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Background American Indians (AIs) have significantly higher rates of diet-related chronic diseases than other racial/ethnic groups, and many live in environments with limited access to healthy food. Objective As part of the Tribal Resilience in Vulnerable Environments (THRIVE) study, we examined the relations between the perceived food environment, utilization of food retailers, fruit and vegetable intake, and chronic diseases, including obesity, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes among AI adults. Methods Through a community-based participatory research partnership, we surveyed a cross-sectional sample of 513 AIs living within the Chickasaw Nation and the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. Results Only 57% of participants reported that it was easy to purchase fruits and vegetables in their town, and fewer (35%) reported that available fruits and vegetables were of high quality. Additionally, over half (56%) reported traveling ≥20 miles round trip to shop for food. Few participants met the recommended daily intake for fruit (44%) or vegetables (25%). Obesity (55%), hypertension (49%), and diabetes (25%) were commonly reported. Obesity was significantly higher among participants who reported that the price of fruits and vegetables were cost-prohibitive (prevalence proportion ratio (PPR): 1.24; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.50) and those who shopped frequently for food at nontraditional food retailers, such as Dollar Stores (PPR: 1.35; 95% CI: 1.08, 1.69) and small markets (PPR: 1.38; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.86). Diabetes was significantly higher among participants who frequently shopped at convenience stores/gas stations (PPR: 2.26; 95% CI: 1.22, 4.19). Conclusions Our study found that the use of nontraditional food retailers, including convenience stores, gas stations, and Dollar Stores, as a regular source of food was associated with obesity and diabetes. These results underscore the importance of interventions to improve rural Tribal food environments. Healthy retail interventions in nontraditional retail settings, such as those implemented through the THRIVE study, may contribute to reducing AI health disparities.

The efficacy of tobacco treatment delivered by state quitlines in diverse populations is well-supported, yet little is known about associations between treatment dose and cessation outcomes following the implementation of Ask-Advise-Connect (AAC), an electronic health record-based systematic referral process that generates a high volume of proactive calls from the state quitline to smokers. The current study is a secondary analysis of a 34-month implementation trial evaluating ACC in 13 safety-net clinics in Houston, TX. Treatment was delivered by a quitline and comprised up to five proactive, telephone-delivered multi-component cognitive-behavioral treatment sessions. Associations between treatment dose and abstinence were examined. Abstinence was assessed by phone six months after treatment enrollment, and biochemically confirmed via mailed saliva cotinine. Among smokers who enrolled in treatment and agreed to follow-up (n = 3704), 29.2% completed no treatment sessions, 35.5% completed one session, 16.4% completed two sessions, and 19.0% completed ≥three sessions. Those who completed one (vs. no) sessions were no more likely to report abstinence (OR: 0.98). Those who completed two (vs. no) sessions were nearly twice as likely to report abstinence (OR: 1.83). Those who completed ≥three (vs. no) sessions were nearly four times as likely to report abstinence (OR: 3.70). Biochemically-confirmed cessation outcomes were similar. Most smokers received minimal or no treatment, and treatment dose had a large impact on abstinence. Results highlight the importance of improving engagement in evidence-based treatment protocols following enrollment. Given that motivation to quit fluctuates, systematically offering enrollment to all smokers at all visits is important., Highlights • The majority of smokers received minimal or no evidence-based tobacco treatment. • Smokers who completed 0 or 1 treatment sessions were unlikely to achieve abstinence. • Completion of 2 calls doubled the likelihood of abstinence at 6 months. • Completion of ≥3 calls was associated with a near quadrupling of abstinence rates. • Improving engagement in evidence-based treatment protocols is a research priority.

PURPOSE: Little is known about the contribution of social support to physical activity (PA) behavior among American Indians (AIs). This community‐based participatory research study examined the prevalence of and associations between different types of PA social support and PA among AIs in rural Oklahoma. METHODS: Our tribal‐academic partnership surveyed AI adults (N = 513) living within the tribal jurisdictional areas of 2 tribal nations. We used the Physical Activity Social Support (PASS) scale to assess 3 types of PA social support and Poisson regression to investigate associations between PASS types and self‐reported PA behavior. FINDINGS: Over a third of participants perceived high levels of PA social support from friends (37%), family (35%), and overall (34%), yet only 29% reported regular PA (ie, 150 minutes or more weekly). Participants who exercised with pets/other were significantly more likely to achieve regular PA than those who exercised alone (PR 2.0, 95% CI: 1.4‐2.9). Although not significant, compared with those reporting no/low support, participants with high friend PASS (PR 1.2, 95%: CI 0.9‐1.6), medium family PASS (PR 1.2, 95% CI: 0.9‐1.7), and overall PASS (PR 1.1, 95% CI: 0.8‐1.6) were more likely to report regular PA. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of participants did not meet current recommendations for PA behavior, which underscores the ongoing need for PA effective interventions among AIs living in rural areas. Results suggest that exercising with pets/other could be an important factor for future intervention. Further research is needed to elucidate determinants of PA and test interventions to increase PA among AIs.

