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A previously unrecognized specimen ofProtoichthyosaurus prostaxalis, LEICT G142.1991, from the Lower Jurassic of Barrow-upon-Soar, Leicestershire, UK, includes an almost complete three-dimensional skull that provides new information on the configuration of the skull roof. The position of the pineal foramen (between the frontals and the parietals) and an elongated internasal foramen in a depression along the midline of the nasals are clearly shown. The maxilla makes up a significant portion of the external naris ventral margin, an unusual character for the genus/species. This reflects intraspecific variation, not evidence of a new taxon. The specimen enables comparisons of skull roof morphology withIchthyosaurusandStenopterygius, two common Early Jurassic taxa. In particular, the position of the pineal foramen is similar toStenopterygius, but distinguishesProtoichthyosaurusfromIchthyosaurus. The lack of a frontal–prefrontal contact and the posteriorly wide nasals distinguishesProtoichthyosaurusfromStenopterygius. We also present a revised reconstruction of the skull roof morphology ofIchthyosaurus. Three additional specimens ofProtoichthyosaurusare referred to the genus: another partial skull, referred toP. prostaxalis, and two isolated forefins, identified by their unique morphology.

The abundance of specimens ofIchthyosaurusprovides an opportunity to assess morphological variation without the limits of a small sample size. This research evaluates the variation and taxonomic utility of hindfin morphology. Two seemingly distinct morphotypes of the mesopodium occur in the genus. Morphotype 1 has three elements in the third row: metatarsal two, distal tarsal three and distal tarsal four. This is the common morphology inIchthyosaurus breviceps,I. conybeariandI. somersetensis. Morphotype 2 has four elements in the third row, owing to a bifurcation. This morphotype occurs in at least some specimens of each species, but it has several variations distinguished by the extent of contact of elements in the third row with the astragalus. Two specimens display a different morphotype in each fin, suggesting that the difference reflects individual variation. InIchthyosaurus, the hindfin is taxonomically useful at the genus level, but species cannot be identified unequivocally from a well-preserved hindfin, although certain morphologies are more common in certain species than others. The large sample size filled in morphological gaps between what initially appeared to be taxonomically distinct characters. The full picture of variation would have been obscured with a small sample size. Furthermore, we have found several unusual morphologies which, in isolation, could have been mistaken for new taxa. Thus, one must be cautious when describing new species or genera on the basis of limited material, such as isolated fins and fragmentary specimens.

An incomplete forefin in the collections of the National Museum of Wales, Cardiff, is herein assigned to the rare leptonectid species, Leptonectes solei, known only from the west Dorset coast. It is only the third specimen of the species and is smaller than both the holotype and referred specimen. The new specimen is from the Lower Jurassic (lower Pliensbachian, Charmouth Mudstone Formation, Tragophylloceras ibex Ammonite Zone, Acanthopleuroceras valdani Ammonite Subzone) of Seatown, Dorset, UK. It confirms that all three species of Leptonectes were present in the Pliensbachian and expands the known diversity of ichthyosaurs for that time period. We show that isolated forefins of Leptonectes can be assigned to a species with a high degree of confidence.

All specimens of Ichthyosaurus from the Lower Jurassic of Somerset were previously identified as I. communis, an abundant and extremely variable species. Here, two new species of Ichthyosaurus are recognized from multiple specimens. The species are assigned to Ichthyosaurus on the basis of the humerus, pectoral girdle and forefin morphologies. I. larkini sp. nov. is distinguished by a broad jugal with a blunt anterior end that extends as far forward as the middle of the external naris, separating the maxilla and lacrimal; and a unique combination of other features. I. somersetensis sp. nov. is distinguished by a jugal with a nearly straight dorsal ramus that lacks a right-angle dorsal bend; a high, narrow, crescentic postorbital that forms almost all of the posterior margin of the orbit and separates the jugal dorsal ramus from the orbit; and an ilium that is wide relative to its length, more oblong than rib-like. The identifications are supported by a phylogenetic analysis which finds the new species more closely related to each other than to other species of the genus. We also identify a squamosal in both species, which confirms that it is present in the genus. This study suggests that hindfin morphology has some taxonomic utility, at least within the genus. The new species increases the diversity of Ichthyosaurus to six species, three of which are found in the Hettangian of Somerset.

