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We present an analysis of spatially resolved gas-phase metallicity relations in five dwarf galaxies ($M_{halo} \approx 10^{11} M_\odot$, $M_\star \approx 10^{8.8}-10^{9.6} M_\odot$) from the FIRE-2 (Feedback in Realistic Environments) cosmological zoom-in simulation suite, which include an explicit model for sub-grid turbulent mixing of metals in gas, near $z\approx 0$, over a period of 1.4 Gyrs, and compare our findings with observations. While these dwarf galaxies represent a diverse sample, we find that all simulated galaxies match the observed mass-metallicity (MZR) and mass-metallicity gradient (MZGR) relations. We note that in all five galaxies, the metallicities are effectively identical between phases of the interstellar medium (ISM), with 95$\%$ being within $\pm$0.1 dex between various ISM phases, including the cold and dense gas ($T < 500$ K and $n_{\rm H} > 1$ cm$^{-3}$), ionized gas (near the H$α$ $T \approx 10^4$ K ridge-line), and nebular regions (ionized gas where the 10 Myr-averaged star formation rate is non-zero). We find that most of the scatter in relative metallicity between cold and dense gas and ionized gas/nebular regions can be attributed to either local starburst events or metal-poor inflows. We also note the presence of a major merger in one of our galaxies, m11e, with a substantial impact on the metallicity distribution in the spatially resolved map, showing two strong metallicity peaks and triggering a starburst in the main galaxy., 14 pages, 10 figures, submitted to MNRAS

We present models of CO(1-0) emission from Milky Way-mass galaxies at redshift zero in the FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations. We calculate the molecular abundances by post-processing the simulations with an equilibrium chemistry solver while accounting for the effects of local sources, and determine the emergent CO(1-0) emission using a line radiative transfer code. We find that the results depend strongly on the shielding length assumed, which in our models sets the attenuation of the incident UV radiation field. At the resolution of these simulations, commonly used choices for the shielding length, such as the Jeans length, result in CO abundances that are too high at a given H$_2$ abundance. We find that a model with a distribution of shielding lengths, which has a median shielding length of $\sim 3$ pc in cold gas ($T < 300$ K) for both CO and H$_{2}$, is able to reproduce both the observed CO(1-0) luminosity and inferred CO-to-H$_{2}$ conversion factor at a given star formation rate compared with observations. We suggest that this short shielding length can be thought of as a subgrid model which controls the amount of radiation that penetrates giant molecular clouds., Accepted to MNRAS. 16 pages, 10 figures

The correlation between galaxies' integrated stellar masses and star formation rates (the `star formation main sequence'; SFMS) is a well-established scaling relation. Recently, surveys have found a relationship between the star formation rate and stellar mass surface densities on kpc and sub-kpc scales (the `resolved SFMS'; rSFMS). In this work, we demonstrate that the rSFMS emerges naturally in FIRE-2 zoom-in simulations of Milky Way-mass galaxies. We make SFR and stellar mass maps of the simulated galaxies at a variety of spatial resolutions and star formation averaging time-scales and fit the rSFMS using multiple methods from the literature. While the absolute value of the SFMS slope depends on the fitting method, the slope is steeper for longer star formation time-scales and lower spatial resolutions regardless of the fitting method employed. We present a toy model that quantitatively captures the dependence of the simulated galaxies' rSFMS slope on spatial resolution and use it to illustrate how this dependence can be used to constrain the characteristic mass of star-forming clumps., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS Letters

We compare an analytic model for the evolution of supernova-driven superbubbles with observations of local and high-redshift galaxies, and the properties of intact HI shells in local star-forming galaxies. Our model correctly predicts the presence of superwinds in local star-forming galaxies (e.g., NGC 253) and the ubiquity of outflows near $z \sim 2$. We find that high-redshift galaxies may `capture' 20-50\% of their feedback momentum in the dense ISM (with the remainder escaping into the nearby CGM), whereas local galaxies may contain $\lesssim$10\% of their feedback momentum from the central starburst. Using azimuthally averaged galaxy properties, we predict that most superbubbles stall and fragment \emph{within} the ISM, and that this occurs at, or near, the gas scale height. We find a consistent interpretation in the observed HI bubble radii and velocities, and predict that most will fragment within the ISM, and that those able to break-out originate from short dynamical time regions (where the dynamical time is shorter than feedback timescales). Additionally, we demonstrate that models with constant star cluster formation efficiency per Toomre mass are inconsistent with the occurrence of outflows from high-$z$ starbursts and local circumnuclear regions., Comment: 10 pages, 4 figures, accepted to ApJL

