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To sustainably increase wheat yield to meet the growing world population's food demand in the face of climate change, Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a promising approach. Still, there is a lack of genomic studies investigating the genetic basis of crop adaptation to CA. To dissect the genetic architecture of 19 morpho-physiological traits that could be involved in the enhanced adaptation and performance of genotypes under CA, we performed GWAS to identify MTAs under four contrasting production regimes viz., conventional tillage timely sown (CTTS), conservation agriculture timely sown (CATS), conventional tillage late sown (CTLS) and conservation agriculture late sown (CALS) using an association panel of 183 advanced wheat breeding lines along with 5 checks. Traits like Phi2 (Quantum yield of photosystem II; CATS:0.37, CALS: 0.31), RC (Relative chlorophyll content; CATS:55.51, CALS: 54.47) and PS1 (Active photosystem I centers; CATS:2.45, CALS: 2.23) have higher mean values in CA compared to CT under both sowing times. GWAS identified 80 MTAs for the studied traits across four production environments. The phenotypic variation explained (PVE) by these QTNs ranged from 2.15 to 40.22%. Gene annotation provided highly informative SNPs associated with Phi2, NPQ (Quantum yield of non-photochemical quenching), PS1, and RC which were linked with genes that play crucial roles in the physiological adaptation under both CA and CT. A highly significant SNP AX94651261 (9.43% PVE) was identified to be associated with Phi2, while two SNP markers AX94730536 (30.90% PVE) and AX94683305 (16.99% PVE) were associated with NPQ. Identified QTNs upon validation can be used in marker-assisted breeding programs to develop CA adaptive genotypes., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Straw return is an effective measure to promote sustainable agriculture by significantly improving soil fertility. At present, few studies have been conducted on the most effective carbon enhancing management measures for various crops. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis using data collected from 184 literature sources, comprising 3297 data sets to analyze the carbon increase effects of straw returning in three main crops (rice, maize, and wheat) in China and to explore the influence mechanism of natural factors, soil properties, straw return measures, and cropping systems on the carbon enhancement effect. The study showed that straw return significantly increased soil organic carbon and the rate of increase was higher for wheat at 15.88% (14.74%-17.03%) than for rice at 12.7% (11.5%-13.91%) and maize at 12.42% (11.42%-13.42%), with varying degrees of improvement in other soil physicochemical properties. Natural factors have the greatest impact on the carbon increasing effect of rice fields, reaching 28.8%, especially at temperature between 10 °C and 15 °C, less than 800 mm precipitation, low latitude, and short frost-free period. Maize and wheat are most affected by soil properties, reaching 41% and 34.5% respectively. Furthermore, field management practices also play a pivotal role, organic carbon increasing obviously was observed when the C/N ratio of exogenous nutrients is bigger than 20 with the low initial organic matter. Shallow tillage and less than 7.5 t hm -2 straw returning with 3-10 years to the field are ideal for rice and maize. Crop rotation, especially in drylands, increased soil organic carbon more significantly than continuous. The results of our analysis can provide valuable insights into the effect of straw return on carbon increase. In the future, the soil carbon can be improved by adopting rational cropping patterns and straw return measures with taking into account climate and soil characteristics for different crops., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest There is no conflict of interest between the authors., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Wheat grain production is a vital component of the food supply produced by smallholder farms but faces significant threats from climate change. This study evaluated eight environmental impacts of wheat production using life cycle assessment based on survey data from 274 households, then built random forest models with 21 input features to contrast the environmental responses of different farming practices across three shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs), spanning from 2024 to 2100. The results indicate significant environmental repercussions. Compared to the baseline period of 2018-2020, a similar upward trend in environmental impacts is observed, showing an average annual growth rate of 5.88 % (ranging from 0.45 to 18.56 %) under the sustainable pathway (SSP119) scenario; 5.90 % (ranging from 1.00 to 18.15 %) for the intermediate development pathway (SSP245); and 6.22 % (ranging from 1.16 to 17.74 %) under the rapid economic development