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Texture and flavor are the basis of our eating experience. Texture of food, studied in food rheology, only mimics deformation of food during handling and/or at early stages of the eating process resulting in an incomplete or inaccurate elucidation of food texture and eventually oral perception of texture ( Chen and Stokes, 2012 ). Rheological testing mimics initial deformation, whereas, on the other hand, tribological testing mimics in-mouth food manipulations by lubricated interacting surfaces in relative motion ( van Aken, 2010 ). Therefore, the oral perception of food, texture, and mouthfeel corresponding to food rheological and tribological properties can clearly be defined by a combination of bulk and surface properties (lubricated thin-film properties) ( Malone et al., 2003 , Stokes, 2012 ). To be in the perspective of this book's aim, we shall look onto food application. The main objective of this chapter is to use the fundamentals of rheology and soft-contact tribology to gain an understanding of food characterization, either independently or simultaneously. Note that we will not be diving deep into technical content of rheology and tribology but would rather have a holistic view on the topic along with its application in the food industry.

This review summarised the compositional, thermal, and rheological properties and food applications of chestnut (Castanea spp.) flour systems. The compositional, structural, and physicochemical properties of chestnut starch, which is a major determinant for product quality, were also reviewed. Future research directions on how to better utilise chestnut flour and starch for food product developments were suggested. Chestnuts are important food items for many people around the world. The world production of chestnuts has kept increasing during the last decade. There has been growing interest to utilise chestnut flour for various food applications (e.g. gluten-free food products). The major component of chestnut is starch which amounts to over 50% of the dry weight of the fruit. Chestnut starch may as well have potential for food and non-food applications. Overall, this review provides a scientific basis to develop chestnuts as sustainable and cash crops.

Introduction: Meat quality has turned into a noteworthy worry for the meat division of the poultry business the rise and expanded rate of turkey and oven bosom meat with pale, delicate and oxidative (PSE) attributes similar to the condition in pork has turned out to be one of the significant issues influencing the poultry business today the unusual pale shading and over the top exudates that describes this meat is unsatisfactory to purchasers and antagonistically influences showcase potential moreover, the utilization of this sort of meat in the assembling of additionally handled items as often as possible outcomes in poor preparing yields and quality. What’s more, this article concentrated on evaluating the elements influencing the timeframe of realistic usability of crisp meat. Literature review: Meat quality is a term used to depict the general meat attributes including its physical, synthetic, morphological, biochemical, microbial, tangible, mechanical, sterile, wholesome, culinary properties Appearance, surface, deliciousness, wateriness, solidness, delicacy, scent, and flavor are among the most essential and discernible meat includes that impact the underlying and last quality judgment by buyers when obtaining a meat item besides, quantifiable properties of meat, for example, water holding limit, shear constrain, trickle misfortune, cook misfortune, pH, timeframe of realistic usability. Conclusion: Meat quality has turned into a noteworthy worry for the meat division of the poultry business the development and expanded the frequency of turkey and oven bosom meat with pale, delicate and oxidative (PSE) attributes comparable to the condition.

Extrusion-based food printing unlike from food extrusion cooking, is a digitally-controlled extrusion process. The aim is to build up complex 3D food products layer by layer. Currently, it is one of the innovative method in the area of Food printing. The food printing can provide key solutions for digitalized food design as well as targeted nutrition control as per different needs and application. This mini review articles provides the glimpses of 3D Food printing specifically using Extrusion and also provides key information about the factors and the parameters associated with the extrusion and printing processes.

Breastfeeding initiation has been increasing to meet Healthy People 2020 goals. As breastfeeding initiation has increased, milk expression has increased. Consequently, storage of human milk has become more common. While it is reported anecdotally, there is no data available on the prevalence of infants refusing expressed, stored human milk. To fill this knowledge gap, a survey of lactating women indicates 25% of infants offered expressed, stored human milk refused to consume it. Almost one-third of respondents (29%) reported that the stored milk had an “odd” color. For the women reporting the refusal, 95% of those described an “off” smell to the milk with 13% reporting a bad taste. Women discarded the “off” milk when infants refused it. The women often discarded the remaining stored milk, with one woman reporting discarding almost 9 gallons of expressed, stored milk. Additional study is needed to understand how to prevent discarding of human milk.