This cohort study evaluates the first 22 months of implementation of the Cherokee Nation Heath Services community-based program designed to eliminate hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection., Key Points Question Can a community-based tribal hepatitis C virus (HCV) elimination program be implemented successfully in a rural setting? Findings In this cohort study, first-time HCV screening coverage increased from 20.9% to 38.2% from 3 years before to 22 months into implementation of the Cherokee Nation Health Services HCV elimination program. Identification, treatment, and cure of newly identified current HCV infections increased. Meaning In this study, implementation of a community-based HCV elimination program was associated with an improved cascade of care; this information may serve other organizations planning to implement similar programs in large rural areas., Importance In 2019, hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection contributed to more deaths in the US than 60 other notifiable infectious diseases combined. The incidence of and mortality associated with HCV infection are highest among American Indian and Alaska Native individuals. Objective To evaluate the association of the Cherokee Nation (CN) HCV elimination program with each element of the cascade of care: HCV screening, linkage to care, treatment, and cure. Design, Setting, and Participants This cohort study used data from the CN Health Services (CNHS), which serves approximately 132 000 American Indian and Alaska Native individuals residing in the 14-county CN reservation in rural northeastern Oklahoma. Data from the first 22 months of implementation (November 1, 2015, to August 31, 2017) of an HCV elimination program were compared with those from the pre–elimination program period (October 1, 2012, to October 31, 2015). The analysis included American Indian and Alaska Native individuals aged 20 to 69 years who accessed care through the CNHS between October 1, 2012, and August 31, 2017. Cure data were recorded through April 15, 2018. Exposure The CN HCV elimination program. Main Outcomes and Measures The main outcomes were the proportions of the population screened for HCV, diagnosed with current HCV infection, linked to care, treated, and cured during the initial 22 months of the elimination program period and the pre–elimination program period. Data from electronic health records and an HCV treatment database were analyzed. The cumulative incidence of HCV infection in this population was estimated using bayesian analyses. Results Among the 74 039 eligible individuals accessing care during the elimination program period, the mean (SD) age was 36.0 (13.5) years and 55.9% were women. From the pre–elimination program period to the elimination program period, first-time HCV screening coverage increased from 20.9% to 38.2%, and identification of current HCV infection and treatment in newly screened individuals increased from a mean (SD) of 170 (40) per year to 244 (4) per year and a mean of 95 (133) per year to 215 (9) per year, respectively. During the implementation period, of the 793 individuals with current HCV infection accessing the CNHS, 664 were evaluated (83.7%), 394 (59.3%) initiated treatment, and 335 (85.0%) had documented cure. In less than 2 years, the 85% 3-year goal was reached for cure (85.0%), and the goal for linkage to care was nearly reached (83.7%), whereas screening (44.1%) and treatment initiation (59.3%) required more time and resources. Conclusions and Relevance This cohort study found that after 22 months of implementation, the CNHS community-based HCV elimination program was associated with an improved cascade of care. The facilitators and lessons learned in this program may be useful to other organizations planning similar programs.

Administrative health databases have been used to monitor trends in infective endocarditis hospitalization related to nonprescription injection drug use (IDU) using International Classification of Diseases (ICD) code algorithms. Because no ICD code for IDU exists, drug dependence and hepatitis C virus (HCV) have been used as surrogate measures for IDU, making misclassification error (ME) a threat to the accuracy of existing estimates. In a serial cross-sectional analysis, we compared the unadjusted and ME-adjusted prevalences of IDU among 70,899 unweighted endocarditis hospitalizations in the 2007–2016 National Inpatient Sample. The unadjusted prevalence of IDU was estimated with a drug algorithm, an HCV algorithm, and a combination algorithm (drug and HCV). Bayesian latent class models were used to estimate the median IDU prevalence and 95% Bayesian credible intervals and ICD algorithm sensitivity and specificity. Sex- and age group-stratified IDU prevalences were also estimated. Compared with the misclassification-adjusted prevalence, unadjusted estimates were lower using the drug algorithm and higher using the combination algorithm. The median ME-adjusted IDU prevalence increased from 9.7% (95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI): 6.3, 14.8) in 2008 to 32.5% (95% BCI: 26.5, 38.2) in 2016. Among persons aged 18–34 years, IDU prevalence was higher in females than in males. ME adjustment in ICD-based studies of injection-related endocarditis is recommended.