pathway (SSP585). Variation in rainfall is identified as the primary driving factor of the increased environmental impacts, whereas its relationship with rising temperatures is not significant. The results suggest adopting farming practices as a vital strategy for smallholder farms to mitigate climate change impacts. Emphasizing appropriate fertilizer application and straw recycling can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of wheat production. Standardized fertilization could reduce the environmental impact index by 11.10 to 47.83 %, while straw recycling might decrease respiratory inorganics and photochemical oxidant formation potential by over 40 %. Combined, these approaches could lower the impact index by 12.31 to 63.38 %. The findings highlight the importance of adopting enhanced farming practices within smallholder farming systems in the context of climate change. SPOTLIGHTS., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Maintaining or even increasing crop yields while reducing nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions is necessary to reconcile food security and climate change, while the metric of yield-scaled N 2 O emission (i.e., N 2 O emissions per unit of crop yield) is at present poorly understood. Here we conducted a global meta-analysis with more than 6000 observations to explore the variation patterns and controlling factors of yield-scaled N 2 O emissions for maize, wheat and rice and associated potential mitigation options. Our results showed that the average yield-scaled N 2 O emissions across all available data followed the order wheat (322 g N Mg -1 , with the 95% confidence interval [CI]: 301-346) > maize (211 g N Mg -1 , CI: 198-225) > rice (153 g N Mg -1 , CI: 144-163). Yield-scaled N 2 O emissions for individual crops were generally higher in tropical or subtropical zones than in temperate zones, and also showed a trend towards lower intensities from low to high latitudes. This global variation was better explained by climatic and edaphic factors than by N fertilizer management, while their combined effect predicted more than 70% of the variance. Furthermore, our analysis showed a significant decrease in yield-scaled N 2 O emissions with increasing N use efficiency or in N 2 O emissions for production systems with cereal yields >10 Mg ha -1 (maize), 6.6 Mg ha -1 (wheat) or 6.8 Mg ha -1 (rice), respectively. This highlights that N use efficiency indicators can be used as valuable proxies for reconciling trade-offs between crop production and N 2 O mitigation. For all three major staple crops, reducing N fertilization by up to 30%, optimizing the timing and placement of fertilizer application or using enhanced-efficiency N fertilizers significantly reduced yield-scaled N 2 O emissions at similar or even higher cereal yields. Our data-driven assessment provides some key guidance for developing effective and targeted mitigation and adaptation strategies for the sustainable intensification of cereal production., (© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The complex evolutionary history of wheat has shaped its associated root microbial community. However, consideration of impacts from agricultural intensification has been limited. This study investigated how endogenous (genome polyploidization) and exogenous (introduction of chemical fertilizers) factors have shaped beneficial rhizobacterial selection. We combined culture-independent and -dependent methods to analyze rhizobacterial community composition and its associated functions at the root-soil interface from a range of ancestral and modern wheat genotypes, grown with and without the addition of chemical fertilizer. In controlled pot experiments, fertilization and soil compartment (rhizosphere, rhizoplane) were the dominant factors shaping rhizobacterial community composition, whereas the expansion of the wheat genome from diploid to allopolyploid caused the next greatest variation. Rhizoplane-derived culturable bacterial collections tested for plant growth-promoting (PGP) traits revealed that fertilization reduced the abundance of putative plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in allopolyploid wheats but not in wild wheat progenitors. Taxonomic classification of these isolates showed that these differences were largely driven by reduced selection of beneficial root bacteria representative of the Bacteroidota phylum in allopolyploid wheats. Furthermore, the complexity of supported beneficial bacterial populations in hexaploid wheats was greatly reduced in comparison to diploid wild wheats. We therefore propose that the selection of root-associated bacterial genera with PGP functions may be impaired by crop domestication in a fertilizer-dependent manner, a potentially crucial finding to direct future plant breeding programs to improve crop production systems in a changing environment., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Society for Microbial Ecology.)