The thermal Sunyaev-Zel'dovich (tSZ) effect is a powerful tool with the potential for constraining directly the properties of the hot gas that dominates dark matter halos because it measures pressure and thus thermal energy density. Studying this hot component of the circumgalactic medium (CGM) is important because it is strongly impacted by star-formation and active galactic nuclei (AGN) activity in galaxies, participating in the feedback loop that regulates star and black hole mass growth in galaxies. We study the tSZ effect across a wide halo mass range using three cosmological hydrodynamical simulations: Illustris-TNG, EAGLE, and FIRE-2. Specifically, we present the scaling relation between tSZ signal and halo mass and radial profiles of gas density, temperature, and pressure for all three simulations. The analysis includes comparisons to Planck tSZ observations and to the thermal pressure profile inferred from the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) measurements. We compare these tSZ data to the simulations to interpret the measurements in terms of feedback and accretion processes in the CGM. We also identify as-yet unobserved potential signatures of these processes that may be visible in future measurements, which will have the capability of measuring tSZ signals to even lower masses. We also perform internal comparisons between runs with different physical assumptions. We conclude: (1) there is strong evidence for the impact of feedback at $R_{500}$ but that this impact decreases by $5R_{500}$, and (2) the thermodynamic profiles of the CGM are highly dependent on the implemented model, such as cosmic-ray or AGN feedback prescriptions., 21 pages, 10 figures, submitted to ApJ, comments welcome

Without additional heating, radiative cooling of gas in the halos of massive galaxies (Milky Way and above) produces cold gas or stars in excess of that observed. Previous work suggested that AGN jets are likely required, but the form of jet energy required to quench remains unclear. This is particularly challenging for galaxy simulations, in which the resolution is orders of magnitude coarser than necessary to form and evolve the jet. On such scales, the uncertain parameters include: jet energy form (kinetic, thermal, and cosmic ray (CR) energy), energy, momentum, and mass flux, magnetic field strength and geometry, jet precession angle and period, opening-angle, and duty cycle. We investigate all of these parameters in a $10^{14}\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$ halo using high-resolution non-cosmological MHD simulations with the FIRE-2 (Feedback In Realistic Environments) stellar feedback model, conduction, and viscosity. We explore which scenarios match observational constraints and show that CR-dominated jets can most efficiently quench the central galaxy through a combination of CR pressure support and a modification of the thermal instability. Jets with most energy in mildly relativistic ($\sim$ MeV or $\sim10^{10}$ K) thermal plasma work, but require a factor $\sim 10$ larger energy input. For a fixed energy flux, jets with higher specific energy (longer cooling times) quench more effectively. For this halo size, kinetic jets are less efficient in quenching unless they have wide opening or precession angles. Magnetic fields play a minor role except when the magnetic flux reaches $\gtrsim 10^{44}$ erg s$^{-1}$ in a kinetic jet model, which causes the jet cocoon to significantly widen, and the quenching to become explosive. We conclude that the criteria for a successful jet model are an optimal energy flux and a sufficiently wide jet cocoon with long enough cooling time at the cooling radius., 29 pages, 20 figures

We present an analytic model for clustered supernovae (SNe) feedback in galaxy disks, incorporating the dynamical evolution of superbubbles formed from spatially overlapping SNe remnants. We propose two realistic outcomes for the evolution of superbubbles in galactic disks: (1) the expansion velocity of the shock front falls below the turbulent velocity dispersion of the ISM in the galaxy disk, whereupon the superbubble stalls and fragments, depositing its momentum entirely within the galaxy disk, or (2) the superbubble grows in size to reach the gas scale height, breaking out of the galaxy disk and driving galactic outflows/fountains. In either case, we find that superbubble breakup/breakout almost always occurs before the last Type-II SN ($\lesssim$40 Myr) in the recently formed star cluster, assuming a standard high-end IMF slope, and scalings between stellar lifetimes and masses. The threshold between these two cases implies a break in the effective strength of feedback in driving turbulence within galaxies, and a resulting change in the scalings of, e.g., star formation rates with gas surface density (the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation) and the star formation efficiency in galaxy disks., 24 pages, 11 figures, accepted to ApJ