Food pantries serve populations with high rates of chronic disease and thus may be ideal settings for community-based health promotion programs. This study aimed to describe the readiness of food p...

In rural Native American communities, access to healthy foods is limited and diet-related disparities are significant. Tribally owned and operated convenience stores, small food stores that sell ready-to-eat foods and snacks primarily high in fat and sugar, serve as the primary and, in some areas, the only food stores. The Tribal Health and Resilience in Vulnerable Environments or “THRIVE” study, implemented between 2013 and 2018, is the first healthy retail intervention study implemented in tribally owned and operated convenience stores. THRIVE aims to increase vegetable and fruit intake among Native Americans living within the Chickasaw and Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. The study comprises three phases: 1) formative research assessing tribal community food environments and associated health outcomes; 2) intervention development to assess convenience stores and tailor healthy retail product, pricing, promotion, and placement strategies; and 3) intervention implementation and evaluation. In this paper we share the participatory research process employed by our tribal-university partnership to develop this healthy retail intervention within the unique contexts of tribal convenience stores. We summarize our methods to engage tribal leaders across diverse health, government, and commerce sectors and adapt and localize intervention strategies that test the ability of tribal nations to increase fruit and vegetable purchasing and consumption among tribal members. Study processes will assist in developing a literature base for policy and environmental strategies that intervene broadly to improve Native community food environments and eliminate diet-related disparities among Native Americans., Highlights • The process of designing and implementing the first healthy retail study in tribal convenience stores is described. • Community-based participatory research engaged diverse tribal leaders across health, government, and commerce sectors. • Findings will elucidate relationships between Native community food environments and disease.

New Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) meal patterns and best practices were implemented nationally in 2017 to address the shift in dietary need from ensuring essential nutrient consumption to chronic disease prevention. Young American Indian (AI) children have disproportionately higher risk of chronic disease. Some AI tribes operate early care and education (ECE) programs and have the opportunity to participate in the CACFP. The purpose of this paper is to describe a CACFP best-practice menu and training developed and implemented as part of the Food Resource Equity and Sustainability for Health (FRESH) study, a community-based participatory research (CBPR) intervention implemented within ECE programs in the Osage Nation of Oklahoma. Site managers and cooks from each of the nine ECE programs attended meetings and provided investigators with feedback that shaped the best-practice menu and training. Each site participated in a three-hour training in January 2018 to discuss the best-practice menu and ways to overcome implementation barriers. Goals of the menu aimed to increase intake of fruit and vegetables and whole grains and reduce pre-fried and processed foods without increasing cook burden. Training included application activities individually and in small and large groups. Though the project is still underway, lessons learned, including the need for technical assistance, improved communication between ECE program staff and food supply vendors, and infrastructure barriers (e.g., limited space, lack of supplies) that challenge workflow, have emerged. Efforts to improve menus in rural and low-income ECE programs must consider these issues in developing feasible intervention strategies. Keywords: Native American, Early childhood, Community-based participatory research, Nutrition, Preschool

Background The Tribal Health Resilience in Vulnerable Environments (THRIVE) study aimed to increase healthy food access in 2 rural American Indian communities. The intervention sought to increase fruit and vegetable availability, variety, and convenience through placement, promotion, and pricing of healthy foods and beverages in tribal convenience stores. Objective The aim of this study was to describe the development and implementation of the study process evaluation tool to assess intervention fidelity as part of this cluster-controlled trial. Methods Eight stores (2 intervention and 2 control stores per Nation) participated in the study, implemented from May 2016 to May 2017. A web-based survey tailored to store layouts and intervention components assessed how often intervention items were available, approximate quantity available, and whether placement of healthier food items and promotional materials were implemented as designed. After pilot testing the survey, tribal staff members implemented it to collect process evaluation data in the 8 stores during a period of 9–12 mo, assessing study implementation and potential changes in control stores. Results Promotional materials were available ≥75% of the time for most intervention locations. Fruit availability was similar in Nation A and Nation B intervention stores (79–100% compared with 70–100%), whereas fresh vegetable availability was higher in Nation B compared with Nation A (95–96% compared with 55–75%). Both control stores in Nation A and 1 control store in Nation B had moderate fruit and vegetable availability, ranging from 45% to 52%. No control stores in either Nation used intervention promotional materials. Conclusions Process evaluation data indicate that the study was implemented with moderate to high fidelity. The development and implementation of the tool can inform future healthy retail interventions that aim to improve rural and tribal food environments.

