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Research regarding the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on executive function has grown exponentially in recent years. However, there has been no comprehensive review of the current state of literature. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review is to summarize previous research regarding the acute and chronic effects of HIIT on executive function across the lifespan and highlight future research directions. The results indicated that acute bouts of HIIT has a positive effect on inhibition in children/adolescents and adults, and further that chronic HIIT benefits inhibition and working memory in children. More research employing chronic interventions, focusing on middle-aged and older adults, and examining the effects on the working memory and cognitive flexibility domains of executive function are needed. Future research should also focus on a) the use of stronger research designs, b) the effects of HIIT dosage/modality, c) consideration of individual differences, d) possible underlying mechanisms, and e) examining the feasibility of translating HIIT to real-word settings.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between muscular fitness and motor competence and processing speed in preschool children. Eighty-four preschool-aged children were recruited an...

It is difficult to draw conclusions about the effect of resistance exercises on information processing speed and inhibitory control from previous studies due to possible underestimations of maximal strength and the lack of information on the intervention programs. To address this issue, a familiarization of resistance exercise was introduced before the strength test, and the repetition-to-fatigue method was used to calculate the 1RM (one repetition max). A two-arm RCT was conducted to evaluate the cognitive effect of resistance exercise. Male adults aged 50–65 years old performed a single bout of multiple joint, structural barbell resistance exercises (back squat, press, and deadlift) with 75% 1RM * 5 repetitions * 3 sets with 2–3 min rest between sets and exercises or a stretching exercise session (active-control intervention). This type of resistance exercise improved the information processing speed measured by Stroop task reaction time (t(23) = − 2.313, p = .030, M = − 16 ms, 95% CI [− 30, − 2]) and decreased the conflict-related neural activity measured by event-related potential N2b in both congruent (t(20) = 2.674, p = .015, M = 2.290 μv, 95% CI [0.504, 4.075]) and incongruent (t(20) = 2.851, p = .018, M = 2.291 μv, 95% CI [0.439, 4.142]) conditions. Resistance exercise significantly improved information processing speed and decrease conflict-related neural activity, but did not change inhibitory control in older adults compared to active control.Trial registration: NCT04534374 (01/09/2020).

Acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a time-efficient strategy to improve physical health; however, the effect of acute HIIT on executive function (EF) is unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the existing evidence and quantify the effect of acute HIIT on overall EF and the factors affecting the relationship between acute HIIT and EF. Standard databases (i.e., the PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and CENTRAL databases) were searched for studies that examined the effect of acute HIIT on EF and were published up until January 2021. The overall EF and factors grouped by three categories, namely, EF assessment characteristics, exercise intervention characteristics, and sample and study characteristics, were analyzed by percentage of comparison for positive or null/negative effects. Overall, 35 of 57 outcomes (61%) across 24 studies revealed that acute HIIT has a positive effect on overall EF. In terms of factors, the results indicated that among EF assessment characteristics, groups, inhibition, updating, and the assessment occurring within 30 min may moderate the effect of acute HIIT on EF, while among exercise intervention characteristics, total time within 11 to 30 min may moderate the effect. Finally, among sample characteristics, age under 40 years may moderate the effect. Acute HIIT is generally considered a viable alternative for eliciting EF gains, with factors related to EF components, timing of the assessment, exercise total time, and age potentially moderating the effect of HIIT on EF.

Background There is an increasing prevalence of physical inactivity during childhood, which is associated with a variety of health problems. However, the mechanisms by which acute exercise benefits cognition in childhood remains unknown. Here we describe the protocol for a randomized crossover trial called SNEACY (Sympathetic Nervous System & Exercise Affects Cognition in Youth), a study designed to better understand mechanisms linking acute exercise and cognition in 9–10-year-old healthy, cognitively normal children. Methods Children from the Greater Boston, MA region will be recruited to participate in this single center study. A randomized crossover design will be utilized, such that participants will act as their own controls, through initial randomization to condition assignment and condition counterbalancing across participants. One hundred three children will participate in three randomized acute interventions: moderate intensity treadmill exercise (20 min, 70–75% of their maximal heart rate), seated rest (20 min), and a Trier Social Stress Test for Children (14 min). These visits will occur on 3 three separate days, approximately 5–8 days apart. Before and after each intervention, children complete a variety of cognitive tasks measuring attentional inhibition while their neuroelectric activity is recorded. Variables of interest include EEG data, accuracy and reaction time, academic achievement, and salivary alpha amylase. Academic achievement is also assessed following interventions. In addition, children provide passive drool samples throughout the interventions to measure various biomarkers that may explain the acute exercise benefit on cognition. Discussion The results from this study could influence educational and public health recommendations to enhance cognition and learning in pre-adolescent children. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03592238. Registered on 19 July 2018

