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Ecuadorian Andean Spanish (EAS) has been in intense and sustained contact with Kichwa, a variety of Quechua spoken in Ecuador. Different studies have shown the influence of Kichwa in this variety of Andean Spanish at different levels, such as lexical, phonetic/phonological, morphosyntactic, and pragmatic (Bustamante 1991; Haboud 1998, 2018; Palacios 2005, 2007; Haboud y de la Vega 2008; Pfänder y Palacios 2013; Muysken 2019). Although morphological influence of Kichwa over EAS is minimal, there is evidence of the use of the Kichwa morpheme -ka in both Kichwa-Spanish bilinguals and Spanish monolinguals (Lipski 2014; Muysken 2019). Nevertheless, no previous study analyzes the presence of this particle in the speech of EAS monolinguals. Thus, the present study offers a preliminary analysis about the distribution and discourse role of -ka in the speech of EAS monolinguals from the city of Ambato (EAS Ambateño). The data was obtained through sociolinguistic interviews and fieldwork notes collected between 2018 and 2019. The results show that EAS monolinguals from Ambato use -ka with different constituents (e.g., pronouns, nouns, adverbs, verbs, conjunctions). Regarding its role in the discourse, it is argued that -ka is a particle that evokes contrast (contrastive focus). Since we are in a language contact scenario, it is of the utmost importance to consider social, historical, and demographic factors of the city of Ambato along with the background of the speakers in order to understand the dynamics of the languages (Kichwa and Spanish) and try to find a possible answer to how this particle was incorporated in the speech of EAS monolinguals from Ambato. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives and Research Questions: This study explores the effects of bilingualism on the production of subject personal pronouns (SPPs) in speakers of two null-subject languages, Quechua and Spanish. The paper also seeks to determine if these effects can be explained by general bilingual accounts, such as the Interface Hypothesis (IH), or by contact-specific accounts. Methodology: This is a sociolinguistic variationist study; therefore, the data were collected with sociolinguistic interviews. Data and Analysis: The data consist of transcriptions of audio recordings of eight Spanish monolingual and eight Quechua-Spanish bilingual speakers of Huancayo (Peru). The data were analyzed by using the statistical software SPSS 23.0 and Goldvarb X. Findings: The IH predicts that the overt SPP rate of the bilinguals should be higher than that of the monolinguals and that the pragmatic switch reference constraint should be difficult for the Quechua first language speakers to master. The results show, however, that their rates are similar, and that switch reference was the most robust predictor for the bilinguals. This study's results suggest that indirect transfer from the mandatory Quechua switch reference subordinating particle – pti is taking place. Originality: This is one of the first variationist studies examining the IH predictions regarding SPP production in bilinguals speaking an indigenous American null-subject language alongside Spanish. In addition, this is the first study to show, through statistical analyses, the contact-specific effect the other language can exert on a particular constraint in the subject pronoun expression of the bilinguals. Significance: The results of the study suggest that even subtle transfer in situations of language contact can be accurately explained by contact-specific accounts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct object clitics in Latin American Spanish are subject to great variability in features across dialects. Variability also characterizes bilingual acquisition and especially clitic doubling structures in language contact contexts. We focus on the distribution of clitics and Differential Object Marking (DOM) in clitic doubling structures among Shipibo-Spanish bilinguals, Quechua-Spanish bilinguals, and monolingual speakers of Spanish in contact with Quechua. We analyze a continuum of clitic forms and DOM as complex cases of feature reassembly and functional convergence that results in new interface rules with scalar hierarchies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an acoustic study describing the vowel spaces of bilingual Quechua–Spanish speakers in Cochabamba, Bolivia, with a particular focus on the height of mid and high vowels, in order to explore longstanding questions about the nature of Quechua vowel categories. South Bolivian Quechua is generally described as phonemically trivocalic with high-vowel lowering in presence of uvular consonants, but there has been little acoustic study of vowel formant characteristics (Cerrón-Palomino 1987, Laime Ajacopa, Cazazola & Pairumani 2007). The current study quantifies previous impressionistic observations of the vowel system and describes the acoustic properties of the Quechua vowels. Eleven bilingual speakers of South Bolivian Quechua and Spanish were recorded in a Quechua translation task and a Spanish list-reading task. Results of Bayesian models indicate that Quechua high vowels do appear to undergo systematic lowering following uvular consonants, supporting earlier descriptions. The results also demonstrate that lowering is consistent throughout the duration of the vowels, challenging a purely coarticulatory motivation for the observed lowering pattern. The allophonic mid-vowels of Quechua and the phonemic high and mid vowels of Spanish also have formant characteristics that may differ from one another, providing