Background Native American (NA) children have a high prevalence of obesity contributing to lifespan health disparities. Dietary intake is important to promote healthy weight gain, growth, and development. In 2017, the USDA enforced changes to the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP). The CACFP provides reimbursement to qualifying Early Care and Education (ECE) programs that serve foods that uphold the program's nutrition requirements. Objective This study had the following 2 objectives: 1) Describe a novel index to evaluate ECE menus based on revised CACFP requirements (accounting for food substitutions) and best practices for 3- to-5-y-old children, and 2) analyze CACFP requirement and best practice compliance and nutrient changes in 9 NA ECE programs before and after enforcement of the revised CACFP requirements. Methods This longitudinal study is within a larger community-based participatory research study. Menus and meals served were evaluated for 1 wk at each of 9 programs before and after enforcement of the revised meal patterns. Nutrient analysis, CACFP requirement and best practice compliance, and substitution quality were evaluated. Differences were determined using a paired t-test or Wilcoxon matched test. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03251950. Results Total grams of fiber consumed increased (5.0 ± 1.2 compared with 5.9 ± 0.8 g, P = 0.04) and total grams of sugar consumed decreased (53.8 ± 12.6 compared with 48.4 ± 7.9 g, P = 0.024), although room for further improvement exists. Although total grams of fat remained unchanged, grams of saturated fat significantly increased (7.8 ± 1.4 compared with 10.5 ± 3.4, P = 0.041). Other nutrients remained unchanged. Overall CACFP requirement and best practice compliance scores improved, although this finding was not statistically significant. No significant changes in food quality associated with substitutions occurred. Conclusions This study provides early evidence to support the beneficial impact of the revised CACFP requirements. Understanding barriers to compliance within rural NA communities would be an important next step in enhancing the health of vulnerable children.

Objectives. To assess a healthy retail intervention in Tribal convenience stores in Oklahoma. Methods. We adapted healthy retail strategies to the context of 8 Tribally owned stores. We assessed individual- and store-level outcomes in a cluster-controlled intervention trial (April 2016–June 2017). We measured fruit and vegetable intake, store environment perceptions, and purchases before and after the intervention among a cohort of 1637 Native American shoppers. We used mixed-effects linear regression to estimate pre- to postintervention changes in and between groups. Results. We followed 74% of participants (n = 1204) 9 to 12 months. Intervention and control participants perceived healthier stores after intervention. Higher shopping frequency was related to purchases of fruits, vegetables, and healthy items. Conclusions. Intervention exposure was associated with healthy purchasing but not fruit and vegetable intake. Research is needed to further assess impacts of environmental interventions on intake. Public Health Implications. As the first healthy retail intervention in Tribally owned stores, our results contribute evidence for environmental and policy interventions to address obesity in Tribal Nations. Multicomponent interventions, led by Tribal leaders from diverse sectors, are needed to create healthy environments and sustainable improvements in Native American health.

Background International Classification of Diseases (ICD) code algorithms are routinely used to estimate the frequency of illicit injection drug use (IDU)-associated hospitalizations in administrative health datasets despite a lack of evidence regarding their validity. We aimed to measure the sensitivity and specificity of ICD code algorithms used to estimate the prevalence of current/recent IDU among infective endocarditis (IE) hospitalizations without a reference standard. Methods We reviewed medical records of 321 patients aged 18–64 years old from an urban academic hospital with an IE diagnosis between 2007 and 2017. Diagnostic tests for IDU included self-reported IDU in medical records; a drug use, abuse and dependence (UAD) ICD algorithm; a Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) ICD algorithm; and a combination drug UAD/HCV ICD algorithm. Sensitivity, specificity and the misclassification error (ME)-adjusted IDU prevalence were estimated using Bayesian latent class models. Results The combination algorithm had the highest sensitivity and lowest specificity. Sensitivity increased for the drug UAD algorithm in the ICD-10 period compared to the ICD-9 period. The ME-adjusted current/recent IDU prevalence estimated using the drug UAD and HCV algorithms was 23 % (95 % Bayesian credible interval: 16 %, 31 %). The unadjusted prevalence estimate from the drug UAD algorithm underestimated the ME-adjusted prevalence, while the combination algorithm overestimated it. Conclusion The validity of ICD code algorithms for IDU among IE hospitalizations is imperfect and differs between ICD-9 and ICD-10. Commonly used ICD-based algorithms could lead to substantially biased prevalence estimates in IDU-associated hospitalizations when using administrative health data.