We present the first measurement of the lifetimes of Giant Molecular Clouds (GMCs) in cosmological simulations at $z = 0$, using the Latte suite of FIRE-2 simulations of Milky Way-mass galaxies. We track GMCs with total gas mass $\gtrsim 10^5$ M$_\odot$ at high spatial ($\sim1$ pc), mass ($7100$ M$_{\odot}$), and temporal (1 Myr) resolution. Our simulated GMCs are consistent with the distribution of masses for massive GMCs in the Milky Way and nearby galaxies. We find GMC lifetimes of $5-7$ Myr, or 1-2 freefall times, on average, with less than 2$\%$ of clouds living longer than 20 Myr. We find decreasing GMC lifetimes with increasing virial parameter, and weakly increasing GMC lifetimes with galactocentric radius, implying that environment affects the evolutionary cycle of GMCs. However, our GMC lifetimes show no systematic dependence on GMC mass or amount of star formation. These results are broadly consistent with inferences from the literature and provide an initial investigation into ultimately understanding the physical processes that govern GMC lifetimes in a cosmological setting., Comment: accepted to MNRAS

We study the spatially resolved (sub-kpc) gas velocity dispersion ($\sigma$)--star formation rate (SFR) relation in the FIRE-2 (Feedback in Realistic Environments) cosmological simulations. We specifically focus on Milky Way mass disk galaxies at late times. In agreement with observations, we find a relatively flat relationship, with $\sigma \approx 15-30$ km/s in neutral gas across 3 dex in SFRs. We show that higher dense gas fractions (ratios of dense gas to neutral gas) and SFRs are correlated at constant $\sigma$. Similarly, lower gas fractions (ratios of gas to stellar mass) are correlated with higher $\sigma$ at constant SFR. The limits of the $\sigma$-$\Sigma_{\rm SFR}$ relation correspond to the onset of strong outflows. We see evidence of "on-off" cycles of star formation in the simulations, corresponding to feedback injection timescales of 10-100 Myr, where SFRs oscillate about equilibrium SFR predictions. Finally, SFRs and velocity dispersions in the simulations agree well with feedback-regulated and marginally stable gas disk (Toomre's $Q =1$) model predictions, and the data effectively rule out models assuming that gas turns into stars at (low) constant efficiency (i.e., ${\rm 1\%}$ per free-fall time). And although the simulation data do not entirely exclude gas accretion/gravitationally powered turbulence as a driver of $\sigma$, it appears to be strongly subdominant to stellar feedback in the simulated galaxy disks., Comment: 18 pages, 12 figures, submitted to MNRAS

Pressure balance plays a central role in models of the interstellar medium (ISM), but whether and how pressure balance is realized in a realistic multiphase ISM is not yet well understood. We address this question using a set of FIRE-2 cosmological zoom-in simulations of Milky Way-mass disk galaxies, in which a multiphase ISM is self-consistently shaped by gravity, cooling, and stellar feedback. We analyze how gravity determines the vertical pressure profile as well as how the total ISM pressure is partitioned between different phases and components (thermal, dispersion/turbulence, and bulk flows). We show that, on average and consistent with previous more idealized simulations, the total ISM pressure balances the weight of the overlying gas. Deviations from vertical pressure balance increase with increasing galactocentric radius and with decreasing averaging scale. The different phases are in rough total pressure equilibrium with one another, but with large deviations from thermal pressure equilibrium owing to kinetic support in the cold and warm phases, which dominate the total pressure near the midplane. Bulk flows (e.g., inflows and fountains) are important at a few disk scale heights, while thermal pressure from hot gas dominates at larger heights. Overall, the total midplane pressure is well-predicted by the weight of the disk gas, and we show that it also scales linearly with the star formation rate surface density (Sigma_SFR). These results support the notion that the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation arises because Sigma_SFR and the gas surface density (Sigma_g) are connected via the ISM midplane pressure., 22 pages, 16 figures, accepted in MNRAS

