Search

Lighting is a complex management tool in turkey production, controlled by three parameters; daylength, intensity, and chromaticity. As light-emitting diodes (LED) increase in popularity as alternatives to traditional light sources, research regarding LED impacts on commercial-type turkey production is lacking. Therefore, turkey hens of the same strain were reared under experimental brooding and grow-out conditions with six lighting treatments. An environmentally and light controlled facility (ECF) consisted of 5,000 Kelvin (K) LED or 5,000K + far-red LED (639nm) (RED) with either 12h short or 18h long daylength to test LED spectra. In the remaining treatments, hens were exposed to sunlight in a curtain-sided facility (CSF) as two treatments 1) natural decreasing daylength from September to November (NAT) or 2) natural daylight + 5,000 K LED lighting with an 18h long blocked daylength (BLK). The intensity was 9 footcandles in the ECF and naturally fluctuating in the CSF. Hen's performance was evaluated at 5, 9, and 14 weeks for eye development and feather coverage. Hens brooded and grown-out under NAT light had significantly increased body weight gain compared to BLK hens for the same period. Hens reared with RED LED spectrum had significantly increased eye anterior-posterior distance than birds raised in the NAT treatment. A significant reduction in red heat signature on the breast tissue in the NAT treatment compared to all other 18h treatments indicated improved feather coverage. However, these same results were not observed during serum thyroid hormone analysis. While turkey hens reared under different lighting programs had similar ending performance, lighting parameters significantly affected bird performance during the growing period, bird's eye development, and body feather coverage. Therefore, potential effects on growth patterns and physiology should be considered when choosing a LED lighting program for turkeys

Two battery trials were conducted to determine the effects of dietary direct-fed microbial (DFM) and dietary fat inclusion on broiler chick and turkey poult performance and dietary apparent metabolizable energy, nitrogen corrected (AMEn) when fed corn, wheat, and soy diets. For both experiments, a 2 x 2 factorial experimental design was used with supplemental fat at low (1%, LF) or high (6%, HF) levels and DFM inclusion (0 or 0.91 kg/ton) as main effects. Dietary treatments were randomly assigned to 72 cages of birds and fed for 21 days. Growth performance was measured weekly, and cecal contents were collected for volatile fatty acid (VFA) analysis on day 21. Fat supplementation resulted in increased body weight gain (BWG) in both broilers and turkeys. Specifically, in LF diets, DFM inclusion resulted in increased BWG compared to the non-DFM treatments. Cumulative feed conversion ratio (FCR) was improved in HF treatments and the LF with DFM treatment compared to the LF with no DFM. In both trials, as expected, feeding HF diets resulted in increased AMEn. However, the DFM inclusion resulted in a greater uplift in AMEn in LF diets for both broilers and turkeys. In either trial, diet did not impact cecal VFA concentrations; thus, the impact on DFM on VFA production remains uncertain. In conclusion, the performance of broiler chicks and turkey poults was improved by DFM inclusion in reduced fat diets which was associated with increased energy digestibility as measured by AMEn.

Ammonia (NH3) produced inside livestock houses can adversely affect animal welfare and performance and degrade the environment. In broiler houses, NH3 levels are mitigated by applying acidifiers to the litter but acidifiers provide short-term NH3 suppression requiring heavy or repeated applications. Microbial additives may provide longer-term NH3 control through nitrogen (N) immobilization and nitrification. The objective of this 50-d lab study was to evaluate the impact of two microbial additives (Environoc 301 and Environoc 501), 2% glucose, and distilled water (control) treatments applied to broiler litter on NH3 emissions and litter properties. During the first 34 d, glucose significantly but modestly reduced NH3 emissions vs. the other treatments which were not significantly different from one-another. For the entire study, when glucose was excluded (due to lost replicates), the three treatments were not significantly different. The unreplicated glucose treatment had higher final litter nitrate concentration than the other treatments. Litter properties were unaffected by the two microbial additive and control treatments. The effectiveness of glucose in reducing NH3 emission could have been due to greater N immobilization and nitrification vs. the other treatments. More research on cost-effective labile carbon sources and higher application rates to achieve greater NH3 reduction is required.

Sodium bisulfate (SB) was evaluated on its ability to improve broiler growth and intestinal structure with(out) a coccidia challenge. One thousand two hundred Cobb500 day-old males were randomly assigned within 4 experimental groups with a 2 × 2 factorial design, with (out) SB in the diet and with(out) a day 0 coccidia challenge using a 10× dose of a commercial vaccine. At day 7, oocysts per gram of feces were determined. At day 0, 14, 28, and 41, BW and feed consumption were measured. At day 21, 20 birds per treatment were subjectively scored for coccidia lesions, and jejunal histologic samples were collected for villi measurements. Twenty additional birds were given fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran to determine gut permeability. At day 41, 10 birds per treatment had histologic samples collected. Statistical analysis was conducted in JMP Pro 14 using GLM procedure to compare disease state and diet. Means were separated using Dunnett's test (P ≤ 0.05) with the nonchallenged standard diet treatment that is considered the control. All parameters measured indicated an effect due to the coccidia inoculation. Therefore, effects of diet on (non)challenged treatments were determined using a Student t test (P ≤ 0.05). Limited differences due to diet were seen for the nonchallenged production data. Sodium bisulfate had a thinner villi base width (P = 0.04) on day 21 and greater villi height (P = 0.03), smaller base width (P = 0.04), thicker muscularis (P = 0.03), and lower crypt: height ratio (P = 0.01) on day 41. Challenged SB had similar gut permeability to the nonchallenged control (P = 0.94) on day 21. There was no difference in flock uniformity, feed intake, oocysts per gram of feces, or lesion scores between challenged treatments. Challenged SB had greater BW on day 14 (P < 0.0001), 28 (P < 0.0001), and 41 (P = 0.02). Feed conversion ratio from day 0 to 14 was also lower (P = 0.0002). Challenged SB had smaller crypts (P = 0.02) and therefore a smaller crypt: height ratio (P = 0.03) on day 21. Challenged control had a larger apical width (P = 0.03) and thicker muscularis (P = 0.04) on day 41. Overall, the addition of SB during coccidial enteropathy aided in BW, feed conversion ratio, and villi health with no observed effects on parasite cycling.

Industry standards for turkey stocking densities are variable and may not represent the more rapidly growing strains currently available. Therefore, a study was completed to evaluate 4 stocking densities: a nominal density (0.3525 m2/bird), 10% tighter density (0.3169 m2/bird), 10% looser density (0.3882 m2/bird), and 20% looser density (0.4238 m2/bird) on the effects on large white, commercial male turkeys with regard to performance from 5 to 20 wk of age. Brooding stocking density was fixed for all pens of birds with 60 birds per replicate pen at 0.46 m2/bird to 5 wk of age. Density treatments were applied from 5 to 20 wk by altering pen size with pen population held constant at 60 per pen. There were 4 pens of birds per density treatment. Birds were weighed individually at 0, 5, and 20 wk of age and performance parameters were calculated. There were no differences in bird performance at 5 wk, which was expected because stocking density was fixed. From 5 to 20 wk and at 20 wk, birds that were reared at the nominal standard (0.3525 m2/bird) and 10% tighter density (0.3169 m2/bird) had significantly lower body weight compared with the 10% looser density (0.3882 m2/bird) and 20% looser density (0.4238 m2/bird) (P = 0.03 and 0.01, respectfully). The feed conversion ratio (FCR) tended (P = 0.08) to be improved for birds reared at looser density. In addition, based on linear regression, as stocking density decreased (i.e., m2/bird increased), BW (P

Coccidiosis is a high-prevalence disease that annually entails huge costs for the poultry industry. Control of coccidiosis in poultry production is based on the use of coccidiostats and vaccines. However, along with the problem of drug resistance, there is a concern about food safety and drug residues in poultry products. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of sodium bisulfate (SBS) in comparison with monensin (M) and their combination (SBSM) effects on controlling coccidiosis in broilers. In a randomized design, 300 chickens (Ross 308) were divided into 5 treatments and 4 replications (15 birds per replicate). All birds, except the negative control (NC), were orally inoculated with 4 Eimeria species on 14 D of age. Treatments included were as follows: NC, an unsupplemented basal diet, nonchallenged; positive control, a basal diet unsupplemented, challenged with Eimeria spp; a basal diet supplemented with 5 g/kg of SBS; a basal diet supplemented with 1 g/kg of M; and a basal diet supplemented with 5 g/kg SBS and 1 g/kg M (SBSM). Oocyst shedding per gram (OPG) of the faecal sample from each experimental unit was counted on 5 to 14 D after inoculation. Two chicks from each experimental unit were euthanized to investigate intestinal lesions on day 5 after inoculation. The NC birds showed the highest BW gain and the lowest feed conversion ratio. The birds in the SBSM group had improved feed consumption compared with the M group in the prechallenge period (P < 0.05). All supplemented treatments resulted in a significant decrease in OPG. The M and SBSM treatments showed more efficacy than the SBS group (P < 0.05) in reducing OPG. There was a significant reduction in cecal lesions owing to supplementation with SBS, but the effect of SBS in the upper part of the intestine was lower than the M and SBSM groups (P < 0.05). Based on the results of this study, SBS has protective effects against coccidiosis in ceca, and the combination of M and SBS (SBSM) did not show any further improvement effect compared with M alone on the control of coccidiosis.