The validity of the parvipelvian ichthyosaur genus Protoichthyosaurus was evaluated by examining the type material and recently recognized specimens. Protoichthyosaurus has a wide forefin with at least five primary digits, an anterior digital bifurcation in the forefin, a humerus that is nearly equal in width distally and proximally, and a coracoid with welldeveloped anterior and posterior notches, features it shares with the more common genus Ichthyosaurus. Previously, Protoichthyosaurus was synonymized with Ichthyosaurus because of an incomplete understanding of forefin variation in the latter taxon. However, Protoichthyosaurus has several features in the forefin that distinguishes it from Ichthyosaurus, including the presence of three elements in the distal carpal row, a contact between distal carpal 3 and the ulnare, a bifurcation of distal carpal2 to form two elements in the metacarpal row, the proximal element of the bifurcation nearly separating distal carpal 2 from distal carpal 3, distal carpal 3 separating the intermedium from contact with distal carpal 4, and the absence of digit V. A phylogenetic analysis confirms that Protoichthyosaurus is the sister taxon of Ichthyosaurus and is nested in Ichthyosauridae. We recognize two species, P. prostaxalis and P. applebyi, sp. nov., but not P. prosostealis. Protoichthyosaurus is unequivocally from the Hettangian but might be present in the Rhaetian to lower Sinemurian. The genus is geographically widespread across the U.K.

An ichthyosaur in the collections of the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge (CAMSMX.50187) was collected in the nineteenth century by the renowned fossil collector Mary Anning, but has never been adequately described in the literature. As an Anning specimen, it is certainly from the Lower Jurassic of Lyme Regis, west Dorset. The near complete presacral skeleton is lying on its left side and includes a complete skull, one complete and one partial forefin, pectoral bones, all six elements of the pelvic girdle, and both hindfins. The centra in the anterior caudal region, however, are from another individual and may have replaced the original ones. The specimen is identified as Ichthyosaurus based on the morphology of the humerus and forefin. It is assigned to I. breviceps on the basis of the relatively short snout, large eye, and tall neural spines. This is the only known specimen of I. breviceps to preserve a complete pelvis. Notably, the ilium is longer than the pubis and ischium, and the pubis is longer than the ischium. This individual is the largest I. breviceps reported in the literature, with jaw length of 33.5 cm and estimated length from snout to tail bend of 1.6 m.

Currently known from the early Campanian to late Maastrichtian, Prognathodon constitutes a group of mosasaurine mosasaurs that typically possessed massive jaws. Only four articulated skulls are known to date and the information concerning their postcrania remains minimal. Moreover, the early to middle Campanian specimens of the taxon are extremely rare and fragmentary. Two new specimens of Prognathodon overtoni from the early late Campanian (ca. 74.5 Ma) Bearpaw Formation exposed near Welling, southern Alberta, Canada, provide the first fully articulated skeletons of the genus. Detailed morphological assessment of these and pre-existing specimens indicates that many cranial characters are shared between P. overtoni and the generic type P. solvayi from the early Maastrichtian, including (1) short premaxillary-maxillary suture; (2) short triangular frontal with marked anterior constriction; and (3) distinct, blind-ended median opening on medullary floor of basioccipital. These are interpreted as ge...

The largest reported ichthyosaurs lived during the Late Triassic (~235–200 million years ago), and isolated, fragmentary bones could be easily mistaken for those of dinosaurs because of their size. We report the discovery of an isolated bone from the lower jaw of a giant ichthyosaur from the latest Triassic of Lilstock, Somerset, UK. It documents that giant ichthyosaurs persisted well into the Rhaetian Stage, and close to the time of the Late Triassic extinction event. This specimen has prompted the reinterpretation of several large, roughly cylindrical bones from the latest Triassic (Rhaetian Stage) Westbury Mudstone Formation from Aust Cliff, Gloucestershire, UK. We argue here that the Aust bones, previously identified as those of dinosaurs or large terrestrial archosaurs, are jaw fragments from giant ichthyosaurs. The Lilstock and Aust specimens might represent the largest ichthyosaurs currently known.

—Ichthyosaurus conybeari is a rare species, previously known only from an incomplete holotype and one referred specimen, both from the Lyme Regis area of the west Dorset coast, U. K. A newly recognized, nearly complete specimen (NMW 93.5G.2) is the first occurrence of the species in Somerset, U. K. A revised diagnosis recognizes new morphological characters that distinguish the species: slender maxilla with a long, delicate premaxillary process; narrow postorbital; humerus with an anteriorly offset dorsal process that has a well-defined lip extending slightly into the shaft; fibula that is much larger dorsoventrally and mediodistally than tibia; and wide rectangular ischium that is much shorter than the pubis and femur. Notching of anterior fin elements in the forefin had been used as a diagnostic character, but a review of notching within Ichthyosaurus suggests that it has little taxonomic utility. Another specimen (NHMUK R15907), herein referred to the species, extends the range of I. conybeari ...