We explore a class of simple non-equilibrium star formation models within the framework of a feedback-regulated model of the ISM, applicable to kiloparsec-scale resolved star formation relations (e.g. Kennicutt-Schmidt). Combining a Toomre-Q-dependent local star formation efficiency per free-fall time with a model for delayed feedback, we are able to match the normalization and scatter of resolved star formation scaling relations. In particular, this simple model suggests that large ($\sim$dex) variations in star formation rates (SFRs) on kiloparsec scales may be due to the fact that supernova feedback is not instantaneous following star formation. The scatter in SFRs at constant gas surface density in a galaxy then depends on the properties of feedback and when we observe its star-forming regions at various points throughout their collapse/star formation "cycles". This has the following important observational consequences: (1) the scatter and normalization of the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation are relatively insensitive to the local (small-scale) star formation efficiency, (2) but gas depletion times and velocity dispersions are; (3) the scatter in and normalization of the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation is a sensitive probe of the feedback timescale and strength; (4) even in a model where $\tilde Q_{\rm gas}$ deterministically dictates star formation locally, time evolution, variation in local conditions (e.g., gas fractions and dynamical times), and variations between galaxies can destroy much of the observable correlation between SFR and $\tilde Q_{\rm gas}$ in resolved galaxy surveys. Additionally, this model exhibits large scatter in SFRs at low gas surface densities, in agreement with observations of flat outer HI disk velocity dispersion profiles., Comment: 15 pages, 6 figures, accepted by MNRAS (04/25/2019)

Using high-resolution simulations from the FIRE-2 (Feedback In Realistic Environments) project, we study the effects of discreteness in stellar feedback processes on the evolution of galaxies and the properties of the interstellar medium (ISM). We specifically consider the discretization of supernovae (SNe), including hypernovae (HNe), and sampling the initial mass function (IMF). We study these processes in cosmological simulations of dwarf galaxies with $z=0$ stellar masses $M_{\ast}\sim 10^{4}-3\times10^{6}\,M_\odot$ (halo masses $\sim 10^{9}-10^{10}\,M_\odot$). We show that the discrete nature of individual SNe (as opposed to a model in which their energy/momentum deposition is continuous over time, similar to stellar winds) is crucial in generating a reasonable ISM structure and galactic winds and in regulating dwarf stellar masses. However, once SNe are discretized, accounting for the effects of IMF sampling on continuous mechanisms such as radiative feedback and stellar mass-loss (as opposed to adopting IMF-averaged rates) has weak effects on galaxy-scale properties. We also consider the effects of rare HNe events with energies $\sim 10^{53}\,{\rm erg}$. The effects of HNe are similar to the effects of clustered explosions of SNe -- which are already captured in our default simulation setup -- and do not quench star formation (provided that the HNe do not dominate the total SNe energy budget), which suggests that HNe yield products should be observable in ultra-faint dwarfs today., Comment: 9 pages, 4 figures

The quenching "maintenance'" and related "cooling flow" problems are important in galaxies from Milky Way mass through clusters. We investigate this in halos with masses $\sim 10^{12}-10^{14}\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$, using non-cosmological high-resolution hydrodynamic simulations with the FIRE-2 (Feedback In Realistic Environments) stellar feedback model. We specifically focus on physics present without AGN, and show that various proposed "non-AGN" solution mechanisms in the literature, including Type Ia supernovae, shocked AGB winds, other forms of stellar feedback (e.g. cosmic rays), magnetic fields, Spitzer-Braginskii conduction, or "morphological quenching" do not halt or substantially reduce cooling flows nor maintain "quenched" galaxies in this mass range. We show that stellar feedback (including cosmic rays from SNe) alters the balance of cold/warm gas and the rate at which the cooled gas within the galaxy turns into stars, but not the net baryonic inflow. If anything, outflowing metals and dense gas promote additional cooling. Conduction is important only in the most massive halos, as expected, but even at $\sim 10^{14}\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$ reduces inflow only by a factor $\sim 2$ (owing to saturation effects and anisotropic suppression). Changing the morphology of the galaxies only slightly alters their Toomre-$Q$ parameter, and has no effect on cooling (as expected), so has essentially no effect on cooling flows or maintaining quenching. This all supports the idea that additional physics, e.g., AGN feedback, must be important in massive galaxies., 16 pages, 12 figures