Chromium propionate (Cr Prop) is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Veterinary Medicine for supplementation to broiler diets up to 0.20 mg Cr/kg diet. A 49-D study was conducted to: 1) determine the safety of Cr Prop when supplemented at 2 and 10 times (×) the approved feeding level over the normal life span of broilers, and 2) determine the effects of supplementing Cr Prop on Cr concentrations of tissues consumed by humans. On day zero, 216 Ross 708 broilers were stratified by weight within sex and randomly assigned to treatments. Dietary treatments were 0 (control), 0.40, and 2.0 mg supplemental Cr/kg diet from Cr Prop. There were 6 replicate cages each of male and female broilers per treatment. At the end of the study blood was collected for determination of plasma biochemical measurements and tissue samples were collected for Cr analysis. Supplementing 0.40 mg Cr/kg diet (2×) did not adversely affect broiler performance, mortality, plasma biochemical measurements or Cr concentrations in breast muscle, skin with adhering fat, or liver. Chromium propionate supplemented at 2.0 mg Cr/kg (10×) did not affect Cr concentrations in breast muscle or skin with adhering fat, but increased (P0.05) liver Cr concentrations. Supplementing Cr Prop at 10× the approved feeding level decreased feed intake and gain in male but not female broilers from days 21 to 49. Results of this study support the safety of Cr Prop in broiler diets, and indicate that Cr Prop supplementation to broiler diets at 2 or 10× the approved feeding level does not present a human health concern.

SUMMARY A study was conducted to evaluate bedding source and the inclusion of rolled, unheated soybeans on the growth performance of male turkeys when reared to market age. Pine shavings are the most common poultry bedding material, however recently, increased marketplace competition has significantly reduced its availability and necessitated the need for economical alternatives. Additionally, the development of new varieties of soybeans with low levels of antinutritional factors have created an opportunity for dietary inclusion with minimal processing. The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of Miscanthus grass as an alternative to pine shavings litter and to evaluate 2 novel, low trypsin inhibitor soybean varieties as a potential ingredient for turkeys. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 4 factorial design with main effects of litter type (Miscanthus grass or pine shavings) and dietary treatment. Diets were defined based on the soy protein source: LO (novel, unheated low oligosaccharide and trypsin inhibitor soybean), LT (novel, unheated low trypsin inhibitor soybean), SBM (commercial solvent extracted soybean meal), or CB (unheated conventional soybeans). Bedding type did not affect BW gain or feed intake at market, however, a tendency for improved FCR was observed when turkeys were raised on Miscanthus grass (P = 0.073). Turkey toms fed diets containing low trypsin inhibitor soybeans had improved BW gain and feed intake with a lower overall FCR compared to turkeys fed diets containing conventional raw whole soybeans. Therefore, there was improved digestibility of the novel soybean lines. Nutrient utilization of the novel low trypsin inhibitor soybeans, however, remained inferior to diets containing solvent extracted soybean meal, which yielded the heaviest BW and lowest FCR with similar feed intake to the low trypsin inhibitor soybean diets.

Bedding (litter) is essential to poultry performance and health and can have an environmental impact after use in the poultry facility such as a soil amendment or as an alternative energy source. Pine shavings are the most common bedding used for turkey production. However, the increase in its price and its increasing scarcity in some areas have created new research opportunities for reusing litter as bedding. Improvement in feed pellet quality has been reported to improve poultry performance. However, the reports for turkeys are limited and dated. This study's objective was to determine how the improvement of feed pellet quality and the use of biochar added to a combination of used turkey brooder house litter and Miscanthus grass as bedding affects turkey performance, small intestine morphology, and ammonia production. Nicolas Select (Aviagen Turkeys, Lewisburg, WV) male poults (816) were randomly assigned to 48 concrete litter floor pens on the day of hatch. The experiment used a completely randomized block design with a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement of treatments: 2 levels of fines in the feed and 4 bedding treatments. The bedding treatments were a constant level of used turkey brooder house litter combined with a varying combination of biochar and Miscanthus grass. Turkey's body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined. Differences in treatment means were considered to be statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05 using a mixed model in SAS 9.4. Turkeys fed the feed with improved pellet quality had a higher BW from 3 to 17 wk (17.0 ± 0.1 kg) than turkeys fed an increased abundance of fines (16.72 ± 0.1 kg). Turkeys fed feed with increased pellet quality had a lower FI (45.6 vs. 48.1 ± 0.4 kg) and improved FCR (2.20 vs. 2.31 ± 0.01) from 0 to 20 wk. Litter treatment with 20% biochar resulted in higher BW at 20 wk (20.91 ± 0.16 kg) because of increased BWG at 11 wk over the rest of the biochar levels (3.7 ± 0.1 kg). Strategies to reduce the abundance of fines in feed through feed formulation, feed manufacturing, feed transport, and in-house feed management should be considered to increase male turkeys' performance. There may be opportunities to use biochar as a litter amendment to improve turkey health and performance.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary inclusion of a novel low trypsin inhibitor soybean (LTI) fed as mash or crumbled pellet form on the productive performance and digestibility in turkey poults from hatch to 21 d. A total of 336 Hybrid Converter turkey poults were allocated in groups of 7 to 6 treatments, each with 8 replicate cages. Treatments were arranged as a 3 × 2 factorial with inclusion level of the low trypsin-inhibitor soybean (0, 20, and 40% LTI) and feed form (mash and crumbled pellet). A single batch of feed was mixed for each inclusion level and divided into 2 aliquots: one remaining as mash and the other conditioned at 82°C for approximately 30 s, pelleted and then crumbled. On d 7, 14, and 21 posthatching, BW, and feed intake (FI) were recorded and BW gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) calculated. Excreta samples were collected from d 19 to 21 and pooled by cage. At d 21, intestines were excised, pancreas weights recorded (PRW), and ileal contents collected. There were no interactions (linear, P > 0.05) between LTI inclusion and feed form on BW, BWG, FI, or FCR at d 7 or 21. Increasing LTI resulted in a linear reduction in BW at 7, 14, and 21 d (P < 0.006). Poults fed crumbles were significantly heavier at d 21 than those fed mash feed (P < 0.027) with no interaction of LTI level with feed form. FCR was not significantly greater with increasing LTI. However, poults fed crumbles had a better, lower FCR that those fed mash feed from d 0 to 21 (P < 0.018). There was a significant interaction between feed form and LTI level at 14 d (P < 0.031), but not 7 or 21 d. Pancreatic hypertrophy (PRW) increased linearly with increasing LTI (P < 0.001) with a significant linear interaction with feed form (P < 0.001). Poults fed crumbles had less pancreatic hypertrophy. At 21 d of age, dietary fat digestibility (ALD, %) was linearly reduced with increasing LTI (P < 0.001). However, poults fed crumbles had significantly better fat absorption than poults fed mash (91.2 vs. 85.8%) (P < 0.001), and there was a significant linear interaction between feed form and LTI level (P < 0.001). AMEn was significantly better for the poults fed crumbles compared to mash (3228 vs. 3132 kcal/kg) (P < 0.001), and there was a significant linear interaction between feed form and LTI level (P < 0.001). Based on the results this trial, it is possible to include up to 20% unheated full fat LTI soybeans into poult starter diets after pelleting. Pelleting improves nutrient utilization, allowing for greater incorporation of the LTI soybean in the crumbled diet compared to the mash diet.

High levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids in avian sperm cause more susceptibility to lipid peroxidation. Aging in roosters reduces the antioxidant capacity of sperm and thus fertility. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different levels of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) as a feed supplement to improve the semen quality and fertility parameters of aged broiler breeder roosters and identification of its most effective level. A total of forty-two roosters at 45 wk of age were randomly assigned to 7 treatments (0, 15, 40, 70, 95, 120, and 145 mg ALA/bird per day) for 8 wk. Semen parameters and body weight were assessed biweekly, and testosterone plasma levels were determined in the 8th wk of the experimental period. Artificial insemination was performed at the end of the experiment to evaluate the fertility potential. The dietary administration of ALA had no significant effects on body weight, semen volume, average path velocity, linearity, straightness, wobble, the amplitude of lateral head displacement, beat-cross frequency, sperm concentration, morphology, plasma testosterone level, fertility, or hatchability (P > 0.05). Alpha-lipoic acid supplementations resulted in a significant decrease in seminal malondialdehyde concentration and immotile (type D) sperms (P

Based on research reports, feed characteristics can increase poult growth via several factors. Two rearing experiments (EXP) were conducted to test the effects of feed form and ingredient quality in turkey poults. Bird performance and the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and cecum morphology were observed in both EXP. Poults were reared in battery cages (48 cages in EXP 1 and 72 cages in EXP 2). Four dietary treatments with differing feed form and function factors were evaluated in EXP 1. A completely randomized block design with a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments consisting of 2 levels of fines, 2 soybean meal (SBM) sources, and 2 levels of an enzyme cocktail (Rovabio Advance) was tested in EXP 2. Poult BW, BW gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined in both EXP. Apparent metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen (AMEn) was determined in EXP 2. Differences were considered to be statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05. Feeding increased feed crumble particle size with fewer fines in the starter feed resulted in an increased BWG accompanied by an increased FI. Reduced feed fines reduced AMEn when the dietary enzyme cocktail was not present. The feed formulation with 60% CP SBM resulted in a lower FI and an improved FCR. The enzyme cocktail interacted synergistically with screening and fed SBM source factors on the AMEn and FCR. It was concluded that both the feed form and quality, as used in this study, affect poult performance.

Feed costs represent a significant portion of the cost of poultry production. This study, in 3 experiments, was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a heat-stable xylanase (XYL) as a dietary supplement and its effect on digesta viscosity, nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn), and live performance in broiler chicks. Experiment 1: the objective was to determine the effects of the amount and type of enzyme supplementation on digesta viscosity, AMEn, and bird performance using 7 diets. The dietary treatments were: no supplementation (C), 5 levels of XYL (1 to 16 ppm), or supplementation with a carbohydrase cocktail (CC). Experiment 2: the objective was to determine the interaction of the dietary XYL and the energy content of the feed. There were 2 levels of XYL (0 and 20 ppm) and 3 dietary energy levels (2,770, 2,920, and 3,070 kcal/kg ME). Experiment 3: the objective was to determine the interaction of the dietary XYL and feed form. The treatments were: 5 levels of XYL (0 to 40 ppm) and 2 feed forms (mash and crumble). Broiler chicks were reared in battery cages to 21 d. Statistical analysis of the data was completed using Proc GLM of SAS (9.2) (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).In experiment 1, increasing XYL (0 to 16 ppm) resulted in a decrease in digesta viscosity and an increase in AMEn. The XYL included as low as 1 ppm resulted in a significant increase in AMEn which reached 5% with 16 ppm XYL. In contrast, increase in BWG (4%) above values with the basal diet was greatest with 1 ppm XYL. In experiment 2, the caloric content of the diet influenced the increase in AMEn with inclusion of XYL, 8% and 6% increases with 2,920 kcal/kg and 3,070 kcal/kg diets, respectively. Without addition of XYL, BWG was significantly lower when fed the diet with the highest energy content. In experiment 3, feed form x XYL influenced the effect of XYL on BWG. The BWG was greater when birds were fed the crumble diet with XYL vs when they were fed the mash feed with XYL. The xylanase proved effective for broilers to 21 d when fed the diets used herein with changes in digesta viscosity, increased dietary AMEn, and improved bird performance represented by either BW gain or FCR.

Salmonella and Campylobacter are leading human foodborne pathogens commonly associated with poultry and poultry products, and several methods to control these pathogens have been applied to poultry production. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of CALSPORIN, (CSP), a direct-fed microbial (DFM), and yeast cell wall (Saccharomyces cervisiae, IMW50, a mannanoligosaccharide (MOS)-based prebiotic, on performance, levels of Salmonella and Campylobacter in the feces, and intestinal histomorphometry in turkey poults. A 21-day battery cage study was conducted using 4 dietary treatments, including: an unsupplemented basal diet (corn and soybean-based) as negative control (NC); basal diet supplemented with 0.05% DFM; basal diet supplemented with 0.05% MOS; and basal diet supplemented with 0.05% mixture of DFM and MOS at equal proportions. Female Large White turkey poults (n = 336) were randomly distributed in 6 electrically-heated battery cages with 4 treatments and 12 replicates per treatment (7 poults per replicate pen). The first 16 pens were not inoculated with bacteria, while poults in pens 17 to 32 were orally challenged at day 7 with 105 CFU Salmonella Heidelberg and the poults in pens 33 to 48 were orally challenged at day 7 with 105 CFU Campylobacter jejuni. Feed consumption, body weight, and feed conversion ratio were measured weekly and at the end of the experiment. At day 21, fresh fecal samples from each pen were collected for Salmonella and Campylobacter enumeration and ileal tissue samples were collected from 1 bird per pen for histomorphology examination. DFM and MOS supplementation was accompanied with reduced levels of Salmonella shed by the treated birds compared to the control group, and with increased body weight (P ≤ 0.05). The surface area of villi increased in the MOS-supplemented group compared to the control group (P ≤ 0.05). There was a significant difference in V:C ratio between supplemented groups and control group (P ≤ 0.05). Based on these results, there is potential for CALSPORIN and IMW50 to reduce Salmonella shedding in feces, enhance ileal mucosal health, and improve growth performance of turkey poults.

During commercial production, turkeys may be exposed to several different types of stressors related to environmental conditions and management practices. Historically, antibiotics have been used to aid in the alleviation of the impacts of stressful situations, and alternatives to antibiotics related to reducing stress are being researched. This study consisted of three rearing trials and had two objectives: (1) Investigate the effects of common U.S. turkey production practices, including environmental and management induced stress, on turkey hens grown to 63 days, and (2) Determine the response of stressed birds to dietary supplementation with fermentation derived functional metabolites. Treatments consisted of a positive control (stressed but not supplemented), a negative control (non-stressed and not supplemented) and two treatment groups that were stressed and supplemented with different products (Original XPC™ or AviCare™). Supplemental products were administered in a dry (feed) and liquid (drinking water) form, and consisted of fermentation derived functional metabolites. Products were evaluated on their effectiveness to mitigate stress responses and turkey performance. Birds were exposed to some combinations of the following stressors: feed and water withdrawal, cold, heat, and crowding. Although the stressors in this study were applied for less than 24 h, they produced significant physiological responses. Blood corticosterone levels, measured immediately after stress, were significantly higher in positive control birds than in negative control birds. In addition, stressed birds had reduced body weights and increased FCR after stress. Stressed birds, supplemented with products had mixed, but generally positive response as measured by bird performance. Based on the response to stress, as observed by alterations in blood corticosterone levels and differences in performance between the two control groups, researchers induced an effective stress model. The use of supplementary products consisting of fermentation derived functional metabolites shows promise for reducing negative impacts of a mixture of stressors.