To determine the optimal planting density under wide-width sowing condition, we investigated the effects of different planting densities on photosynthetic characteristics of flag leaves, senescence characteristics of flag lea-ves and roots, grain yield, and water use efficiency under four planting density levels, 90×10 4 plants·hm -2 (D 1 ), 180×10 4 plants·hm -2 (D 2 ), 270×10 4 plants·hm -2 (D 3 ) and 360×10 4 plants·hm -2 (D 4 ), in field condition set in Yanzhou, Shandong during the growing season of 2018-2019 and 2019-2020. The results showed that compared with D 1 and D 4 treatments, D 2 treatment significantly improved photosynthetic characteristics of wheat flag leaves during grain filling, increased the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and soluble protein content, reduced the malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and delayed the senescence of flag leaves and roots. Compared with other treatments, D 2 treatment significantly increased root length, root surface area and root volume in 0-40 cm soil layer. Compared with D 1 , D 3 and D 4 treatments, the grain yield of D 2 treatment was increased by 11.8%, 2.5%, 6.4% in 2018-2019 and 22.7%, 5.7%, 17.1% in 2019-2020, respectively. In addition, water use efficiency was increased by 9.2%, 8.8%, 14.2% in 2018-2019 and 21.1%, 6.2%, 21.5% in 2019-2020, respectively. The planting density at 180×10 4 plants·hm -2 improved photosynthetic characteristics of flag leaves and root morphology during filling stage, delayed plant senescence, increased grain number per spike and grain weight. Consequently, the highest grain yield and water use efficiency were obtained under D 2 treatment, which was the optimal treatment under the experimental wide-width sowing condition.

The influence of growing season rainfall on agricultural production is indisputable. In Morocco, the production of crops such as barley, maize, and wheat is impacted by growing season rainfall. Due to persistent gaps in growing season rainfall and other drivers of crop yield, crops have experienced observed yields that are often below projected or potential yields. However, there are currently no studies that have quantified these gaps in yield and growing season rainfall in Morocco. To achieve this objective, time-series crop yield for all three crops and growing season rainfall data for the period 1991-2020 were collected from FAOSTAT and the World Bank climate portal, respectively. Growing season rainfall and crop yield data for the spatial variations were culled from System National de Suivi Agrometeorologique (GCMS) and the yield gaps atlas, respectively, for the same historical period. The data were subjected to bias correction to handle uncertainty. The projected/simulated crop yields and growing season rainfall were computed by regression analysis. Crop yield and growing season rainfall gaps were determined by establishing the difference between the projected and observed crop yields and rainfall data. The results show that observed and simulated wheat have a stronger relationship when compared to the other crops. Also, most years with crop yield gaps are associated with growing season rainfall gaps. Wheat records the lowest number of years with yield gaps and the highest number of years with growing season rainfall gaps during the entire data series. Therefore, even though yield gaps are strongly tied to growing season rainfall gaps, it is not the case for wheat, and therefore other drivers might be important because wheat has the lowest number of years with crop yield gaps and the highest number of years with growing season rainfall gaps. Spatially, yield and growing season rainfall gaps decline with increased latitude. The broader perspective and policy implication here is that a better understanding of yield and growing season rainfall gaps mandates an understanding of growing season rainfall and other drivers of yield. As a way forward, potential research should focus on identifying the drivers of yield gaps, sub-national experimentation at the plot level as well as on closing yield gaps through water and nutrient management., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Climate change induced heat stress is predicted to negatively impact wheat yields across the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of India. Research suggests that early sowing of wheat can substantially reduce this impact. However, a large proportion of farmers sow wheat late across this region, likely resulting in large-scale yield loss. We examined the extent of late wheat sowing across the IGP and which perceptional, management, biophysical, and socio-economic factors are associated with delayed sowing using household survey data from 2429 farmers and the cumulative logit model. Our results indicate that despite understanding that early sowing can be helpful to avoid terminal heat stress, over 50% of farmers sow wheat later than their perceived ideal wheat sowing date. We find that variables related to how wheat fields are prepared prior to sowing are associated with wheat sowing date. Specifically, farmers who had shorter fallow periods prior to sowing wheat and those who used zero tillage were 95% and 65% more likely to sow wheat earlier, respectively. In