The quenching `maintenance' and `cooling flow' problems are important from the Milky Way through massive cluster elliptical galaxies. Previous work has shown that some source of energy beyond that from stars and pure magnetohydrodynamic processes is required, perhaps from AGN, but even the qualitative form of this energetic input remains uncertain. Different scenarios include thermal `heating,' direct wind or momentum injection, cosmic ray heating or pressure support, or turbulent `stirring' of the intra-cluster medium (ICM). We investigate these in $10^{12}-10^{14}\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$ halos using high-resolution non-cosmological simulations with the FIRE-2 (Feedback In Realistic Environments) stellar feedback model, including simplified toy energy-injection models, where we arbitrarily vary the strength, injection scale, and physical form of the energy. We explore which scenarios can quench without violating observational constraints on energetics or ICM gas. We show that turbulent stirring in the central $\sim100\,$kpc, or cosmic-ray injection, can both maintain a stable low-SFR halo for $>$Gyr timescales with modest energy input, by providing a non-thermal pressure which stably lowers the core density and cooling rates. In both cases, associated thermal-heating processes are negligible. Turbulent stirring preserves cool-core features while mixing condensed core gas into the hotter halo and is by far the most energy efficient model. Pure thermal heating or nuclear isotropic momentum injection require vastly larger energy, are less efficient in lower-mass halos, easily over-heat cores, and require fine-tuning to avoid driving unphysical temperature gradients or gas expulsion from the halo center., 22 pages, 16 figures

Regions of disc galaxies with widespread star formation tend to be both gravitationally unstable and self-shielded against ionizing radiation, whereas extended outer discs with little or no star formation tend to be stable and unshielded on average. We explore what drives the transition between these two regimes, specifically whether discs first meet the conditions for self-shielding (parameterized by dust optical depth, $\tau$) or gravitational instability (parameterized by a modified version of Toomre's instability parameters, $Q_{\rm thermal}$, which quantifies the stability of a gas disc that is thermally supported at $T=10^4$ K). We first introduce a new metric formed by the product of these quantities, $Q_{\rm thermal}\tau$, which indicates whether the conditions for disk instability or self-shielding are easier to meet in a given region of a galaxy, and we discuss how $Q_{\rm thermal}\tau$ can be constrained even in the absence of direct gas information. We then analyse a sample of 13 galaxies with resolved gas measurements and find that on average galaxies will reach the threshold for disk instabilities ($Q_{\rm thermal}1$). Using integral field spectroscopic observations of a sample of 236 galaxies from the MaNGA survey, we find that the value of $Q_{\rm thermal}\tau$ in star-forming discs is consistent with similar behavior. These results support a scenario where disc fragmentation and collapse occurs before self-shielding, suggesting that gravitational instabilities are the primary condition for widespread star formation in galaxy discs. Our results support similar conclusions based on recent galaxy simulations., Comment: 12 pages, 6 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

The Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE) project explores feedback in cosmological galaxy formation simulations. Previous FIRE simulations used an identical source code (FIRE-1) for consistency. Motivated by the development of more accurate numerics - including hydrodynamic solvers, gravitational softening, and supernova coupling algorithms - and exploration of new physics (e.g. magnetic fields), we introduce FIRE-2, an updated numerical implementation of FIRE physics for the GIZMO code. We run a suite of simulations and compare against FIRE-1: overall, FIRE-2 improvements do not qualitatively change galaxy-scale properties. We pursue an extensive study of numerics versus physics. Details of the star-formation algorithm, cooling physics, and chemistry have weak effects, provided that we include metal-line cooling and star formation occurs at higher-than-mean densities. We present new resolution criteria for high-resolution galaxy simulations. Most galaxy-scale properties are robust to numerics we test, provided: (1) Toomre masses are resolved; (2) feedback coupling ensures conservation, and (3) individual supernovae are time-resolved. Stellar masses and profiles are most robust to resolution, followed by metal abundances and morphologies, followed by properties of winds and circum-galactic media (CGM). Central (~kpc) mass concentrations in massive (L*) galaxies are sensitive to numerics (via trapping/recycling of winds in hot halos). Multiple feedback mechanisms play key roles: supernovae regulate stellar masses/winds; stellar mass-loss fuels late star formation; radiative feedback suppresses accretion onto dwarfs and instantaneous star formation in disks. We provide all initial conditions and numerical algorithms used., 64 pages, 40 figures. Simulation animations and visualizations available at http://www.tapir.caltech.edu/~phopkins/Site/animations and http://fire.northwestern.edu . Paper includes complete FIRE algorithms and public ICs (http://www.tapir.caltech.edu/~phopkins/publicICs). Updated to match published version