Watering systems utilized in broiler production can impact bird performance. Many companies have increased water flow rates (WFR) in their nipple drinkers (ND) system during brooding above the manufacturers recommended level, then make adjustments in WFR during the grow period. This has increased moisture and early caking problems in litter. The objective of this study was to determine how birds perform on different WFR rates during brood and grow periods while observing litter condition. Seven WFR treatments were evaluated for broilers reared from 1 to 42 d age: 50 mL/min, 75 mL/min, 100 mL/min, 120 mL/min, 50 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 75 mL/min 8 to 42 d, 75 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 100 mL/min 8 to 42 d, and 100 mL/min 1 to 7 d increasing to 120 mL/min 8 to 42 d. Chicks were identified and randomly allocated in a randomized complete block design. BW, cumulative feed consumption (FC), FCR (feed:BW), litter moisture (%), and litter moisture under the ND were determined weekly to 42 d. Mortality (MO) was recorded daily. Birds tended to have heavier BW on d 35 when (P = 0.08) on the higher WFR (75, 100, and 120 mL/min) in comparison to birds on the lowest WFR (50 mL/min). No differences were observed for FC, FCR, or MO. Birds on treatments with higher WFR (100 and 120 mL/min) and treatments which were increased to higher WFR (75 to 100 mL/min and 100 to 120 mL/min) utilized greater amounts of water as compared to birds receiving lower WFR (50 and 75 mL/min). The 100 and 120 mL/min WFR resulted in higher percent litter moisture (P ≤ 0.01) under the ND but decreased at the end of the growing period. In conclusion, as birds become heavier, they attempt to utilize larger amounts of water from ND with greater WFR without any beneficial effect on bird performance. As WFR increase, litter moisture under the ND will initially increase but then decrease as the birds age.

Due to its potential environmental and public health impacts, emissions of ammonia (NH3) as well as several other gases from US livestock farms may be regulated. Broiler houses are important sources of NH3 emissions. However, there are no emissions data from roaster (8–12 wk old broilers, ∼4 kg ea.) houses. Producers treat the litter in broiler houses with acidifiers, such as sodium bisulfate (SBS, NaHSO4) to reduce ammonia production and protect bird health. However, there is very little data on the effect of acidifiers, particularly at high application rates on ammonia emissions. The impact of different SBS application rates [High (0.95–1.46 kg m−2, whole house), Medium (0.73 kg m−2, whole house), Low (0.37–0.49 kg m−2, whole house), and Control (0.37–0.49 kg m−2, brood chamber)] on ammonia emissions was evaluated in commercial roaster houses over 22 months spanning eight flocks. Ammonia emission from each fan was measured with an acid scrubber that operated only when the fan operated. Emissions were calculated using >95% measured data with the rest being estimated using robust methods. Exhaust ammonia–N concentrations were inversely correlated with the SBS application rates. Emission rates on animal unit (AU, where 1 AU = 500 kg live-mass) basis (ER, g d−1 AU−1) were reduced by 27, 13, and 5%, respectively, in the High, Medium, and Low treatments vs. the Control treatment (mean: 100 g d−1 AU−1, range: 86–114 g d−1 AU−1). Emission rates for the Control treatment measured in this study on roasters were mostly higher than ERs in the literature. Differences in ERs are not only due to diet, environmental and management conditions, but also due to measurement methods.

Footpad dermatitis (FPD) and walking ability are both parameters used on poultry welfare audits. One survey was conducted to determine the correlation between FPD severity, gait score (GS), BW, and litter condition on turkeys at market age. A total of 41 commercial tom flocks of 16 to 19 wk of age were evaluated. On each visit, 50 toms were selected, weighed, and evaluated for GS and FPD. Litter score (LS) was also recorded according to moisture content and caking. Data analyses consisted of pairwise correlations and 3 separate multiple linear regression models using FPD, GS, and BW as response variables. Fixed effects included LS, season, FPD, GS, and BW. Based on pairwise correlations, FPD was correlated with LS, BW, GS, and age. Gait score was correlated with LS, BW, and age. Body weight was correlated with LS. With multiple linear regression analysis it was observed that LS and BW were the parameters that were associated the most with FPD severity and GS. As litter condition worsened and BW increased, FPD and GS worsened. Moreover, a seasonal effect was observed on both FPD and GS. Colder seasons, winter and autumn, were associated with increased FPD severity and GS. A negative effect of FPD and GS was observed on BW. In conclusion, FPD and GS are correlated with BW at market age and litter condition is a major factor in FPD development and walking ability in turkeys.

Transpired solar collector (TSC) ducts were installed at a swine nursery and a turkey brooder farm in eastern North Carolina (NC), USA. Each farm had a Test (TSC duct-equipped) and an identical, adjacent Control treatment. Five swine herds and six turkey brooder flocks were monitored over two heating seasons (2010–2012). Propane uses were reduced by 55 and 27 L/m 2 -yr, respectively, in the swine and turkey barns; reductions were highly variable among herds or flocks and the modest reductions were due to warm weather and use of attic ventilation. Over a 14-d period, both the swine and turkey TSC units increased ambient temperature in the barns by ∼6 °C with a maximum increase of 22.5 °C in the turkey TSC. In the swine and turkey houses, calculated energy additions by the TSC were 433 and 81 MJ/yr-m 2 of collector surface area, or 16 and 3 L/m 2 , respectively, of propane saved. Calculated propane savings were much lower than measured values. Short-term efficiencies were higher in the swine TSC (>61%) vs. the turkey TSC (39–50%) probably due to the lower face velocity of the turkey TSC which increased collector heat losses. While barn CO 2 , RH, and temperature values were unaffected by the TSC, it was unclear why animal performance in the Test treatment was better. Simple payback periods for the TSC ducts at both farms were favorable (

SUMMARY The reutilization of litter is currently a common practice in broiler production due to several environmental and economic factors. The application of litter amendments in broiler houses is a popular practice that can reduce ammonia emissions from recycled litter by converting them to nonvolatile ammonium. Sodium bisulfate (SBS) is one of the acidifiers frequently used in broiler houses. Broilers raised to 9 wk may require higher acidifier application rates to prevent unhealthy NH3 levels throughout the flock than broilers raised to smaller sizes. A study with 6 flocks of roasters was conducted under commercial conditions to evaluate 4 levels of SBS. In a farm with 8 houses, 4 treatments were evaluated. In the control treatment 0.49 kg/m 2 of SBS was applied to the brood chamber, whereas the low, medium, and high treatments received 0.49, 0.73, and 1.46 kg/m 2 , respectively, in the whole house. Data were obtained as the average of 2 houses with approximately 21,000 broilers per house in each of the 6 flocks evaluated. Results indicated no significant differences due to treatments on final average BW, FCR, mortality, or the majority of condemnation parameters. The significant reductions in NH3 levels observed in the whole flock across all 6 flocks receiving SBS treatments did not significantly improve broiler live performance or affect condemnations at the processing plant.

SUMMARY High ammonia levels in broiler houses can reduce bird performance. Broiler producers commonly use acidifiers to reduce ammonia build-up. In addition to improving broiler performance, acidifiers can also provide other ancillary benefits such as reducing propane and electricity use and increasing cake (caked litter) N content. In this 2-yr study involving 9 flocks, 4 levels of an acidifier (sodium bisulfate) were applied to commercial roaster houses in eastern North Carolina. The control treatment had a sodium bisulfate application rate of up to 0.1 lb/ft2 to the brood chamber, whereas the high, medium, and low treatments had application rates of up to 0.3, 0.15, and 0.1 lb/ft2, respectively, to the whole house. No treatment effect was observed on propane or electricity use. However, compared with published studies involving smaller broilers, roasters required lesser amounts of propane and electricity. Linear regressions of propane and electricity use as a function of ambient temperature may help with decision making in roaster production. Brooding accounted for 88% of propane consumption. Reduced pH in the high treatment compared with the other treatments led to significantly higher ammonium concentration in the cake.

SUMMARY Broiler production has the potential to cause water and air pollution. Acidifiers such as sodium bisulfate (SBS) can reduce ammonia (NH3) emissions from broiler houses; NH3 is an important air pollutant that also affects bird health. Due to their longer grow-outs, roasters may require higher acidifier application rates to prevent unhealthy NH3 levels during the flock than ordinary broilers. Changes in NH3 emission with acidifier use may affect the partitioning of the input nitrogen (N) among the different N output pathways. Accounting for these output pathways through N mass balance provides a complete picture of N as it cycles through the roaster house. In a 2-yr study involving 9 flocks of roasters, 4 levels of SBS were applied to the litter in commercial roaster houses. Whereas the control treatment received up to 0.49 kg/ m 2 to the brood chamber, the high, medium, and low treatments received up to 1.46, 0.73, and 0.49 kg/m 2 , respectively, to the whole house. Ammonia-N emission decreased and N removed in cake and litter increased with SBS application rate. Nitrogen output components were averaged over the 4 treatments and expressed as percent of total N input or per unit mass of live weight (LW). Ammonia-N emission during grow-out, bird N exported, and cake and litter N removed accounted for 17.3% or 11.2 g/kg of LW, 38.9% or 25.1 g/kg of LW, and 22.4% or 14.4 g/kg of LW, respectively. We accounted for 79.1% of the total N inputs, with NH3-N losses during layout probably constituting the bulk of the unaccounted N. In addition to uncertainties in measurements of inputs and outputs, other factors that limited the ability to close the N mass balance were exclusion of feathers during cake and litter sampling, soil N leaching, and nitrous oxide emissions.