Recently there is an increased attention among policy and research practitioners on the link between school feeding programs (SFP) and agricultural development. Through purchases and procurement of locally produced foods, SFP are thought to enhance the domestic production and demand for food and stimulate local agricultural economy. Quality protein maize (QPM) varieties, which are being disseminated in Ethiopia by CIMMYT, are superior to conventional maize (CM) varieties in their protein quality. However, for QPM to be adopted in SFP, sensory acceptance by the end-users should be assessed, specifically when the targets beneficiaries are young children. Furthermore, the potential challenges and opportunities for its supply to SFPs should be analysed by involving pertinent stakeholders involved in maize value chain. Thus, the objective of this study is to assess sensory evaluation of QPM among 95 adolescent girls in two primary schools in Ethiopia on a popular local porridge-like product Kinchie through central location testing, and also assess potential challenges and opportunities in QPM production and distribution through stakeholders’ consultation. Results of sensory evaluation showed that Kinchie made from QPM varieties, both yellow QPM (BHPQY 545) and white QPM (AMHP 760Q), were much appreciated for aroma, taste and overall appreciations. Nevertheless, among QPM varieties, the students liked the Kinchie made from yellow QPM (BHQPY 545) more than Kinchie made from a white colored QPM (AMH 760Q) in all sensory attributes except appearance. The result also showed that the effect of order of food presentation had a significant and positive effect only for aroma (P< .05). Stockholder consultation result also showed that local maize grain producers and traders and other institutions involved in maize value chain were enthusiastic to engage in QPM production and supply through contract farming. In conclusion, consumer acceptance is unlikely to impede uptake and impact of QPM use in the place of CM varieties in SFPs.

There is increasing interest in the food industry in the development of new or improved commercially available food products. New methods to test the characteristics of raw materials and products are necessary. The viscosity (consistency or texture) of foods is an important rheological variable during processing because it influences the equipment design necessary for food production. Additionally, viscosity determines functionality and consumer acceptance of foods. This review focuses on extensional viscosity characterization as a tool to aim the development of novel and improved food products and processes. Extensional deformation is involved in processes as extrusion, film blowing, and fiber spinning, but it is also important in determining and understanding interactions among food components (e.g., proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids) in food products (e.g., bread, pasta, syrups, snacks, and salad dressings).

Food undergoes a series of transformations during oral processing. During this dynamic process, the continuous interactions between oral surfaces and foods produce multiple sensations that are processed and converted by the brain into sensory perception. Food rheology, food–saliva interactions, interfacial properties and individual physiology affect food oral manipulation and, consequently, the way food is perceived and appreciated. Getting a better understanding of the complex process from food ingestion until swallowing is of great interest to academia and industry, since it can help to define strategies to design products that meet the need of specific consumer groups. Although a huge progress has been made in oral processing research, the detailed mechanisms involved in food oral management still need to be revealed.

Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) has emerged as a synergic hybrid intelligent system. It combines the human-like reasoning style of fuzzy logic system (FLS) with the learning and computational capabilities of artificial neural networks (ANNs). ANFIS has several applications related to food processing and technology. The first part of this review provides a brief overview and discussion of ANFIS including: the general structure and topology, computational considerations, model development and testing. In the second part, two detailed examples are explained to demonstrate the capabilities of ANFIS in comparison with other modeling methods, followed by a brief but comprehensive discussion of ANFIS applications in different food processing and technology areas. The applications are divided into five main categories: food drying, prediction of food properties, microbial growth and thermal process modeling, applications in food quality control and food rheology. In all applications, the performance of ANFIS is compared to other methods such as ANNs, FLS and multiple regressions when available. It is concluded that, in most applications, ANFIS outperforms other modeling tools such as ANNs, FIS or multiple linear regression. Finally, some application guidelines, advantages and disadvantages of ANFIS are discussed.