Background The Oklahoma Communities of Excellence in Tobacco Control (CX) program was established in 2004. Thirty-three CX grants have been funded to implement comprehensive tobacco control programs in 50 counties and one tribal nation. Purpose To describe local tobacco policy gains within CX counties and short-term and intermediate outcomes such as Oklahoma Tobacco Helpline registration and awareness, quit attempts, and home smoking bans among adults. Methods A before-and-after study design examined outcomes within CX counties and among CX urban and rural counties. Comparisons were made with non-funded counties when possible. Local policy tracking databases were reviewed for the number of policies implemented from 2004 to 2013 in CX counties. Population-level tobacco indicators, using Helpline registration and 2004–2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data, quantified changes over time. Data were collected in 2003–2013 and analyzed in 2013. Results Eight hundred thirty-one legislated and voluntary policies were implemented in CX counties and high levels of Helpline registration were maintained. Statistically significant increases were observed in CX counties for the proportion of smokers making a quit attempt, Helpline awareness, and home smoking bans among smokers. These observed increases were greater in rural CX counties than urban. Non-CX counties only experienced a statistically significant increase in Helpline awareness. Conclusions Using community-based best practices in tobacco control while focusing on social norm change, CX counties experienced positive changes in smoking-related attitudes and behaviors. This study expands the evidence base for statewide tobacco control programming and underscores the value of community-based tobacco control programs.

The relationship between alcohol use prior to suicide was explored among American Indian decedents in New Mexico for the years 1980 through 1998. The suicide data were collected from New Mexico Vital Statistics and toxicology reports from the New Mexico Office of the Medical Investigator and matched on a case-by-case basis. Detailed analyses were undertaken for all cases of resident New Mexico Indians from the Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache cultures. Alcohol was detected in 69% of all suicides of American Indians with some variance by major tribal cultural groups (range = 62.1% to 84.4%). This is higher than in suicides among the overall New Mexico population (44.3%). The mean blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of the drinking Indian decedents at suicide was 0.198 (+/- SD of .088). Mean BACs were high for both males (0.199) and females (0.180) who had been drinking. Over 90% of the Indian decedents who had been drinking had BACs greater than the legal intoxication level of 0.08. The Navajo had the lowest percentage of cases that were alcohol involved, and their mean BAC was lower than the other two cultural groups. Alcohol use for completed suicides also varied somewhat by age, sex, method of suicide, and place of occurrence, but very little by whether the decedent was an on or off reservation resident. Analyses indicated that alcohol use prior to suicide was significantly more associated with male suicides than for females, and it was negatively correlated for those who died by overdose and also those using other drugs at suicide. Otherwise, alcohol use did not significantly differentiate American Indian suicides by age, use of firearms, hanging, use of other methods, or residence, for the presence of alcohol was a factor very commonly associated with all of these variables. Heavy alcohol consumption is, therefore, an important factor in over two thirds of all completed suicides among the Indians of New Mexico.

Background. The current study describes concurrent use of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco (CiST) among males and females and evaluates factors associated with CiST use.Methods. Cross-sectional data were drawn from the 2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). Weighted stratified analyses were performed to find associations between CiST use and sociodemographic factors by gender. CiST users were compared to three different tobacco use groups: nonusers, exclusive smokers, and exclusive ST users.Results. Younger age and heavy alcohol consumption were consistently associated with increased odds of CiST use among both males and females, and regardless of comparison group. Among males, education was inversely related to CiST use, and these findings were consistent in all three comparisons. Among women, those unable to work or out of work were more likely to be CiST users, which was consistent across comparisons. American Indian females had higher odds of CiST use than White females when nontobacco users or smokers were the comparison group.Conclusion. This study identified sociodemographic characteristics associated with CiST use, and differences in these associations among women and men. Additionally, this study highlights the need to carefully consider what comparison groups should be used to examine factors associated with CiST use.