SUMMARY The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the relative bioavailability of Zn from Zn propionate relative to feed-grade Zn sulfate using BW gain and bone Zn as response criteria. For the first 7 d posthatching, chicks were fed a semipurified starter diet deficient in Zn (22 mg of Zn/kg). From d 8 to 21 birds were fed a control (20 mg of Zn/kg) semipurified diet containing ground corn, soy protein concentrate, and dextrose. The control diet was supplemented with 0, 6, or 12 mg of Zn/kg of diet from feed-grade Zn sulfate or organic Zn propionate. Using corn in the diet increased the level of phytate, an important Zn antagonist in nonruminant animals. As supplemental dietary Zn increased, a dose-dependent increase was observed in feed intake, weight gain, total Zn intake, tibia Zn concentration, and total tibia Zn. Zinc supplementation improved FE (feed:gain), but not in a dose-dependent manner. Relative bioavailability of Zn was determined using weight gain, tibia Zn concentration, and total tibia Zn, assuming a value of 100% for feed-grade Zn sulfate. Using relative slope assay, relative bioavailability of Zn propionate was 119, 116, and 116% compared with Zn sulfate, respectively. We concluded, based on these results, that bioavailability of Zn from organic Zn propionate is greater than feed-grade Zn sulfate in the presence of dietary phytate.

Corn with naturally occurring aflatoxin (AF), wheat with naturally occurring doxynivalenol (DON), and barley with naturally occurring zearalenone (ZEA) were used to make rations for feeding turkey hen poults to 6 weeks of age. Control rations with equal amounts of corn, wheat, and barley were also fed. The control rations did contain some DON while both sets of rations contained ZEA. Within each grain source, there were 4 treatments: the control ration plus 3 rations each with a different feed additive which were evaluated for the potential to lessen potential mycotoxin effects on bird performance and physiology. The additives were Biomin BioFix (2 lb/ton), Kemin Kallsil (4 lb/ton), and Nutriad UNIKE (3 lb/ton). The mycotoxin rations reduced poult body weight (2.31 vs. 2.08 ± 0.02 kg) and increased (worsened) poult feed conversion (1.47 vs. 1.51 ± 0.01) at 6 wk. Feeding the poults the mycotoxin feed also resulted in organ and physiological changes typical of feeding dietary aflatoxin although a combined effect of AF, DON, and ZEA which cannot be dismissed. The feed additives resulted in improved feed conversion to 6 wk in both grain treatment groups. The observed physiological effect of feeding the additives was to reduce relative gizzard weight for both groups and to lessen the increase in relative kidney weight for the birds fed the mycotoxin feed. In conclusion, the feed additives used in this study did alleviate the effect of dietary mycotoxins to some degree, especially with respect to feed conversion. Further studies of longer duration are warranted.

SUMMARY The relative bioavailability (RB) of Mn propionate, as compared with feed-grade Mn sulfate, was determined in chicks fed a corn- and soybean meal-based diet for 14 d. Diets were supplemented with 0, 20, 100, and 500 mg of Mn/kg of diet and assessed for growth, intake, and FE. Levels of Ca and P were also increased in this diet compared with a typical production diet to see whether, when chicks were challenged with antagonists, a difference existed between inorganic Mn sulfate and organic Mn propionate. No differences were observed for any growth parameters for either mineral level or dietary source. Relative bioavailability was determined using Mn concentration in bone, assuming a value of 100% from the feed-grade Mn sulfate. The RB of Mn propionate was 139% compared with Mn sulfate when using the relative slope assay. We concluded that organic Mn propionate has an improved RB compared with the commonly used inorganic feed-grade Mn sulfate in the presence of high dietary Ca and P.

3 Abstract: A trial was conducted to observe potential changes in turkey poults reared to 21 d by feeding diets with naturally occurring mycotoxins. Two sources of corn, one each with Aflatoxin (AFL) and Deoxynevalenol (DON), were obtained. Treatments (T) were: 1) clean corn (C), 2) AFL (A), 3) DON (D) and 4) ½A+½D (AD). A marker (celite, 1.5%) was added for 21 d AMEn determination. A basal ration with ingredients except corn was mixed. The basal and corn were mixed for T feeds. Feed was pelleted and crumbled. Male poults were placed into 24 pens in petersyme batteries (7 birds/pen; 6 pens/T). Feed consumption, by pen and BW were determined by wk. At 21 d, birds were euthanized. Heart (H), spleen (S), gizzard (G), liver (L) and bursa of fabricious (B) were weighed and Breast Muscle (BM) collected for color analysis. Light microscopic analysis of HE AD = 2,758±29). Relative (R) S weight of D (0.11) fed birds was reduced versus A (0.14) but not C or AD (0.12, 0.13±0.006 g/g). The RL weight of birds fed A (2.26) and AD (2.52) were reduced versus C (2.68±0.07g/g). The A fed birds had reduced SA (by OD). Mortality, RH, RB and RG weights, G score and BM colors were not affected. There were no differences in AB. The L of the A fed birds had hepatic parenchyma with diffuse degenerative changes. The hepatocytic nuclei were swollen and had condensed nucleoli. Some hepatic cords had hepatocyte necrosis. There was some sinusoidal congestion with dilatation/congestion of few central veins. These lesions were suggestive of aflatoxin toxicity. The effects of AFL and DON in this study were reflective of what has been reported in the literature. Feeding naturally occurring mycotoxins to poults can be used as a model to study interventions.

Two pen trials and 2 field trials were conducted to determine whether a direct-fed microbial (DFM; Primalac) was effective in improving turkey productive performance. In the pen trials, typical turkey diets were formulated with and without Primalac. All feed was provided by a commercial feed mill. In trial 1, Large White male turkey poults were placed in 48 pens (18 birds/pen, 24 pens/treatment) on the day of hatch and were reared to 20 wk. In trial 2, Large White female turkey poults were placed in 48 pens (30 birds/pen, 24 pens/treatment) on the day of hatch and were reared to 18 wk. Cumulative FCR was significantly improved for birds fed DFM feed compared with birds fed control feed at 20 wk in trial 1 and at 8 wk in trial 2. Body weight was significantly greater for birds fed DFM feed compared with birds fed the control feed through 12 wk in both trials. In 2 field trials, 2 brooder houses and 4 grow-out houses were paired on each farm (4 brooder houses and 8 grow-out houses total). All birds received the same feed provided by the integrator. The DFM was provided in the water from placement to market in 1 brooder house and in the 2 matching grow-out houses. Breeder flocks were equally represented in both brooder houses within each trial. Approximately 12,000 male poults were placed in each brooder house and were transferred to 2 grow-out houses at 5 wk. Although no statistical analyses were computed for the field trials, there was a nominal improvement in performance associated with the DFM: mean livability was increased by 3.5%, mean BW was increased by 0.9 kg (2 lb), mean total weight removed from the farms was increased by 13,706 kg (30,153 lb), mean FCR was improved by 0.165, and cost of production was reduced by $0.0195/kg ($0.043/lb) of BW by the DFM. In conclusion, the DFM product (Primalac) used in these studies was effective in improving turkey live performance.

4 Abstract: The objective of this research was to determine the effect of using nipple drinkers during brooding on the performance of Large White turkeys. There were 6 different drinkers tested: the control and 5 nipple drinker systems. The control was the Plasson Drinker and the nipple systems tested were the Plasson Easy Start (PES), Val-Co Turkey Drinker (VC), Lubing Traditional Nipple (LTN), Lubing EasyLine (LEL) and Ziggity TM Big-Z Activator (BZ). Three experiments were conducted with turkeys brooded using the 6 drinker types. Some nipple drinker treatments were used in the rearing periods. At 20 wk, Body Weight (BW) was reduced for toms brooded to 6 wk on the LTN and brooded and reared on the VC. The use of LEL and LTN (during brooding) resulted in improved Feed Conversion (FC) at 20 wk. Trial 2-experiment 1 with hens of two strains was terminated at 3 wk because of excessive mortality from dehydration with some drinker types. In trial 2 -experiment 2, there were no poult hydration issues. The BW of hens at 6 wk brooded on the Plasson Drinker and the VC were higher compared to the BW of hens brooded on the PES and the BZ with the BW of hens on the LEL being intermediate. The use of the LTN resulted in significantly lower hen BW compared with all other drinkers through 10 wk. By 16 wk, there were no longer differences in hen BW due to drinker type. Drinker type did not have an effect on hen FC. Nipple drinkers can be used effectively to brood turkeys with some types also being useful during the rearing period. However, poor quality, inactive, or diseased poults may be at risk for dehydration on some nipple drinker systems.