addition, we found that how farmers managed their rice crop in the preceding cropping season impacted wheat sowing date - farmers who transplanted and harvested rice later and/or planted longer duration rice varieties sowed their wheat later. Our results suggest that policies that promote earlier sowing of rice, such as improved access to irrigation and direct seeding machinery, and reduced field preparation time, such as wider adoption of zero tillage technologies, can help farmers across the IGP sow wheat earlier. This is critical given that warming temperatures will only increase the negative impacts of terminal heat stress on wheat yields across this region over the coming decades., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Agriculture is one of the most important sectors in the Indian context. It is one of the highest employing sectors in the Indian scenario. Unlike other sectors agriculture is highly dependent on the quality and the quantity of both the external factors like rainfall, climate, pH of the soil, fertilizers and insecticides used, and internal factors like the quality of seeds. This paper predicts the production of crops as a function of rainfall for four Indian States. This knowledge can be implemented in generating a rough overview of how the production is based on rainfall and how much can a specific crop production for the amount of rainfall it receives. Two crops each belonging to four different states are chosen and the best regression model for the crop of the state is chosen. There is no research done solely on how rainfall affects crops of particular states. The proposed method of evaluation is better than other existing methods of evaluation as it evaluates all the regression techniques (Linear Regression, Polynomial Regression, Support Vector Regression, Decision Tree Regression, Random Forest, and XGBRegression) for two crops of four individual states. For balanced evaluation, two states of North India and two states of South India are selected. The regression techniques are evaluated based on their Mean Squared Error., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Plastic film mulch is widely used to improve crop yield and water use efficiency (WUE, yield per unit evapotranspiration) in semi-arid regions. It is commonly applied as partial-film mulch (PM: at least 50% soil cover) or full-film mulch (FM: complete soil cover). The PM has lower economic and environmental cost; hence it would be a superior technology provided it delivers similar gains in yield and WUE in relation to FM., Results: To solve contradictory results from individual studies, we compared FM and PM in a meta-analysis of 100 studies with 1881 comparisons (685 for wheat; 1196 for maize). Compared with bare ground, FM and PM both increased yield of wheat (20-26%) and maize (37-52%), and WUE of wheat (16-20%) and maize (38-48%), with statistically undistinguishable differences between PM and FM. The increases in crop yield and WUE were stronger at elevation > 1000 m, with annual precipitation<400 mm, and on loess soil, especially for maize., Conclusions: We concluded that partial-film mulch could replace full-film mulch to return similar yield and WUE improvement, with reduced cost and environmental pollution. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Active nitrifiers and rapid nitrification are major contributing factors to nitrogen losses in global wheat production. Suppressing nitrifier activity is an effective strategy to limit N losses from agriculture. Production and release of nitrification inhibitors from plant roots is termed "biological nitrification inhibition" (BNI). Here, we report the discovery of a chromosome region that controls BNI production in "wheat grass" Leymus racemosus (Lam.) Tzvelev, located on the short arm of the "Lr#3Ns b " (Lr#n), which can be transferred to wheat as T3BL.3Ns b S (denoted Lr#n-SA), where 3BS arm of chromosome 3B of wheat was replaced by 3Ns b S of L. racemosus We successfully introduced T3BL.3Ns b S into the wheat cultivar "Chinese Spring" (CS-Lr#n-SA, referred to as "BNI-CS"), which resulted in the doubling of its BNI capacity. T3BL.3Ns b S from BNI-CS was then transferred to several elite high-yielding hexaploid wheat cultivars, leading to near doubling of BNI production in "BNI-MUNAL" and "BNI-ROELFS." Laboratory incubation studies with root-zone soil from field-grown BNI-MUNAL confirmed BNI trait expression, evident from suppression of soil nitrifier activity, reduced nitrification potential, and N 2 O emissions. Changes in N metabolism included reductions in both leaf nitrate, nitrate reductase activity, and enhanced glutamine synthetase activity, indicating a shift toward ammonium nutrition. Nitrogen uptake from soil organic matter mineralization improved under low N conditions. Biomass production, grain yields, and N uptake were significantly higher in BNI-MUNAL across N treatments. Grain protein levels and breadmaking attributes were not negatively impacted. Wide use of BNI functions in wheat breeding may combat nitrification in high N input-intensive farming but also can improve adaptation to low N input marginal areas., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest., (Copyright © 2021 the Author(s). Published by PNAS.)