The knowledge of fluid food rheological properties plays an important role in process engineering. Unfortunately, characterization of non-Newtonian fluids requires a notable effort in terms of time and resources. As a consequence, the aim of this research was to set up an method, based on the combination of the inversion of a simple finite element model and a laboratory measurement, carried on with a simplified tool. Although the method has a more general applicability, for illustrative purpose, it is here mainly shown with reference to power-law rheological model and two different materials (tara gum mixture and dough of water and flour). To measure the rheological parameters, the square of distance between simulated and experimental data was considered as an objective function, and some well-known optimization algorithms were tested. In order to verify the feasibility of the method, the experimental rheological characterization of the considered materials were carried out using a rotational rheometer. The calculated rheological parameter values were comparable with those obtained by traditional procedure (mean percentage error 6.47 ± 5.57). The most efficient optimization algorithm, in terms of iterations number, computational speed and minimum of the objective function, was the Levenberg–Marquardt one, but even other tested algorithms drove to similar final results (maximum difference of 18% between the optimized k and n values). The results demonstrated also that the precision of the calculated rheological parameters does not depend on the initial parameter values. In the light of the obtained results, the method could represent a feasible technique and well suited for various rheological models and viscosity range of food materials. Moreover, the method could be susceptible to some development by an industrial point of view being possible to hypothesize the development of an integrated automatic instrument, equipped with finite element software, useful both for laboratory and industrial purposes.

This review was conducted to investigate on Aflatoxin: occurrence, prevention, and gaps in both food and feed safety. Risk of aflatoxin contamination of commodities in the world, especially in Africa is increasing. Maize and grounds are the two crops mainly play an important role in the diets. The infection of these crops by aflatoxicogenic fungi and hence contamination with aflatoxin is generally higher. Consequently, the exposure of human and animals to this toxin is higher and cause huge health and economic problems. AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG1, AFM1 and AFM2 are the most common type of aflatoxin. Aflatoxin contamination of agricultural commodities poses considerable risk to human and livestock health and economic losses. Exposure of human to aflatoxin leads to several health-related condition including acute and chronic aflatoxicosis, immune suppression, liver cancer, liver cirrhosis, stunted growth in children and many others. Aflatoxins are detected from several crops especially from maize and groundnut. Several researches show that AFB1 is the most common aflatoxin in the world from most commodities at a very much higher level. AFM1 was also detected greater than the standard from milk and milk products. This indicates that a lot of developing countries people are at danger of aflatoxin contamination. Lack of awareness on aflatoxin contamination increases the risk of damage to human and animals. High economic losses due to aflatoxin occur in the country crops and animals.

Rheology is a branch of physics which signifies the flow or deformation of fluids on application of stress. Rheological features have imperative implications in diverse applications across all industries concerning food products, pharmaceutical products, polymer science, bio-printing, paints, textiles, plastics, metals, geology, concrete material, etc. In pharmaceutical products, rheology measurements govern the formulation, process, and material control factors such as blending, mixing, draining, pouring, spraying, injecting, spreading, dose uniformity, physical stability, etc. These features are of utmost importance as they directly influence the quality and stability of the pharmaceutical product. Numerous mathematical explanations have been defined by scientists to describe the relationship between viscosity of matter and other parameters. Rheology modifiers are typically incorporated in these systems to offer the anticipated flow features. This chapter describes the basis and theoretical consideration of this along with an overview of variables affecting the rheological properties of the formulations quoting various research-based case studies. This chapter also provides an overview on viscometers and rheometers, which are an integral part of rheology, as they offer measurements of simple flow to characterization of deformation behavior. Finally, the chapter also provides understanding on the applications of rheology, i.e., its contribution to the material science, geophysics, physiology, food rheology, concrete rheology, filled polymer rheology, pharmaceuticals, and an overview of dilation rheology as medical diagnostics.

This is a quote from Caldwell B. Esselstyn, in the recently released documentary: “Eating You Alive”. Boy is Dr. Esselstyn correct. In our practice, we see people killing themselves with ‘food’ every day. From the grocery store to the drive through, people are literally lining up to commit slow and painful suicide. The obvious ones are in line at fast food drive troughs where the ‘food’ should hardly even be considered as a food; but more as a toxic poison. Then there are the grocery store checkout lines. People line up with carts full of cholesterol, fats, sugar and salt. They could probably save money by just buying sacks of sugar, lard and pesticides and guzzle them down. Probably won’t kill them any sooner and the ‘food’ they are eating.

This may sound strange to many but have you ever wondered how the fast food industry, pharmaceutical and healthcare industry may be working together to create markets that feed upon each other? Few will argue that most ‘fast food’ places do not serve the most healthy or nutritious fare. The high fat, high salt and high sugar content of most fast food and processed/packaged food in general, is viewed as not the healthiest things you can eat. Yet, most people constantly indulge in them, while ignoring their expanding waste lines, ever rising blood pressure and climbing glycemic blood glucose. Many to most Americans are on some form of medication to treat health conditions typically brought on by lifestyle choices. Choosing fast food over a meal prepared at home is one of those lifestyle choices. Picking up the phone and ordering pizza instead of preparing a more nutritious and balanced meal at home is all too often the case; especially with younger single people. It’s just easier!