The effects of dietary supplementation of the direct-fed microbial (DFM) Primalac in mash or crumbled feed on histological and ultrastructural changes of intestinal mucosa was determined in 2 populations of poults; 1 with and 1 without a Salmonella spp. challenge. Three hundred thirty-six 1-d-old female Large White turkey poults were randomly distributed into 8 treatment groups with 6 replicates of 7 poults in each pen. The poults were placed on 1 of 4 dietary treatments in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement (mash or crumble feed, with or without DFM, not-challenged or challenged at 3 d of age). The DFM groups were fed a Primalac-supplemented diet from d 1 until the last day of the experiment (d 21). At 3 d of age, 50% of the poults were challenged with 1 mL of 1010 cfu/ mL of Salmonella spp. (Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Salmonella Heidelberg, and Salmonella Kentucky) by oral gavage. The inoculated poults were housed in a separate room from nonchallenged controls. Feed and water were provided ad libitum for all birds. At d 21, 1 poult per pen (total of 6 poults per treatment) was randomly selected and killed humanely by cervical dislocation. After necropsy, the small intestine was removed, and tissue samples from duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were taken for light and electron microscopic evaluation. The DFM birds showed increased goblet cell (GC) numbers, total GC area, GC mean size, mucosal thickness, and a greater number of segmented filamentous bacteria compared with controls. Changes in intestinal morphology as observed in this study support the concept that poultry gut health and function, and ultimately bird performance, can be improved by dietary supplementation with DFM products such as Primalac as used in this study.

Leg problems and resulting mortality can exceed 1% per week in turkey toms starting at approximately 15 wk of age. Dietary supplementation of organic trace minerals (MIN) and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (HyD) may improve performance, decrease incidence of leg abnormalities, and increase bone strength. Nicholas 85X700 toms were assigned to 4 treatments consisting of a factorial arrangement of 2 concentrations of MIN (0 and 0.1% of Mintrex PSe, which adds 40, 40, 20, and 0.3 mg/kg of Zn, Mn, Cu, and Se, respectively) and 2 concentrations of HyD (0 and 92 μg/kg of HyD). Diets were formulated to be equal in nutrient content and fed ad libitum as 8 feed phases. Feed intake and BW were measured at 6, 12, 15, 17, and 20 wk of age. Valgus, varus, and shaky leg defects were determined at 12, 15, 17, and 20 wk of age. Tibia and femur biomechanical properties were evaluated by torsion and bending tests at 17 wk of age. There were no treatment effects on BW. Only MIN significantly improved feed conversion ratio through to 20 wk of age. Cumulative mortality at 3 wk of age was greater among the MIN birds, but it was lower by 20 wk (P = 0.085). The MIN decreased the incidence of varus defects at 17 wk of age; shaky leg at 12, 15, and 17 wk of age; and valgus defects at 15, 17, and 20 wk of age. There were no MIN × HyD interaction effects on individual gait problems. Maximum load and the bending stress required for tibias to break in a 4-point assay were increased with MIN supplementation, especially when HyD was also added. Maximum shear stress at failure of femoral bones in a torsion assay was increased by supplementation with both MIN and HyD together. Dietary supplementation of MIN and HyD may improve biomechanical properties of bones. Dietary MIN supplementation may improve feed conversion of turkeys, likely by decreasing leg problems.

Temperature (TEM) and O(2) concentrations during the plateau stage of oxygen consumption are known to affect yolk utilization, tissue development, and thyroid metabolism in turkey embryos. Three experiments were conducted to evaluate these incubation effects on long bone development. Fertile eggs of Nicholas turkeys were used. In each trial, standard incubation conditions were used to 24 d, when the eggs containing viable embryos were randomly divided into 4 groups. Four experimental cabinets provided 4 TEM (36, 37, 38, or 39 degrees C) or 4 O(2) concentrations (17, 19, 21, or 23% O(2)). In the third experiment, 2 temperatures (36 and 39 degrees C) and 2 O(2) concentrations (17 and 23%) were evaluated in a 2 x 2 factorial design. Body and residual yolk weights were obtained. Both legs were dissected, and shanks, femur, and tibia weights, length, and thickness were recorded. Relative asymmetry of each leg section was calculated. Chondrocyte density was evaluated in slides stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Immunofluorescence was used to evaluate the presence of collagen type X and transforming growth factor beta. Hot TEM caused reduction of tibia weights and increase of shank weight when compared with cool TEM. The lengths of femur, tibia, and shanks were reduced by 39 degrees C. The relative asymmetry of leg weights were increased at 38 and 39 degrees C. Poult body and part weights were not affected by O(2) concentrations, but poults on 23% O(2) had bigger shanks and heavier tibias than the ones on 17% O(2). High TEM depressed the fluorescence of collagen type X and transforming growth factor beta. The O(2) concentrations did not consistently affect the immunofluorescence of these proteins. The chondrocyte density was affected by TEM and O(2) in resting and hypertrophic zones. In the third experiment, high TEM depressed BW, leg muscle weights, and shank length. Low O(2) reduced tibia and shanks as a proportion of the whole body. We concluded that incubation conditions affect long bone development in turkeys.

A study was conducted to determine 1) the effect of a dietary direct-fed microbial (DFM) on turkey poult performance, 2) the effect of a DFM on a Salmonella challenge, and 3) the effect of feed processing on the efficacy of the dietary DFM. Day-of-hatch Large White female poults were placed in 2 rooms in 2 Petersime batteries per room. Twelve pens of 7 birds each were used in each battery (24 pens per room, 336 birds total). One of 4 dietary feed treatments was assigned to each pen (6 pens per room for each diet). One room housed non-Salmonella-challenged poults, and the other room housed poults challenged with a 1-mL oral gavage of Salmonella (1010 cfu/mL). A single batch of starter ration was split into 4 parts and used to provide 4 dietary treatments: 1) mash feed with no DFM (M), 2) mash feed with DFM (Primalac; 0.9 kg/tonne of feed, MD), 3) pelleted (20-s steam conditioning at 80°C) and crumbled feed with no DFM (C), and 4) pelleted and crumbled feed with DFM (CD). Feed and deionized, distilled water were provided ad libitum. Data were collected and analyzed separately for each room. Mortality was recorded for each pen on a daily basis and totaled by week and for the 3-wk period. Individual BW and feed consumption, by pen, were measured weekly. Weekly and cumulative BW gains and feed to gain ratios (F:G) were calculated. Liver, spleen, total and lower intestinal tract weights, intestinal length, and most-probable-number Salmonella populations were determined for one randomly selected bird per pen. Feeding processed feed resulted in improved BW and F:G. Feeding the DFM improved 3-wk cumulative F:G in birds not gavaged and reduced relative intestinal weight in birds gavaged. Salmonella populations were reduced 1 log by feeding DFM. Dietary DFM improved bird performance, reduced Salmonella populations, and was not affected by feed processing.