In a recent work based on 3200 stacked H$\alpha$ maps of galaxies at $z \sim 1$, Nelson et al.~find evidence for `coherent star formation': the stacked SFR profiles of galaxies above (below) the 'star formation main sequence' (MS) are above (below) that of galaxies on the MS at all radii. One might interpret this result as inconsistent with highly bursty star formation and evidence that galaxies evolve smoothly along the MS rather than crossing it many times. We analyze six simulated galaxies at $z\sim1$ from the Feedback in Realistic Environments (FIRE) project in a manner analogous to the observations to test whether the above interpretations are correct. The trends in stacked SFR profiles are qualitatively consistent with those observed. However, SFR profiles of individual galaxies are much more complex than the stacked profiles: the former can be flat or even peak at large radii because of the highly clustered nature of star formation in the simulations. Moreover, the SFR profiles of individual galaxies above (below) the MS are not systematically above (below) those of MS galaxies at all radii. We conclude that the time-averaged coherent star formation evident stacks of observed galaxies is consistent with highly bursty, clumpy star formation of individual galaxies and is not evidence that galaxies evolve smoothly along the MS., Comment: 7 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication in ApJL

We present an analysis of the global and spatially-resolved Kennicutt-Schmidt (KS) star formation relation in the FIRE (Feedback In Realistic Environments) suite of cosmological simulations, including halos with $z = 0$ masses ranging from $10^{10}$ -- $10^{13}$ M$_{\odot}$. We show that the KS relation emerges and is robustly maintained due to the effects of feedback on local scales regulating star-forming gas, independent of the particular small-scale star formation prescriptions employed. We demonstrate that the time-averaged KS relation is relatively independent of redshift and spatial averaging scale, and that the star formation rate surface density is weakly dependent on metallicity and inversely dependent on orbital dynamical time. At constant star formation rate surface density, the `Cold \& Dense' gas surface density (gas with $T < 300$~K and $n > 10$~cm$^{-3}$, used as a proxy for the molecular gas surface density) of the simulated galaxies is $\sim$0.5~dex less than observed at $\sim$kpc scales. This discrepancy may arise from underestimates of the local column density at the particle-scale for the purposes of shielding in the simulations. Finally, we show that on scales larger than individual giant molecular clouds, the primary condition that determines whether star formation occurs is whether a patch of the galactic disk is thermally Toomre-unstable (not whether it is self-shielding): once a patch can no longer be thermally stabilized against fragmentation, it collapses, becomes self-shielding, cools, and forms stars, regardless of epoch or environment., 23 pages, 16 figures, accepted to MNRAS, fourth revision

We present an analysis of the $R\lesssim 1.5$ kpc core regions of seven simulated Milky Way mass galaxies, from the FIRE-2 (Feedback in Realistic Environments) cosmological zoom-in simulation suite, for a finely sampled period ($\Delta t = 2.2$ Myr) of 22 Myr at $z \approx 0$, and compare them with star formation rate (SFR) and gas surface density observations of the Milky Way's Central Molecular Zone (CMZ). Despite not being tuned to reproduce the detailed structure of the CMZ, we find that four of these galaxies are consistent with CMZ observations at some point during this 22 Myr period. The galaxies presented here are not homogeneous in their central structures, roughly dividing into two morphological classes; (a) several of the galaxies have very asymmetric gas and SFR distributions, with intense (compact) starbursts occurring over a period of roughly 10 Myr, and structures on highly eccentric orbits through the CMZ, whereas (b) others have smoother gas and SFR distributions, with only slowly varying SFRs over the period analyzed. In class (a) centers, the orbital motion of gas and star-forming complexes across small apertures ($R \lesssim 150$pc, analogously $|l, Comment: 9 pages, 3 figures, accepted to ApJ Letters. One appended supplemental appendix and figure, which do not appear in the ApJ version