I learned about food texture by reading many articles in the Journal of Texture Studies (JTS) and Prof. Bourne's textbook Food Texture and Viscosity, Concept and Measurement. I present here his great contributions as both the Editor-in-Chief of JTS and as the author of a superior textbook in the cultivation of future food texture researchers. Prof. Bourne has provided significant guidance to those in the industry using his textbook to suggest appropriate approaches to measure, evaluate, and alter the textures of agro-products and processed foods. I began my career in food rheology, learned the physiological techniques necessary for measuring mastication, and developed relationships with good sensory scientists along the way. I am happy to offer advice to agriculture and food scientists, researchers, and engineers in the food industry regarding food texture. I would like to be a follower of Prof. Bourne and support young food texture scientists in the 21st century. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Food texture studies conducted during the last century are beginning to evolve. Based on previous publications in the Journal of Texture Studies, I believe that several areas can be further examined in this century. First, methods to evaluate the textures of heterogeneous materials, such as fruits and vegetables, require improvements. Second, the monitoring of rapid changes in food texture during oral processing should be considered during the design of food products. Third, a new instrumental method that mimics the movement and breakdown of soft foods by the tongue is being developed. The optimization of food processing to reduce the loss of agro-products and production of high-quality foods both require more attention according to the Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015.

The focus of food rheology has been gradually moved toward oscillatory and creep measurements from the conventional steady flow measurement. Recent evolution of tribology synchronized the measurement of food texture with the dynamic of oral processing and opened a new area of rheological study. Rheological and tribological attributes at different oral processing phases have been established to strongly impact texture perception. Several new other areas of rheological measurements and concepts including large amplitude oscillatory shear (LAOS), extensional rheology, Fourier transformation rheometry, time–temperature superposition principles (TTSP), gel rheology have been introduced, and a great impact of these measurements is anticipated in the area of product development and quality control of food products.

In the food industry, development of in vitro instrumental evaluation system has been demanded for objective assessment of food textural acceptability for specific consumer groups. The instrumental evaluation system which the author’s research team developed is consisted of an artificial tongue fabricated from a soft deformable elastomer and a hard non-deformable metal platen on a conventional uniaxial compression apparatus to mimic human tongue–palate compression. When apparent Young’s modulus of artificial tongue is ca. 55 kPa and a crosshead speed is 10 mm/s, fracture profile of agar gels (as a test food) relates to human oral strategy for size reduction; gel samples which fracture on the evaluation system are processed by tongue–palate compression, whereas gel samples which do not fracture on the evaluation system are processed by mastication. Validation of the evaluation system using gellan gum gels shows the necessity of modification of the instrumental operation condition in some cases, and this can relate to the change in the physiology of tongue–palate compression by food texture.

Diet quality may be influenced by social determinants and by weight status. The cross-sectional study investigated whether diet quality as assessed by Healthy-Eating Index-2010 differs by social determinants (gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status, parent’s level of education, geographical area of residence and school type) and by weight status among children in Mauritius. A convenient sample of 212 participants was involved in the study from 6 different schools. Dietary assessment was done via a single 24HR dietary recall and diet quality was assessed by using the HEI-2010. BMI was calculated using anthropometric measurements. The overall mean HEI score was 68.6 and the majority of children were found to be undernourished though having a normal weight. Higher scores for Dairy and Empty calories were reported and lower score for Total Fruit. Geographical area of residence was the only social determinant found to affect diet quality (p=0.027) with rural residents having higher mean HEI score as compared to urban residents as per the results of an Independent Sample t-test. Weight status was not affected by any social determinants. Obese children had significantly lower HEI score than normal weight children (p=0.001). Unhealthy eating habits are highly prevalent among Mauritian children and their overall diet needs improvement.

The acceptance of processed or minimally processed food products by consumers is highly dependent on several quality and nutritional attributes as well as their organoleptic characteristics. Shelf-life is an additional factor that influences consumer behavior. Moreover, consumers now demand high-value food products that are healthier and have high nutritional value. The quality, nutrition level, and perception of processed foods is governed, among other attributes, by the structure of the dried product. Hence, examination of the structure of dried foods is of significant importance. Dehydration methods have a great impact on the structural properties of most food products. The effect of various dehydration methods on shrinkage and porosity of dried foods is discussed in this article following a comprehensive review of the available literature. Novel drying processes and combination of various conventional drying methods are discussed with regard to their expected impact on food structure. Finally, aspects...