Aims: The aims of this study were to determine the occurrence of Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) on soybean pods, seeds and roots, including rhizoplane, during the period of soybean crop in rotation with wheat and to evaluate the FGSC dynamics on wheat and soybean residues during two soybean growing seasons in rotation with wheat, particularly F. graminearum sensu stricto (FGss)., Methods and Results: Soybean roots, pods and seeds were analysed during 2012/13 and 2013/14 seasons. The morphological identification of FGSC and mycotoxin analysis was done. Crop residues were taken in both soybean season in wheat rotation and FGss were quantificated by real-time PCR. The results showed that Fusarium species, mainly FGSC, survive in a soybean crop in rotation with wheat. Isolation frequency of these species was higher on soybean pods than on seeds at R6 stage. Deoxynivalenol contamination on soybean seeds was higher in the 2013/14 season in comparison with the 2012/13 season. Low isolation levels of Fusarium species and species that did not belong to FGSC were observed in soybean root, whereas in rhizoplane a higher level was observed. Fusarium species inoculum on residues remained stable during crop succession and the FGSC were recovered from both wheat and soybean residues. Real time PCR data showed a higher DNA concentration of FGss in wheat residues in the first developmental stages of soybean plants, being the levels more significant during 2012/13 season. With regard to soybean residues collected during the wheat growing stages, an increase in DNA from anthesis until wheat harvest was observed., Conclusions: In a no-till production system, the populations of FGSC can colonize wheat and soybean residues to become an inoculum source., Significance and Impact of the Study: This study provides new data on the occurrence of FGSC populations in soybean plant and FGss on residues in soybean-wheat rotation, a cultural practice commonly used in in Argentina., (© 2020 The Society for Applied Microbiology.)

Background: A growing ability and interest in the collection of data, together with the development and adoption of the FAIR guiding principles, has increased the amount of data available in many disciplines. This has given rise to an urgent need for robust metadata. Within the Australian grains industry, data from over thousands of on-farm research trials (Trial Projects) have been made available via the Online Farm Trials (OFT) website. OFT Trial Project metadata were developed as filters to refine front-end database searches, but could also be used as a dataset to investigate trends in metadata elements. Australian grains crops are being sown earlier, but whether on-farm research trials reflect this change is currently unknown. Methods: We investigated whether OFT Trial Project metadata could be used to detect trends in sowing dates of on-farm crop research trials across Australia, testing the hypothesis that research trials are being sown earlier in line with local farming practices. The investigation included 15 autumn-sown, winter crop species listed in the database, with trial records from 1993 to 2019. Results: Our analyses showed that (i) OFT Trial Project metadata can be used as a dataset to detect trends in sowing date; and (ii) cropping research trials are being sown earlier in Victoria and Western Australia, but no trend exists within the other states. Discussion/Conclusion: Our findings show that OFT Trial Project metadata can be used to detect trends in crop sowing date, suggesting that metadata could also be used to detect trends in other metadata elements such as harvest date. Because OFT is a national database of research trials, further assessment of metadata may uncover important agronomic, cultural or economic trends within or across the Australian cropping regions. New information could then be used to lead practice change and increase productivity within the Australian grains industry., Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed., (Copyright: © 2020 Walters J et al.)