evidence for the hypothesis that these bilingual speakers could potentially command two separate vowel systems with different bases of articulation. These findings are also relevant for questions related to the nature of three-vowel systems, and whether or not they may contain true mid-vowel allophones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is a variationist study on subject position in Spanish monolinguals and Spanish-Quechua bilinguals in Huancayo, Peru. Such a variable is ideal to examine the universal predictions of the Interface Hypothesis (IH), since it involves two interfaces constraining subject position choice in Spanish: the syntactic-semantic one (internal) and the syntactic-pragmatic one (external). The IH predicts that the acquisition of features at internal interfaces should bear no difficulty for bilinguals, in contrast with the acquisition of features at external interfaces. Multiple regression analyses reveal that the differences found go along the lines of the universal predictions of the IH: the unaccusativity of the subjects' verbs (internal interface) is a strong predictor of the VS order for the bilinguals, whereas focus (external interface) does not constrain said variant. Nonetheless, some Quechua properties appear as an alternative explanation, rather peculiar to the contact situation studied, to the contrast found between the two speaker groups [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct object clitics in Spanish are morphological markers at the interfaces of syntax, phonology, morphology, and information structure (Zwicky, 1985; Ordóñez & Repetti, 2006; Belloro, 2007; Spencer & Luís, 2012). They play an important part in argument morphology in Spanish and are subject to variability in bilingual acquisition (McCarthy, 2008). In this paper we explore the morphology- syntax-information structure mapping of direct object clitics in clitic structures in a range of speakers that includes Quechua-dominant bilinguals and Spanish monolingual individuals along a continuum of language contact situations. Our findings indicate clear dissociation between syntactic properties and marking of morphological features. They also indicate a progression from default gender marking in clitics to a scalar system of clitic forms based on animacy and informational value along the continuum of speakers. Finally, while clitics in liberal clitic doubling varieties receive a focus interpretation (Sánchez, 2010; Sánchez & Zdrojewski, 2013), our data indicate that in some Spanish contact varieties they denote the primary object and secondary topic (Sánchez, 2003; Dalrymple & Nikolaeva, 2011; Mayer, 2008, 2013, forthcoming). The findings of this exploratory study support the view that while clitics exhibit common syntactic properties across a continuum of speakers, they may vary in morphological marking and informational value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses Quechua instruction to emergent bilinguals in urban schools, as part of the implementation of a language policy promoting Quechua in the Peruvian Andes. In the light of two other teachers who work in similar scenarios and the language ideologies of Quechua experts leading the language policy, this article analyzes a focal teacher who constructs alternative ideologies and subjectivities that contribute to transform the power relationships typically enacted in these racially segregated urban schools. Through translanguaging strategies for involving her diverse audience ( Creese & Blackledge, 2010; García, 2009 ) and a critical language awareness approach to make the invisible visible and the inaudible audible ( Bucholtz & Hall, 2004 ), this teacher constructs a community of legitimate Quechua speakers, which subverts the dominant representation of the bilingual speaker as the “perfectly” coordinated bilingual and the invisibilization of emergent bilinguals in the official language policy. Like other studies that conceptualize teachers as policy makers ( Menken & García, 2010 ), the present study shows that teachers negotiate with official language policies and can ultimately contest them in practice. However, in the case under study, this constitutes a process where the teacher initially reproduces ambiguous and contradictory discourses before reaching more critical positionings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the prosody of focus in the Spanish of 16 Quechua-Spanish bilinguals near Cusco, Peru. Data come from a dialogue game that involved noun phrases consisting of a noun and an adjective. The questions in the game elicited broad focus, contrastive focus on the noun (non-final position) and contrastive focus on the adjective (final position). The phonetic analysis in Praat included peak alignment, peak height, local range and duration of the stressed syllable and word. The study revealed that Cusco Spanish differs from other Spanish varieties. In other Spanish varieties, contrastive focus is marked by early peak alignment, whereas broad focus involves a late peak on the non-final word. Furthermore, in other Spanish varieties contrastive focus is indicated by a higher F0 maximum, a wider local range, post-focal pitch reduction and a longer duration of the stressed syllable/word. For Cusco Spanish no phonological contrast between early and late peak alignment was found. However, peak alignment on the adjective in contrastive focus was significantly earlier than in the two other contexts. For women, similar results were found for the noun in contrastive focus. An additional prominence-lending feature marking contrastive focus concerned duration of the final