Background: Optimal feeding practices for children aged below 24 months are important for the growth and Development and also for reducing childhood mortality and morbidity for this critical group. Social cultural beliefs and practices dictate behavior and practices of the people hence they influence feeding practices. Objective: The purpose of this study was to find out how the socio-cultural beliefs and practices influence the feeding practices for children aged below 24 months in Lubao sub location in Kakamega County. Methods: This study was a cross-section study conducted between from January to March, 2016 in the rural western region amongst primary care givers of children aged below 2 years. Random sampling technique was utilized to select the target sample and from a target population of 1000, a sample of 166 was calculated. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data on socio-cultural beliefs influencing the feeding practices. Findings: The level of education and knowledge of forbidden foods had a positive correlation (rho-0.328) at (p>0.01). Approximately, 20(20%) reported foods recommended for the infants and young children while 80(80%) reported no specific foods recommended. Reasons associated with the recommended foods were; 4(20%) culture, 9(45%) lack of knowledge, 7(35%) due to other reasons. Conclusion: Cultural beliefs and taboos i.e. food taboos/restriction, beliefs associated with certain foods, have a strong influence on infant feeding and undermines optimal infant feeding practices; breastfeeding and complementary feeding.

Anaphylaxis is an acute and potentially fatal allergic reaction which occurs in people with genetic susceptibility and following exposure to allergen substance through contact, inhalational or oral routes. Anaphylaxis to food stuff is the leading known factors for incidence the allergic reaction in children who are treated in emergency department. Among them wheat as an important source of food is the most common cause for incidence of anaphylaxis in children. In this report, an infant with the age of 6 months old who has developed to symptoms of anaphylaxis and experienced two episode of anaphylaxis from 5 months of age following ingestion of the formula contain wheat was introduced. Skin Prick Test demonstrated that the patient had severe sensitivity to wheat and casein, and mild sensitivity to peanut and fish. There was not any history of asthma and eczema in the patient and his/her family. Patient did not receive medication therapy. In addition, with regard to lack of vaccine for prevention to disease, the cereals-free and wheat-free diets only were considered for patient.

Trigonella foenum-graecum seeds and Gymnema sylvestre leaves are health promoting food ingredients which are particularly beneficial for individuals suffering from diabetes mellitus. In order to promote their incorporation in diet, vegetable cereal mix was formulated as a dried food product with extended shelf life, which could be easily reconstituted for consumption. Response surface methodology and central composite design were used in optimization of vegetable cereal mix. The objective was to devise the best combination of process variables and obtain optimal recipe having minimum fat, maximum fiber, in-range carbohydrate and maximum overall acceptability. Three quantitative controllable factors were selected for the experimental design: amount of Trigonella foenum-graecum, soaking time of Trigonella foenum-graecum and amount of Gymnema sylvestre as process parameters. Response variables were fat, fiber, carbohydrate and overall acceptability. Regression models and response surface plots were generated and adequacy was tested with regression coefficients and the lack of fit tests. Sensory, physico-chemical and microbiological analysis were undertaken for optimized recipe. The optimum recipe had 8.0 g Trigonella foenum-graecum with 8.0 hours soaking time and 5.0 g Gymnema sylvestre with 0.48 g fat, 3.01 g crude fiber, 29.84 g carbohydrate and 89.17 overall acceptability score. Results indicated that optimized product obtained good scores for all sensory attributes and had good shelf life. This vegetable cereal mix was nutritionally adequate and had desirable sensory quality.