Shu-Shih Hsieh was supported by the Postdoctoral Research Abroad Program from the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan (reference number: 109-2917-I-564-034). Francisco B. Ortega's research activity was supported by funds from Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Reference number: DEP2016-79512-R and DEP2017-91544-EXP) and the Andalusian Operational Programme supported with European Regional Development Funds (ERDF in English, FEDER in Spanish, project ref: B-CTS-355-UGR18)., Childhood obesity and its negative relation with children's brain health has become a growing health concern. Over the last decade, literature has indicated that physical activity attenuates cognitive impairment associated with obesity and excess adiposity in children. However, there is no comprehensive review that considers the extent to which these factors affect different domains of cognition. This narrative review comprehensively summarizes behavioral, neuroimaging, and neuroelectric findings associated with chronic physical activity and fitness on brain and cognition in childhood obesity. Based on the literature reviewed, increased adiposity has a demonstrated relationship with neurocognitive health via mechanisms triggered by central inflammation and insulin resistance, with the most pronounced decrements observed for cognitive domains that are prefrontal- and hippocampal-dependent. Fortunately, physical activity, especially interventions enhancing aerobic fitness and motor coordination, have demonstrated efficacy for attenuating the negative effects of obesity across different subdomains of structural and functional brain imaging, cognition, and multiple academic outcomes in children with overweight or obesity. Such mitigating effects may be accounted for by attenuated central inflammation, improved insulin sensitivity, and increased expression of neurotrophic factors. Lastly, individual differences appear to play a role in this relationship, as the manipulation of physical activity characteristics, the employment of a wide array of cognitive and academic measures, the inclusion of different adiposity measures that are sensitive to neurocognitive function, and the utilization of an inter-disciplinary approach have been found to influence the relationship between physical activity and excess adiposity on brain and cognition., Competitiveness DEP2016-79512-R DEP2017-91544-EXP, Andalusian Operational Programme, European Commission B-CTS-355-UGR18 B-CTS-355-UGR18

The current study examined the effects of acute moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (MAE) on inhibitory control and resting-state heart rate variability (HRV) in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Our data show that acute MAE resulted in higher response accuracy of a modified flanker task regardless of task difficulty for 60 min (p = .001). Aerobic exercise further resulted in more effective conflict detection, as measured by greater amplitude (p = .012) and shorter latency (p = .029) of the N2 component of event-related brain potential, for 60 min regardless of task difficulty. In contrast, acute MAE did not modulate sympathovagal balance signified by HRV at either 30 min or 60 min following exercise cessation. Collectively, our findings suggest that the beneficial effects of acute aerobic exercise on inhibitory control are sustained for 60 min in children with ADHD. However, acute aerobic exercise may not modulate sympathovagal balance during the post-exercise recovery. Overall, we highlight the importance of acute aerobic exercise for children with ADHD as a potential means to facilitate brain health.