SUMMARY Two experiments and 3 field trials were conducted to examine the usefulness of a novel bedding material for rearing Large White commercial turkeys. The control bedding was pine shavings (PS) in both experiments and all trials. The novel bedding, aGroChips (AC), is a chopped paper product made from cotton lint waste, gypsum, and old newsprint following a proprietary paper manufacturing process. In both experiments, hens and toms were reared according to typical industry techniques. In the first experiment, use of AC resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) heavier toms and hens. In the second, the toms brooded and reared on AC were significantly (P < 0.05) heavier than those brooded and reared on PS, whereas toms brooded on one bedding and then reared on the other were intermediate in weight. There were no differences in final cumulative FCR or carcass yield in either experiment. Three field trials were conducted with Large White commercial turkey hens in which the hens were brooded either on PS or AC, with both groups reared on PS. There was a mean increase of 0.2 kg in BW, a decrease (improvement) of 0.03 in FCR, and an increase of 3,200 kg per trial for AC-brooded birds (based on 16,000 hens placed per brooder house). A hard, dry litter crust was observed in the AC houses. With subsequent testing, further changes in the manufacturing process to create a hard, durable pellet may result in a more usable and useful bedding material.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary chromium (Cr), as chromium propionate, on measures of insulin sensitivity. Liver and muscle glycogen, and plasma glucose and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations were used as indicators of insulin sensitivity. In total, 288 newly hatched male Ross broilers were divided into 4 dietary treatments consisting of 0 (control diet analyzed 0.43 to 0.45 mg Cr/kg), 0.2, 0.4, or 0.6 mg supplemental Cr/kg diet, resulting in 4 treatments with 9 replicate pens per treatment containing eight birds per pen. At d 21, 2 birds per cage were removed based on the greatest deviation from pen mean BW, resulting in each pen containing 6 birds for the final analyses. Final BW were taken on d 40, and on d 42 two birds from each pen were sampled for plasma NEFA, glucose, and muscle and liver glycogen determination at the initiation and termination of a 22 h fast. The remaining 2 fasted birds were sampled after a 30 min refeeding period. No differences were observed in feed intake, BW gain, or feed efficiency on d 21 or d 40. Liver glycogen tended (P=0.10) to be greater in Cr-supplemented chicks in the fed state, and muscle glycogen concentrations tended (P=0.07) to be greater in Cr-supplemented chicks compared with controls following fasting and refeeding. Plasma glucose concentrations were not affected by dietary Cr in the fed, fasted, or refed state. Plasma NEFA levels were not affected by treatment in fed or fasted birds. However, plasma NEFA concentrations were lower (P

4 Abstract: Supplementing 500 ppm of a chelated calcium proteinate (CCP) to a commercial breeder diet resulted in thicker shells and improved embryo livability. The CCP diet was fed to one half of a flock of breeders on a commercial farm that was suffering shell problems, and a standard commercial diet was fed to the remaining half. Egg production, eggshell thickness, fertility and hatchability of eggs were all monitored over an 18 wk laying period. Feeding CCP increased shell thickness and reduced numbers of cull eggs after 8 wk of lay compared to the controls. When differences in eggshell thickness were seen after 10 weeks of egg production, embryo survival and cardiac physiology were examined in three trials comparing the thicker shells to thin. Thick shells (0.44 versus 0.39 mm) improved embryo survival 2% by decreasing numbers of embryos dying late in development compared to controls and affected cardiac physiology. Thus, thick shells may improve embryo viability by affecting cardiac health during the plateau stage in oxygen consumption.

Embryo and hatchling survival diminish as turkey breeder hens age. Recent data indicated that a chelated calcium proteinate (CCP) additive given to turkey breeder hens improved embryo survival as hens aged but did not affect shell thickness. We hypothesized that the mechanism by which this occurred may be by improved functional shell quality and its consequent effect on cardiac physiology. To test the hypothesis, CCP was supplemented to the diet of Large White turkey breeder hens for a 25 week egg production period and compared with controls without supplementation. Eggshell conductance, conductance constants, poult growth and cardiac physiology were measured at weeks 10, 18 and 25 of production. Because elevated temperatures increase heart rates and reduce heart weight and survival, half of the eggs was incubated at 37.9°C whereas the remaining eggs were incubated at 37.5°C. Embryos and poults from the CCP group exhibited increased heart weights and improved cardiac health. The hatching poults from CCP-fed hens also grew faster for the first 3 d of life. We conclude that CCP improves eggshell conductance, and the subsequent eggshell conductance constant (k) of eggs from turkey breeder hens. The change in k improved embryo cardiac health and poult BW after hatching.

Three experiments, which included 4 broiler flocks, were conducted to examine the usefulness of a novel bedding material for rearing broilers. The control bedding was pine shavings. The novel bedding, aGroChips (AC), was a chopped material made from cotton lint waste, gypsum, and old newsprint using a proprietary paper manufacturing process (Novovita, Inc., Raleigh, NC). All birds were fed the same feeding program: starter from 0 to 3 wk, grower from 3 to 5 or 6 wk, and finisher during the last week. Birds were marketed at either 6 or 7 wk of age. Feed consumption by pen and individual bird BW were measured at 3 and 6 or 7 wk. Mean BW and feed conversion, adjusted to include weight of mortality, were calculated. A sample of birds (n = 10) from each pen was evaluated for hock and foot pad condition. Each pen was evaluated at the end of the trial for litter cake index in 3 of the 4 flocks. Litter cake index scores were generally higher for birds reared on AC litters. There were no other differences in bird performance for any of the flocks. In conclusion, broilers reared on AC bedding perform as well as those reared on pine shavings.

Turkey poults were randomly placed in batteries and fed one of four dietary treatments: control (C); control plus 4ppm diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS); control plus 300ppm Fusaric Acid (FA); and control plus 4ppm DAS and 300ppm FA (FD). There were 10 poults per pen with 6 replicate pens per treatment. Individual BW, BW gains (BWG) and feed consumption by pen were determined at d6, d12, and d18. Period and cumulative feed to gain were calculated. Mouth lesions were scored for treatments at d18. On d18 poults were euthanized for determination of organ weights and jejunal histomorphometrics. FA had no effect on BW or BWG at any period compared to C. Poults fed FD had reduced BW and BWG compared to C, while poults fed DAS had lower BW than all treatments at every period. Poults fed FA or C had better feed to gain (P

Researchers have reported that organic mineral complexes can have increased availability compared with inorganic sources. This work was conducted to examine the inclusion of a small amount of chelated calcium proteinate (CalKey) into turkey breeder hen diets and its effect on turkey breeder hen performance. Two studies were conducted, one each in Minnesota (A) and North Carolina (B). Typical corn and soybean meal diets without animal by-product meals were used as the control diets. Hens in the first study were photostimulated at 30 wk of age in December with 15L:9D for a 24-wk lay period, and hens in a second study were photostimulated after an induced molt in January with 15.5L:8.5D for a 24-wk lay period. In study A, hatchability of fertile eggs was improved during the last 4 wk of production for hens fed calcium proteinate. During 1 period, hens fed calcium proteinate had lower daily feed intake and increased incidence of soft-shelled eggs. In study B, hatchability of fertile eggs was improved for hens fed dietary calcium proteinate for 19 and 20 wk of lay. This result was associated with improved embryo livability for wk 3 and 4 of development. It was concluded that feeding 500 ppm calcium from chelated calcium proteinate improved hatchability of turkey eggs during the later period of egg production, which was associated with decreased late embryo mortality.

Local and national laws regulating poultry litter (PL) land application may require that PL be applied based on crop needs and PL nutrient content such as N and P. In addition, some may require monitoring of soil metals such as Cu and Zn. Even with efforts to decrease fecal nutrient excretion, there is also a need to extend the useful life of current bedding materials and to develop alternative uses of spent PL. Heat treatment of PL may extend bedding life and offer alternative uses of PL. The objective of this study was to determine if heat processed turkey litter (TL) can be reused as bedding for turkeys. Pine shavings (PS) which had been used as bedding to rear Large White male turkeys from hatch to 20 weeks of age was processed at 95 and 220 C in an enclosed auger system. Four litter treatments (LT) were used: 1) control - new PS (T ), o 1 2) TL processed at 95 C (T ), 3) a 70:30 (w/w) mixture of TL processed at 95 or 220 C (T ) and 4) a 95:5 o o 2 3 (w/w) mixture of TL processed at 95 or 220 C (T ). These bedding mixtures were placed in 36 floor pens in o 4 a randomized block design to provide 9 replicate pens per LT. Thirty Large White turkey hen poults were placed in each pen on day of hatch. The birds were reared to 14 wk. Mortality and feed consumption were monitored. Period and cumulative feed conversion (FC) ratios were calculated. Regression analysis of SAS, Inc. was used for data analysis. The LS Means procedure was used to separate treatment means (P

The hypothesis was proposed that changes in functional qualities of eggs, or the eggshell conductance constant (k), may affect cardiac weight and physiology and predispose poults to a weakened condition. Improved knowledge of this relationship may allow selection of k to optimize hatchling cardiac health. Egg weights (EW), eggshell conductance (G) and lengths of the incubation period (IP) (the three components of k) were manipulated to determine their effect on the heart. Eggs were selected based on EW and G in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, eggs from the same strain were obtained from flocks of different ages so they differed in EW. Half of the eggs were exposed to increased temperature treatments resulting in shorter incubation periods (IP). Interactions of EW and G affected heart weight and metabolism in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, imposing short IP on different EW reduced cardiac weights as well as elevated glycogen to lactate ratios in the heart. Post-hatching growth was also depressed by k due to interactions of EW and IP. Thus, k affects cardiac weight and function and may contribute to weak poults.