The resolution of the problem of ichthyosaurian affinities has been complicated and prolonged by an emphasis on the morphology of Jurassic ichthyosaurs, some 30 to 40 m.y. younger than the earliest known species. Morphology of the skull and axial skeleton of Triassic ichthyosaurs is the key to resolving the problem. The ichthyosaurs are included here in the Subclass Diapsida on the basis of skull roof and palatal features. Within the Diapsida, ichthyosaurs appear to be most closely related to the Younginiformes of the Infraclass Lepidosauromorpha, with which they may have shared a common ancestor. Triassic ichthyosaurs were considerably different ecologically from their Jurassic descendants. Many Triassic ichthyosaurs were longer bodied and had long, broad tails in contrast to the deep, streamlined bodies and lunate tails of Jurassic species. As a result, Triassic ichthyosaurs probably tended to be ambush predators, whereas Jurassic ichthyosaurs were mainly pursuit predators. Early ichthyosaurs may have been more generalized in their prey preference, as suggested by heterodonty in many Early and Middle Triassic species.

We describe a new species of Lower Jurassic (Hettangian/Sinemurian–Pliensbachian) ichthyosaur, Ichthyosaurus anningae, sp. nov., from west Dorset, England, U.K. The holotype of I. anningae (DONMG:1983.98), at least a subadult, is from the lower Pliensbachian Stonebarrow Marl Member (Charmouth Mudstone Formation). It is the most complete ichthyosaur known from this time interval worldwide. The species is assigned to Ichthyosaurus on the basis of humerus, forefin, and pectoral girdle morphologies. Diagnostic features of the species include a short, robust humerus with prominent processes; a femur in which the proximal width is almost as large as the distal width; and a very small femur relative to the humerus (humerus/femur ratio >1.7). Four other specimens, at least three of which are juveniles, are referred to this species. The new species may display sexual dimorphism in humeral morphology, but this cannot be confirmed due to a lack of stratigraphic information. With the recognition of I. anninga...

Body shape and mode of swimming were major factors that affected the swimming capabilities of Mesozoic marine reptiles. By estimating the total drag and the amount of energy available through metabolism, the maximum sustained swimming speed was calculated for 115 marine reptile specimens. Calculated sustained swimming speeds range from 1.8 to 2.7 m/sec, but are probably too high by as much as a factor of two. Mesozoic marine reptiles were probably much slower than modern toothed whales. The diversification of fast, agile teleost fish in the Cretaceous may have therefore contributed to the decline of the marine reptiles.Long-bodied reptiles appear to have had slower sustained swimming speeds than deep-bodied forms of the same length. For a given length, ichthyosaurs were probably faster sustained swimmers than plesiosaurs, and plesiosaurs were probably faster sustained swimmers than crocodiles and mosasaurs. This suggests that the long-bodied forms probably used an ambush technique to capture prey, to maximize the range of possible prey and to minimize competition with the faster pursuit predators.

New specimens ofShastasaurus altispinusMerriam are recognized from the Upper Triassic Antimonio Formation in the El Antimonio district of northwestern Sonora, Mexico. This represents the first occurrence of the species outside of its type locality in Shasta County, California, and the first known occurrence of Triassic ichthyosaurs from Mexico. Some remains are well preserved, but in general they are fragmented, structurally distorted, and incomplete; however, they enhance the current understanding of the morphology of a species that has been known hitherto only from an even more incomplete holotype. The material is the first from anyShastasaurusthat preserves the anterior portions of the skull and lower jaw and implanted teeth. Revised diagnoses for the genus and species are given on the basis of the new material. Biostratigraphic zonation furnishes an early Late Carnian age for the specimens, which is in accord with that for the holotype.

The large reptilian marine predators of the Mesozoic preyed upon pelagic animals such as bony fish, sharks, soft cephalopods, belemnoids, ammonoids, and even each other. All had undifferentiated conical teeth of one of several forms ranging from a blunt, bulbous shape to a slender, sharply pointed cone, to a robust, slightly compressed cone with two distinct cutting edges. Tooth form, along with tooth wear and occasionally preserved stomach contents, suggests the preferred prey of each species. Seven somewhat overlapping predator types, or guilds, can be defined on the basis of tooth form and prey preference. Members of each guild have tooth morphologies which fall within a defined range, and thus they probably shared the same preferred prey. The guilds present in six well-preserved faunas of the Jurassic and Cretaceous illustrate the structure of and changes in the large marine predator adaptive zone. Six guilds co-existed for most of the Jurassic. Although the composition of some of the guilds ...