Understanding processes in sources and sinks that contribute to crop yields has taken years of painstaking research. For crop yield improvement, processes need to be understood as standalone mechanisms in addition to how these mechanisms perform at the crop level; currently there is often a chasm between the two. Fundamental mechanisms need to be considered in the context of crop ideotypes and the agricultural environment which is often more water limited than carbon limited. Different approaches for improvement should be considered, namely is there genetic variation? Or if not, could genetic modification, genome editing, or alternative approaches be utilized? Currently, there are few examples where genetic modification has improved intrinsic yield in the field for commercial application in a major crop. Genome editing, particularly of negative yield regulators as a first step, is providing new opportunities. Here we highlight key mechanisms in source and sink, arguing that for large yield increases integration of key processes is likely to produce the biggest successes within the framework of crop ideotypes with optimized phenology. We highlight a plethora of recent papers that show breakthroughs in fundamental science and the promise of the trehalose 6-phosphate signalling pathway, which regulates carbohydrate allocation which is key for many crop traits., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.)

Tropospheric ozone (O 3 ) is a pollutant of widespread concern in the world and especially in China for its negative effects on agricultural crops. For the first time, yield and economic losses of wheat between 2014 and 2017 were estimated for the North China Plain (NCP) using observational hourly O 3 data from 312 monitoring stations and exposure-response functions based on AOT40 index (accumulated hourly O 3 concentration above 40 ppb) from a Chinese study. AOT40 values from 2014 to 2017 during the wheat growing seasons (75-days, 44 before and 30 after mid-anthesis) ranged from 3.1 to 14.9 ppm h, 4.9-17.5 ppm h, 7.3-17.6 ppm h, and 0.5-18.6 ppm h, respectively. The highest AOT40 values were observed in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region. The values of relative yield losses from 2014 to 2017 were in the ranges of 6.4-30.5%, 10.0-35.8%, 14.9-34.1%, and 21.6-38.2%, respectively. The total wheat production losses in NCP for 2014-2017 accounted for 18.5%, 22.7%, 26.2% and 30.8% in the whole production, while the economic losses amounted to 6,292 million USD, 8,524 million USD, 10,068 million USD, and 12,404 million USD, respectively. The important impact of O 3 in this area, which is of global importance, should be considered when assessing wheat yield production. Our results also show an increasing trend in AOT40, relative yield loss, total crop production loss and economic loss in the four consecutive years., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The Inland Pacific Northwest is one of the most productive dryland wheat production areas in the United States. We explored the bacterial and fungal communities associated with wheat in a controlled greenhouse experiment using soils from multiple locations to identify core taxa consistently associated with wheat roots and how land use history influences wheat-associated communities. Further, we examined microbial co-occurrence networks from wheat rhizospheres to identify candidate hub taxa. Location of origin and land use history (long-term no-till versus noncropped Conservation Reserve Program [CRP]) of soils were the strongest drivers of bacterial and fungal communities. Wheat rhizospheres were especially enriched in many bacterial families, while only a few fungal taxa were enriched in the rhizosphere. There was a core set of bacteria and fungi that was found in >95% of rhizosphere or bulk soil samples, including members of Bradyrhizobium, Sphingomonadaceae , Massilia , Variovorax , Oxalobacteraceae , and Caulobacteraceae Core fungal taxa in the rhizosphere included Nectriaceae, Ulocladium , Alternaria , Mortierella , and Microdochium Overall, there were fewer core fungal taxa, and the rhizosphere effect was not as pronounced as with bacteria. Cross-domain co-occurrence networks were used to identify hub taxa in the wheat rhizosphere, which included bacterial and fungal taxa (e.g., Sphingomonas , Massilia , Knufia , and Microdochium ). Our results suggest that there is a relatively small group of core rhizosphere bacteria that were highly abundant on wheat roots regardless of soil origin and land use history. These core communities may play important roles in nutrient uptake, suppressing fungal pathogens, and other plant health functions. IMPORTANCE Plant-associated microbiomes are critical for plant health and other important agroecosystem processes. We assessed the bacterial and fungal microbiomes of wheat grown in soils from across a dryland wheat cropping systems in eastern Washington to identify the core microbiome on wheat roots that is consistent across soils from different locations and land use histories. Moreover, cross-domain co-occurrence network analysis identified core and hub taxa that may play important roles in microbial community assembly. Candidate core and hub taxa provide a starting point for targeting microbiome components likely to be critical to plant health and for constructing synthetic microbial communities for further experimentation. This work is one of the first examples of identifying a core microbiome on a major field crop grown across hundreds of square kilometers over a wide range of biogeographical zones., (Copyright © 2020 American Society for Microbiology.)