word. Furthermore, the results revealed a higher F0 maximum for broad focus than for contrastive focus. The findings suggest a prosodic change, which is possibly due to contact with Quechua. The study contributes to research on information structure, prosody and contact-induced language change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tena Quichua (ISO 639-3: quw) belongs to the Quechuan language family, as part of the peripheral variety Quechua IIB (Torero 1964, Cerrón-Palomino 1987, Gordon 2005). It is spoken in the Eastern Amazonian region of Ecuador on the Napo River above the mouth of the Rio Coca, primarily on three tributaries: the Misahualli, the Arajuno, and the Ansuc. Tena Quichua is bounded on the North and East by Napo Quichua and on the South by Pastaza Quichua. Previous research on the division of Ecuadorian dialects is summarized by Carpenter (1984: 3–4). Although it is beyond the scope of this Illustration, we hope that our description of Tena Quichua will prove useful in future work on the relations between these three Amazonian dialects of Ecuadorian Quichua. Below, a brief summary of Tena dialect identification and formation is given, followed by a description of present-day bilingualism in the region and data collection procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exploring contemporary Aymara and Quechua speakers' engagements with multilingualism, this article examines two transnational sites of Indigenous language use in Bolivia—a master's program in bilingual intercultural education in Cochabamba and a hip hop collective in El Alto. Responding to the call for a sociolinguistics of globalization that describes and interprets mobile linguistic resources, speakers, and markets, we draw on long-term ethnographic fieldwork to explore the transnational nature of these mobile and globalized sites, ideologies of Indigenous language and identity present there, and flexible language practices therein. From our analysis of selected narratives and interactions observed and recorded between 2004 and 2009, we argue that these sites, ideologies, and language practices constitute productive spaces for Indigenous language speakers to intervene in a historically and enduringly unequal, globalizing world. (Indigeneity, mobility, translanguaging, flexible language practices, multilingual repertoire, global hip hop)* [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this paper, declarative intonation contours from Peruvian Spanish speakers are compared between pragmatic conditions in order to observe potential differences in the prosodic realization of contrastive focus. To do so, an acoustic feature of intonation, the fundamental frequency (F0), is examined. Since focus in Quechua is realized through the use of evidential markers, it is hypothesized that Cuzco Spanish speakers may behave differently than Lima speakers in relatively less contact with Quechua. Two intonation features have been examined with relation to contrastive focus on the subject: peak alignment and peak height. While Lima speakers demonstrate earlier and higher peaks on the subject, similar to previous reports for Madrid and Peninsular Spanish, some Cuzco speakers use fewer prosodic cues, while others rely on post-focal deaccenting alone. Also, Cuzco speakers appear to behave similarly according to whether or not they are bilingual in Spanish and Quechua. This research demonstrates how focus in realized differently in two regional varieties of Peruvian Spanish and adds to our knowledge of how language contact may contribute to the development of alternate intonation patterns in Spanish. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Convergence in case mapping strategies in the oral speech of Quechua–Spanish bilinguals is examined. In principle, Quechua case suffixes could be analyzed as postpositions or as case markers. The data show that in code mixing utterances, Spanish prepositions and Quechua case suffixes co-occur and that mapping strategies converge. The fact that, in Quechua–Spanish code switching, Spanish prepositions are combined with Quechua case suffixes is taken as evidence that the latter are case markers, not postpositions. Further support for this view is the fact that no obvious differences were found in the data between non-oblique and oblique case markers. This distribution is consistent with an analysis of Quechua case suffixes as the spell out of an agree relationship between a null prepositional head and a DP. Cases of case suffix dropping in differential object marking expressions are analyzed as a possible source of instability in case marking in code mixing utterances. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper we offer a panoramic overview of the development of Andean Spanish and Andean Linguistics, from a theoretical point of view of language contact and universal grammar. We discuss how the notion of Andean Spanish came into existence, the issues under debate, and the consequences of different theoretical positions. We also introduce the contents of the papers included in this special issue, and highlight their key points, framing them in the context of the research on universal grammar. The following five areas are covered: (1) the convergence of Quechua and Aymara, (2) the impact of bilingualism on intonation, (3) the sharing of suffixes in contact situations, (4) the modification of the present perfect tense in Spanish in contact with Quechua, and (5) the properties of the Quechua case system from the point of view of contact varieties. Finally, we provide some remarks on bilingual education, and some suggestions for further