OBJECTIVE Given previous research examining the relationship between physical activity (PA) and working memory in children has not taken into account of potentially confounders, this study specifically controlled for the effects of intelligence and fitness-related factors (i.e., aerobic and motor fitness) on this relationship. METHOD Thirty-two children were assigned to either the higher PA group (HP) (n = 16) or lower PA group (LP) (n = 16) based on their amount of PA as measured by an accelerometer. Working memory was measured by the delayed-matching test, with concurrent recordings of event-related potentials including the P3 and the positive slow wave (PSW) components. RESULTS Data analysis controlling for the effects of potential confounders found that the HP group had higher response accuracy in both task conditions relative to the LP group. For reaction times (RT), the HP group showed shorter RT than the LP group in the delayed condition. Furthermore, the HP group had similar P3 amplitudes across task conditions, whereas amplitudes in the delayed condition were smaller than that in the non-delayed condition in the LP group. In addition, the HP group also showed larger PSW amplitudes than the LP group. Supplementary partial correlations analysis indicated negative correlations between levels of PA with RT in both task conditions, and positive correlations with P3 amplitude and PSW amplitude in the delayed condition. CONCLUSIONS Children with higher levels of PA, while controlling for individual differences in intelligence and fitness-related factors, have better working memory as assessed by both behavioral and neuroelectric measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Background The objective of the current study was to examine whether the relation between aerobic fitness and academic achievement during adolescence is subject-dependent, and to investigate cumulative and recency effects. Methods This study made use of two nationwide datasets. The first was the aerobic fitness profile of junior high school students collected by the Ministry of Education in Taiwan. The second contained the scores on the Basic Competence Test for Junior High School Students (BCTJH). The sample consisted of 382,259 students who completed the BCTJH in the 5 years between 2009 and 2013. Data on each student’s aerobic fitness during their three years of junior high school were matched with their exam results at the end of this period. Results The results revealed that students classified as highly-fit during at least one of the three years had higher BCTJH scores than those who never achieved this level, with the size of effect increasing with the length of time that fitness was maintained. Additionally, aerobic fitness in the final year was more closely linked to BCTJH scores than that in the earlier two years. Fitness was also more strongly associated with exam performance in math, science and social science, relative to language-related subjects. Conclusions Our findings suggest that while aerobic fitness is positively related to academic achievement in Taiwanese junior high school students, the relationship depends on academic subject, as well as the length and time of being aerobically fit. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12887-018-1384-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

While considerable evidence supporting the positive influence of acute exercise on cognitive inhibition, little is known regarding the underlying cognitive processes. There is also little neuroelectric evidence regarding the effects on older adults of acute exercise-elicited cognitive benefits. Thus, our objective was to explore the possible neural markers underlying improved cognitive inhibition, with particular attention to the N450 and P3 components, following acute exercise. Another aim was to investigate whether cognitive gains seen in young adults are replicated in older adults. Twenty-four young males and 20 older males underwent either a single bout of aerobic exercise or video-watching in counterbalanced order. Afterwards, cognitive inhibition was assessed by the Stroop test. Results revealed that acute exercise resulted in shorter response time regardless of age or congruency. Regarding the neuroeletric data, acute exercise resulted in larger P3 amplitude and smaller N450 amplitude regardless of congruency or age. Further, following exercise, changes in response time interference were correlated with changes in incongruent N450 amplitude. Collectively, acute exercise-facilitated conflict monitoring and attention control, as signified by the N450 and P3 components, may be the underlying processes leading to better Stroop performance, with conflict monitoring having a stronger association with task performance. Further, cognitive gains resulting from acute exercise were found to the same extent in both young and older adults.

The objective of the current study was to examine the relationship between different components of physical fitness across 3 years of junior high school with academic performance assessed at the end of the period. Two nationwide representative datasets were used. The first was the physical fitness profile assessed at the beginning of each of the three school years. The second contained the scores on a standardized test administered at the end of the third year. All data were standardized by calculating percentile rank (PR). Students were classified as “High-fit” if their fitness scores ≧ top 25% PR on the age- and sex-adjusted norms. All other students were classified as “not high-fit”. The relationships between fitness and exam performance were tested adjusting for sex, body mass index, and level of urbanization. Students who were in the high-fit group in both years 1 and 3 academically outperformed those who were outside this classification during both assessments. The degree of outperformance was greatest for those who were aerobically fit, followed by those who were high-fit in terms of muscular endurance, muscular strength, and flexibility, respectively. It is therefore concluded that the relationship between physical fitness and academic performance in Taiwanese junior high school students is strongest in the case of aerobic fitness.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of open and closed sport participation on visuo-spatial attention and memory performance among young adults. Forty-eight young adults—16 open-skill athletes, 16 closed-skill athletes, and 16 non-athletes controls—were recruited for the study. Both behavioral performance and event-related potential (ERP) measurement were assessed when participants performed non-delayed and delayed match-to-sample task that tested visuo-spatial attention and memory processing. Results demonstrated that regardless of training typology, the athlete groups exhibited shorter reaction times in both the visuo-spatial attention and memory conditions than the control group with no existence of speed-accuracy trade-off. Similarly, a larger P3 amplitudes were observed in both athlete groups than in the control group for the visuo-spatial memory condition. These findings suggest that sports training, regardless of typology, are associated with superior visuo-spatial attention and memory performance, and more efficient neural resource allocation in memory processing.