Large White turkey breeder hens were used to evaluate the effect of three different levels of physical feed restriction on subsequent body and carcass composition. The four feed treatments were 1) ad libitum fed throughout the study (CC), 2) feed restricted from 16 to 24 wk (CR), 3) feed restricted from 3 to 16 wk (RC), and 4) feed restricted from 3 to 24 wk (RR). Feed restriction was implemented so that RC and RR hens achieved a 45% reduction in BW compared to CC hens at 16 wk. From 16 to 24 wk, feed was allotted to RR and CR hens to maintain a slight increase in BW. At the completion of each restriction period, hens were gradually returned to ad libitum feeding. At 30 wk, hens were photostimulated for a 20-wk summer season egg production cycle. Restricted fed hens had increased moisture levels at 16 and 30 wk and decreased fat levels at 16, 30, 39, and 54 wk (P < or = 0.05). Absolute and relative weights of the pectoralis major muscle were greater in hens fed ad libitum through 43 wk (P < or = 0.05). There were no differences in the number of maturing yellow follicles due to treatment. However, restricted fed hens had higher peak egg production during early lay but decreased subsequent and cumulative egg production. Changes in egg production were associated with changes in breast muscle weight. Prolactin levels were greater in hens in-production compared to hens out-of-production; however, there were no differences due to feed treatment. In conclusion, further research on quantitative feed-restriction programs, which result in body weight reductions as described in this study, should address specific physiological and nutritional requirements and not be implemented as general programs.

This paper discusses materials used as bedding or litter for the rearing of broilers and turkeys in the U.S.A. The U.S. poultry industry has historically used pine shavings as the litter of choice ...

The purpose of this study was to examine embryonic mortality in turkey eggs from hens of two ages and to report values that minimize the error of wrongly distinguishing between early embryonic mortality (EEM, Days 1 to 7 of incubation) and unfertilized eggs. Three hatch residue breakouts were performed at each of two commercial turkey hatcheries for a total of six hatches. Nicholas Large White turkey eggs from two hen age groups (32 to 35 and 44 to 50 wk of age) were set in the same incubator that operated under the incubation profile of each hatchery. The EEM was significantly greater (P ≤ 0.0001) in younger hens when compared to older hens. This was true for mortality prior to blood formation and mortality following blood formation. Hatchability, percentage internal pips, and live pips were not different between the two hen ages. Prepip mortality and percentage dead pips were significantly (P ≤ 0.0001) greater in older flocks. Fertility and EEM occurring after blood formation were negatively correlated in younger hens, whereas mortality occurring before blood formation did not correlate with fertility in eggs from either hen age. Eggs from young hens tended to experience embryonic mortality earlier in incubation than eggs from older hens. The results suggest that hen age influences embryonic mortality in modern commercial turkeys and could be used as an experimental model for further study of embryonic mortality.

Large White turkey breeder hens were used to evaluate the effect of three different levels of physical feed restriction on subsequent reproductive performance. The feed treatments were: 1) fed ad libitum throughout the study (CC), 2) feed-restricted from 16 to 24 wk (CR), 3) feed-restricted from 3 to 16 wk (RC), and 4) feed-restricted from 3 to 24 wk (RR). Feed restriction was implemented so that restricted-fed hens (RC and RR) achieved a 45% reduction in BW as compared to CC hens at 16 wk. From 16 to 24 wk, feed was allotted to RR and CR hens to maintain a slight increase in BW. At the completion of the respective restriction periods, hens were gradually returned to ad libitum feeding. At 30 wk of age, hens were photostimulated for a 20-wk summer season egg production cycle. Hens receiving RC and RR treatments laid significantly more eggs than did CC and CR hens for the first 5 wk of lay. However, once the house temperature increased to 26.7 to 29.4 C during 6 to 10 wk of lay, egg production of all hens decreased, resulting in a significant decrease in cumulative egg production for RR and RC hens compared to CC and CR hens. Egg and poult weights were less for RC and RR hens compared to those from CC and CR hens. In conclusion, age of breeder, season of implementation, and length of physical feed restriction have significant effects on the reproductive performance of turkey breeder hens.

A study was conducted to evaluate the effects of mannanoligosaccharides (MOS), bambermycins (BAM), and virginiamycin (VIR) on the growth performance of male turkeys. Hybrid Large White male poults were assigned to six dietary treatments: control, MOS, BAM, VIR, MOS+BAM (MB), and MOS+VIR (MV). All diets were formulated to meet NRC (1994) nutrient requirements. There were eight replicate floor pens per treatment with 20 birds per pen reared from 1 to 140 d. Body weight and feed conversion (FC) were collected at 3-wk intervals and at 20 wk of age. Mortality and culled birds were recorded daily. All treatments except MV significantly (P < 0.05) increased 20 wk BW. Body weight was increased at 12 wk by BAM, whereas VIR increased BW at Weeks 12 and 15. All treatments improved FC for Weeks 0 to 3, whereas VIR, MB, and MV improved FC for Weeks 0 to 12 and 0 to 18. There were no treatment effects on cumulative mortality or cull rate. Dietary supplemental MOS, BAM, and VIR resulted in improved growth performance of Large White turkeys. These results indicate that MOS may be utilized as an alternative to antibiotic growth promotants to improve turkey performance.

SUMMARY Embryonic growth relationships exist for egg weight, eggshell conductance, and length of the incubation period. These relationships have been well established for comparisons of embryonic development across species; however, very little is known about these relationships within a species. The hypothesis was tested that survival of embryos in turkey eggs could be changed by manipulating incubation periods. Fertile eggs were obtained three times from the same breeder flocks (two strains). Two incubator temperature treatments were used to create two different incubation periods for the eggs. Eggs produced at 33 weeks of age hatched better at shorter incubation periods, eggs produced at 43 weeks of age hatched equally well at both incubation temperatures, and eggs produced at 54 weeks of age hatched better at longer incubation periods. Livability for 5 days in brooder houses was highly variable but indicated survival differences between strains. Additionally, longer incubation periods produced poults that lived better than did controls. The results suggest that the conductance constant principle, which describes the relationship among egg weight, length of incubation, and eggshell conductance, can be used in commercial hatcheries to improve embryo survival and poult quality.

The hypothesis was proposed that embryonic growth could be influenced paternally in the absence of changes in egg weight or eggshell conductance. Sire families were established by selecting 11 sires based on blood sampling of approximately 50 commercial turkey males. Southern blot analysis was used to identify the most distantly related individuals in the subpopulation. Five hen siblings or half-siblings of the males were randomly assigned to each male to randomize effects of egg size and eggshell conductance. Artificial inseminations were performed weekly for 17 wk, using each sire with the assigned hens. Fertilized eggs were collected and set in incubators at biweekly intervals. Offspring were observed at the time of hatching for sex, body weight, and blood glucose concentration. Significant differences among sires were observed at hatching for poult weights and blood glucose concentration, and a significant correlation between the BW and glucose concentration was noted. Progeny of sires with the highest and lowest BW and blood glucose concentrations were subsequently compared. Mean BW of poults from different sires differed by as much as 10 g, although they were hatched from eggs of the same weight. Elevated blood glucose was associated with heavier BW; heavier heart, liver, and muscle weights; a rapid utilization of glycogen at pipping; and increased gluconeogenesis as measured by plasma organic acids and glucose-6-phosphatase activity. We conclude that poult embryonic growth differs even when not mediated by egg size and functional characteristics.

This study was performed to determine whether poults from young turkey breeder hens (YHP, 15 wk of lay) and whether poult bacterial profiles change over the life of a breeder hen flock. Within two hatcheries, YHP had higher numbers of coliforms present in intestines than OHP (p ≤ 0.05). Isolated incidences of significantly different bacteria counts by hen age existed in poults from a third hatchery for all bacteria groups examined. However, within each hatchery, there were more differences due to farm than due to breeder hen age. Seasonal variation had as much influence as hen age when evaluating poult bacterial profiles. It was concluded that factors such as individual farm management, poult environment, biosecurity and traffic control, breeder flock bacterial profiles, and weekly conditions in the hatchery probably have a greater effect on poult bacterial profile than age of breeder hen.