directions for future research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A century after achieving its political independence, Peru (like other Latin American nations) was still struggling for its cultural emancipation from Spain. Various intellectuals directed their cultural hunger back in time and digested Royal Commentaries by the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (1539-1609) in their continuing pursuit to understand the relationship between what sociologist Anthony Smith has called the primordial nation and what we understand to be the modern nationstate. Clorinda Matto de Turner (1852-1909) was one author who, while developing her essay "El Qquechua" (1888), turned her eyes back toward the Royal Commentaries and, perhaps surprisingly so, on those passages where Garcilaso was quoting from the earlier chronicler, the Jesuit Bias Valera. In Matto de Turner's reading of Garcilaso reading Valera she suggests some interesting, stated and not stated, relationships between the Quechua language, feminine culture, and the Peruvian nationstate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within discourses of language endangerment, life stages such as child language acquisition, adolescent language shift, and the death of community elders figure prominently, but what of the role of other, intermediate life stages during adulthood and professional life in the course of language obsolescence or revitalization? Drawing from long-term ethnographic research in the Andes, this article examines narratives and classroom interaction of Indigenous Andeans in an intercultural bilingual education master's program, to argue that professional formation enters into a dynamic with these individuals' personal language policies, marking their adult lives with stronger identification with Indigenous language and culture. This work suggests that these instances of language planning from the bottom-up in a global/local space of professional development are one way these Indigenous educators push back against Indigenous language endangerment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article critiques the book "Los ríos profundos," by José María Arguedas, particularly noting its treatment of bilingualism and biculturalism between neo-colonial Peruvians and the indigenous Quechua people. It comments on the negotiation of identity and its relationship to language, as well as internal linguistic processing. Other topics explored include linguistics and power, socialization, and internalizing conflict.

Ethnographic ''New Literacy Studies'' question the idea that literacy as such has any uniform effects, arguing instead that effects of literacy inhere in the social practices that impart it. What change, then, does literacy produce where it arrived from two opposed sets of practices? In Quechua- and Aymara-speaking villages on the high plains of Lake Titicaca, universal public schooling is a relatively recent innovation. It overlays an unofficial literacy that racially and linguistically stigmatized peasants acquired up to a century ago as cultural contraband and as a tool of conflict. Field research in 2000-2002 in Azángaro province focuses on Quechua households' memories of acquiring literacy and their ways of reading, making, using, and curating the documents resulting from it. A team of locally rooted researchers interviewed rural herder-farmers about past and present literacy practices. The papers in their household archives, almost all in Spanish, stand poles apart from indigenous Quechua speech. Moreover, the Spanish household papers' use is diglossic as compared to rural Spanish. Yet despite this double dissociation from speech, writing has become deeply involved in traditional practices of social reciprocity, ritual, and song. Writing has somewhat the status of a "parallel language," useful precisely because of its separateness from the hazards of unequal bilingualism. Schools take little notice of these informal traditions. Attention to them might work in favor of improved classroom achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses bilingual education model types in South America with a special focus on the Andean region, and examines the recent language planning decisions by one Ecuadorian indigenous group to formally instruct Quichua as a second language in community schools. Specifically I argue that this type of localised planning--which promotes an enrichment model of bilingual education and use of students 'heritage languages--merits greater attention from researchers and language planners as a potential avenue for equalising opportunity and sustaining linguistic diversity. The paper is divided into four sections. First, I briefly overview these local language planning decisions and their larger political context. Next, I draw comparisons between these decisions and recent shifts in US language planning and policy, and outline the shared challenges of what have been termed 'heritage language initiatives' across the Americas. Lastly, I discuss the connections between these policy shifts and recent developments within the field of language policy and politics, and argue that this new form of bilingual education and local language planning represents the best hope for small language survival in the face of globalisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the language of a modern-day sermon delivered by a Spanish-Quechua bilingual priest during a popular mestizo pilgrimage in southern Peru. Social context of the sermon at shrine of the Senor de Huanca in Peru; Variation in marking for rhetorical effect; Vocabulary and imagery.