Objective: The current study determined the nutritional status and dietary intake of older adults living at home and nursing homes (NH) in Dongying district of the city of Dongying. Methods: Nutritional status and dietary intake of older adults living at home and NH were analyzed using 24h recalls questionnaires, and evaluated base on the recommended intake and DRIs from dietary guidelines for Chinese older adults. Comparisons between two groups were also measured. Results: The intake of grains and yams, vegetables, meat, eggs, and legumes in older adults living at home, and the intake of grains and yams and eggs in older adults living at NH meet the recommended intake for Chinese older adults. The intake of carbohydrate, vitamin B3, selenium, and potassium in older adults living at home, and the intake of carbohydrate in older adults living at NH meet the corresponding DRIs. Older adults living at home had higher intake of vegetables, meat, seafood, legumes, macronutrients, vitamin B, C, E, calcium, iron, zinc, potassium, and lower intake of sodium compared to older adults living at NH. Conclusions: Overall, older adults living at home had better food and nutrient intake compared to older adults living at NH. The intake of many food and nutrients in older adults with both living patterns did not meet recommended intake levels. Improvement in the nutritional status of older adults is needed to guarantee successful aging among Chinese populations.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes obesity as a global epidemic of public health concerns. Diet has a role on the incidence of obesity, consequently the WHO suggests among other strategies, to reduce the caloric intake arising from free sugars to below 10% of the total daily caloric intake. Sugar-reduction is therefore of interest to the food industry, in particular to markets that are traditionally based on the use of sugar, such as confectionery and market segments that use confectionery technology. Sugar alcohols provide solutions in terms of sweetness, functionality, and bulk at reduced calories, while fibers can provide additional nutraceutical solutions for further claims.

Food is a group of basic nutrients element which consists of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, salts, vitamins, fiber and enzymes, in addition to water. Most of these elements present in groups complement each other. Complementarity of these elements forms proper food. Food preservation goes back to the last Ice Age, about 15,000BC, when humans discovered for the first time a way of preserving food by smoking it. The evidence for this lies in the caves at Les Eyzies in the Dordogne in France, where this way of life is well portrayed in carvings, engravings and paintings.

Because lipids are key ingredients for organoleptic properties of food like taste, flavor and texture, formulating services in the food industries have a key role to play in the development of such kinds of functional foods. Among various strategies used to decrease total lipid incorporation in modern processed food without destroying its organoleptic properties, are incorporating foam or emulsions into the recipes, instead of continuous oil or solid fat. In order to maintain the stability of emulsions in food and/or during food processing, industries have important molecules in their toolbox: emulsifiers, also called food grade surfactants for “surface active agents”. Empirically, egg yolks containing lecithin and phospholipids were first used in traditional recipes for their emulsification properties before the

There has been recent interest in the use of high frequency ultrasound, also referred to as ‘megasonics’, to initiate separation of immiscible particulates from fluids. This technology shows great promise in the area of food engineering, as it is capable of greatly enhancing the rate at which food nutrients can be separated from mixtures. Furthermore, the application of megasonics results in minimal deterioration of product quality such as physical appearance and nutritional value. There has been recent success in the commercialization of the technology, notably in the application of palm oil milling. Significant improvements to product recovery including a faster separation and yield enhancement not only provide better profitability, but also phytonutrient retention. This mini-review provides an overview of the important concepts pertaining to the technology. The potential effects resulting from application of ultrasonics at megasonic frequencies to selected foods for nutrient separation and retention are highlighted.

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether a protein-rich beverage leads to a differential response in appetite, satiety and subsequent energy intake compared with an energy- and macronutrient-matched solid version in young people. A total of fifteen adolescents (eight girls and seven boys; age 14 (sem 1) years, BMI percentile 79 (sem 4) %) randomly completed two testing days that included protein-rich (PR) breakfast meals (38 % of energy as protein, 48 (sem 2) g/meal) provided as a solid (S) or beverage (B). Breakfast was 24 % of estimated daily energy needs (2146 (sem 96) kJ/meal). Perceived appetite and satiety responses were collected over 5 h followed by an ad libitum lunch buffet. The PR-S meal led to greater reductions in 4 h postprandial appetite ( − 6221 (sem 1171) mm × 240 min) v. the PR-B meal ( − 3570 (sem 957) mm × 240 min; P v. the PR-B meal (all comparisons, P v. PR-B meals. The PR-S meal led to approximately 480 kJ less energy consumed at the ad libitum lunch buffet (1418 (sem 222) kJ) v. the PR-B meal (1900 (sem 326) kJ; P v. a solid meal.

Food rheology focuses on the flow properties of individual food components, which might already exhibit a complex rheological response function, the flow of a composite food matrix, and the influence of processing on the food structure and its properties. For processed food the composition and the addition of ingredients to obtain a certain food quality and product performance requires profound rheological understanding of individual ingredients their relation to food processing, and their final perception.