, baseline weight was 128 ± 19 kg, body mass index 41 ± 6 kg/m2 and absolute mGFR 122 ± 24 ml/min. Six months post-surgery weight loss was 27 (95% CI: 23; 30) kg, mGFR decreased by 9 (-17; -2) from 122 ± 24 to 113 ± 21 ml/min (p = 0.024), but corrected for current body surface area (BSA) mGFR was unchanged by 2 (-5; 9) ml/min/1.73 m2(p = 0.52). CKD-EPI-pCr increased by 12 (6; 17) and MDRD by 13 (8; 18) (p CONCLUSIONS: Major weight reductions are associated with a reduction in absolute mGFR, which may reflect resolution of glomerular hyperfiltration, while mGFR adjusted for body surface area was unchanged. Estimates of GFR based on creatinine overestimate renal function likely due to changes in muscle mass, whereas cystatin C based estimates are unaffected.TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02138565 . Date of registration: March 24, 2014.

Sleeve gastrectomy (SG) and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) induce substantial weight loss and improve glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes, but it is not clear whether these occur via the same mechanisms. We compared absorption rates of glucose and protein, as well as profiles of gastro-entero-pancreatic hormones, in patients who had undergone SG or RYGB vs controls.We performed a cross-sectional study of 12 patients who had undergone sleeve gastrectomy, 12 patients who had undergone RYGB, and 12 individuals who had undergone neither surgery (controls), all in Denmark. Study participants were matched for body mass index, age, sex, and postoperative weight loss, and all had stable weights. They received continuous infusions of stable isotopes of glucose, glycerol, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and urea before and during a mixed meal containing labeled glucose and intrinsically phenylalanine-labeled caseinate. Blood samples were collected for 6 hours, at 10- to 60-minute intervals, and analyzed.The systemic appearance of ingested glucose was faster after RYGB and SG vs controls; the peak glucose appearance rate was 64% higher after RYGB, and 23% higher after SG (both P.05); the peak phenylalanine appearance rate from ingested casein was 118% higher after RYGB (P.01), but similar between patients who had undergone SG and controls. Larger, but more transient increases in levels of plasma glucose and amino acids were accompanied by higher secretion of insulin, glucagon-like peptide 1, peptide YY, and cholecystokinin after RYGB, whereas levels of ghrelin were lower after SG, compared with RYGB and controls. Total 6-hour oral recovery of ingested glucose and protein was comparable among groups.Postprandial glucose and protein absorption and gastro-entero-pancreatic hormone secretions differ after SG and RYGB. RYGB was characterized by accelerated absorption of glucose and amino acids, whereas protein metabolism after SG did not differ significantly from controls, suggesting that different mechanisms explain improved glycemic control and weight loss after these surgical procedures. ClinicalTrials.gov ID NCT03046186.

Exaggerated postprandial secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY) may explain appetite reduction and weight loss after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), but causality has not been established. We hypothesized that food intake decreases after surgery through combined actions from GLP-1 and PYY. GLP-1 actions can be blocked using the GLP-1 receptor antagonist Exendin 9-39 (Ex-9), whereas PYY actions can be inhibited by the administration of a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor preventing the formation of PYYAppetite-regulating gut hormones and appetite ratings during a standard mixed-meal test and effects on subsequent ad libitum food intake were evaluated in two studies: in study 1, nine patients with type 2 diabetes were examined prospectively before and 3 months after RYGB with and without Ex-9. In study 2, 12 RYGB-operated patients were examined in a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover design on four experimental days with: (1) placebo, (2) Ex-9, (3) the DPP-4 inhibitor, sitagliptin, to reduce formation of PYYIn study 1, food intake decreased by 35% following RYGB compared with before surgery. Before surgery, GLP-1 receptor blockage increased food intake but no effect was seen postoperatively, whereas PYY secretion was markedly increased. In study 2, combined GLP-1 receptor blockage and DPP-4 inhibitor mediated lowering of PYYBlockade of actions from only one of the two L-cell hormones, GLP-1 and PYY

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) and sleeve gastrectomy are referred to as 'metabolic surgery' due to hormonal shifts with impacts on diabetes remission and weight loss. The purpose of this review is to summarize recent findings in mechanisms underlying beneficial effects of weight loss surgery.Importantly, gut hormone secretion is altered after RYGB and sleeve gastrectomy due to accelerated transit of nutrients to distal parts of the small intestine, leading to excessive release of L-cell peptide hormones [e.g. glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), peptide YY].Improved glucose metabolism after RYGB and sleeve gastrectomy involves several mechanisms: early increased hepatic insulin sensitivity, resulting from reduced liver fat content in response to the postoperative caloric restriction, improved beta-cell function mediated by exaggerated postprandial GLP-1 secretion; as demonstrated by relapse of impaired glucose tolerance in studies blocking the GLP-1 receptor by exendin 9-39, and later after major weight loss increased peripheral insulin sensitivity. Gut hormone secretion changes towards a more anorectic profile and is likely important for less caloric intake and weight loss.Changes in gut hormone secretion after RYGB and sleeve gastrectomy surgery induce the beneficial effects on weight and glycemic control through the influence on appetite regulation and insulin secretion.

Bariatric surgery is the most effective treatment for severe obesity. The mean weight loss is approximately 30-40 kg/11-15 BMI units or approximately 60 % of excess body weight. Many patients pursue bariatric surgery for improvement in their physical image and self-esteem rather than somatic health improvement. Health-related quality of life improves after bariatric surgery and the long-term improvements are positively associated with the long-term amount of weight reduction. After the major weight loss, excess skin present problems for the patients and many patients want body contouring by plastic surgery. Plastic surgery adds to further improvement in health-related quality of life

Gastric bypass surgery leads to profound changes in the secretion of gut hormones with effects on metabolism, appetite, and food intake. Here, we discuss their contributions to the improvement in glucose tolerance and the weight loss that results from the operations. We find that the improved glucose tolerance is due the following events: a negative energy balance and resulting weight loss, which improve first hepatic and later peripheral insulin sensitivity, in combination with increased postprandial insulin secretion elicited particularly by exaggerated glucagon-like peptide-1 responses. The weight loss is due to loss of appetite resulting in reduced energy intake, and we find it probable that this process is driven by exaggerated secretion of appetite-regulating gut hormones including, but probably not limited to, glucagon-like peptide-1 and peptide-YY. The increased secretion is due to an accelerated exposure to and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. This places the weight loss and the gut hormones in key positions with respect to the metabolic improvements after bypass surgery.