Hippocampal and cortical EEG recordings in rats were used to monitor the in vivo modulation by lithium of responses to agonists for 5HT2/5HT1c serotonergic (DOI) and cholinergic (pilocarpine) receptors and the influence of inositol administration. Administration of DOI (8 mg/kg) or pilocarpine (30 mg/kg) to rats pretreated with lithium acutely (3 mmol/kg) or chronically (dietary, 4 weeks) resulted in seizures, whereas these doses did not cause seizures without lithium pretreatment. This indicated that lithium most likely affects a signal transduction process common to both systems, which is the phophoinositide second messenger system. To examine the potential influence of altered inositol levels on these responses, we tested the effects of infusions (10 mg, i.c.v.) of myo-inositol, a precursor of phosphoinositide synthesis, and of epi-inositol, an isomer not used for phosphoinositede synthesis. Administration of myo-inositol (10 mg) slightly reduced the incidence of seizures induced by acute lithium plus DOI but almost completely blocked seizures induced by acute lithium plus pilocarpine. This was surprising since seizures induced by acute lithium plus DOI were less severe than those after acute lithium plus pilocarpine, but myo-inositol was more effective in blocking the latter. Epi-inositol also blocked seizures under both conditions but it was less effective than myo-inositol after treatment with acute lithium plus pilocarpine. the latencies to seizures and/or severity of seizures were potentiated more by chronic than acute lithoum pretreatment with both DOI and pilocarpine, but attenuation by myo-inositol was less with each agonist after chronic lithium compared with acute lithium treatment. Peripheral administration of a high dose of myo-inositol blocked seizures induced by acute lithium plus pilocarpine, but the inositol treatment itself was toxic and caused seizures prior to pilocarpine administration, so the mechanism of action cannot simply be attributed to increased brain inositol levels. These results demonstrate that lithium modulates the in vivo responses to DOI and pilocarpine, most probably through an effect on the phosphoinositide signal transduction system. They also show that centrally administered myo-inositol modifies responses to these agents, but the effectiveness of epi-inositol and other results have leave unclear the mechanistic basis of its actions.

Many philosophers have asserted that evolutionary theory is unfalsifiable. In this paper I refute these assertions by detailing some falsifiable predictions of the theory and the evidence used to test them. I then analyze both these predictions and evidence cited to support assertions of unfalsifiability in order to show both what type of predictions are possible and why it has been so difficult to spot them. The conclusion is that the apparent logical peculiarity of evolutionary theory is not a property of evolutionary theory; it is a property of our human-sized perspective on evolutionary theory.

The use of cautionary tales to inculcate appropriate professional moral standards into professionals in various fields is described, and application to computer science professionals is suggested. The wider moral aspects of the computer's impact on society are then discussed.Because the computer gives us fundamentally new power, we are faced with decisions for which our experiences may give little guidance. The danger of applying old standards to a fundamentally new situation is well illustrated by the law, passed soon after the production of the first automobiles, which required automobiles traveling the roads to be preceded by a man on foot carrying a red flag. This law reduced danger, but robbed the auto of its intrinsic power.Similarly we could stop one type of computer crime by outlawing electronic fund transfer, or prevent a potentially dangerous accumulation of governmental power by outlawing the interconnection of computers storing different sets of information about individuals, or prevent robots from taking workers' jobs by outlawing robotization. It is possible to respond to every danger by cutting off the power that leads to that danger. But it is more productive to respond by analyzing the particular situation in order to determine whether our fundamental values are better served by changing our expectations or rules than by denying ourselves the use of the power. Such an analysis requires some understanding both of the problems which may be caused in our society by the computer and of the nature of our values.This paper begins with some computerization problems that are essentially problems of inculcating the proper professional morals into computer professionals (and into those amateurs who are deeply involved with computers). We point out that other professions inculcate professional moral standards by the use of cautionary tales, and we indicate how the computer profession can develop the cautionary tales it needs. We then turn to the problems to the computer's impact on society, discussing some of the issues that must be addressed if the negative impacts of computerization are to be minimized.

The philosophical literature is heavy with discussions of the logical structure of various proposed schema of functional explanation (most of which are modifications of Hempel's schema [7]) but it is very light on detailed analysis of the way in which these schema actually work or the way in which they apply to the instances in which functional explanations are used by scientists. These papers use statements by scientists ascribing particular functions to particular traits, along with intuitions about the way in which ‘function’ is used in ordinary language, to ascertain the referents of the term and thus to determine the class of uses against which any schema should be tested; but such examples only show whether the schema under discussion refer to the same things as those the scientists’ refer to; they do not show whether the logical structure of the schema really captures the logical structure underlying the scientists’ use.