In the current study, the temporal distribution of both soil water and soil NO 3 -N under several conservation agriculture (CA) practices during the wheat crop growth were characterized by HYDRUS-2D model. Treatments comprised of conventional tillage (CT), permanent broad beds (PBB), zero tillage (ZT), PBB with residue (PBB+R) and ZT with residue (ZT+R). Hydraulic inputs of the model, comprising the measured value of K fs , α and n, obtained as the output of Rosetta Lite model were optimized through inverse modeling. Model predicted the daily change in soil water content (SWC) of the profile during the simulated period (62-91 DAS) with good accuracy (R 2 = 0.75; root mean squared error (RMSE) = 0.038). In general, soil water balance simulated from the model showed 50% lower cumulative drainage, 50% higher cumulative transpiration along with higher soil water retention, in PBB+R than CT. Reported values of the first-order rate constants, signify nitrification of urea to NH 4 -N (μ a ) (day -1 ) nitrification of NH 4 -N to NO 3 -N (μ n ) (day -1 ) and the distribution coefficient of urea (K d -in cm 3 mg -1 ) were optimized through inverse modeling. Later they were used as solute transport reaction input parameters of the model, to predict the daily change in NO 3 -N of the profile with better accuracy (R 2 = 0.83; RMSE = 4.62). Since NH 4 -N disappears fast, it could not be measured frequently. Therefore, not enough data could be generated for their use in the calibration and validation of the model. Results of simulation of daily NO 3 -N concentration indicated a higher concentration of NO 3 -N in the surface layer and its leaching losses beyond the root zone were relatively lesser in PBB+R, than CT, which resulted in less contamination of the belowground water. Thus, the study clearly recommended PBB+R to be adopted for wheat cultivation in maize-wheat cropping system, as it enhances the water and nitrogen availability in the root zone and reduce their losses beyond the root zone.

More than three-quarters of the world's total cultivated land is under rainfed farming, producing almost 70% of total food. Most food production comes from developing and least favored nations. Pakistan, a developing country with an agro-based economy, is facing severe threats from climate change. Rainfed agriculture, especially wheat farming, is highly susceptible due to its heavy dependency on precipitation, one of the most important climatic parameters. Wheat is the main food crop, as well as a major source of calorific intake, for millions of people in Pakistan. This study aims to quantify the impacts of climate variability on mean yield levels and yield variability of wheat crop in the rainfed zone of Pakistan. Multistage random sampling technique is used for primary data collection from 400 rainfed wheat farmers during the 2016-17 crop season. The study uses primary data on crop input-output, management, socioeconomic, institutional, and historical climatic data (1980-2017). The data are analyzed employing the Just and Pope (J-P) stochastic production function approach with linear and non-linear functional forms. The results reveal that temperature rise negatively affects observed wheat mean yields, while cumulative precipitation positively affected it. Further, input market access, seed rate, and cumulative precipitation also cause variability in yield levels, leading to yield instability. Further, farm elevation influences wheat mean yield positively while input market access influences it negatively. The findings of the study have important implications for climate resilient wheat farming. Timely and tailor-made adaptations need to be undertaken in the rainfed wheat farming systems of Pakistan. Creating awareness among farmers about the optimal use of agronomic inputs under changing climatic conditions could be an effective adaptation strategy that improves yields and copes with yield instability., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Accurately predicting changes in the potential distribution of crops resulting from climate change has great significance for adapting to and mitigating the impacts of climate change and ensuring food security. Based on very large datasets of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) occurrence points and the main environmental factors that affect wheat growth, we used the Maxent model to predict the future global potential distribution and land suitability for wheat cultivation under multiple global climate change scenarios. Our results indicated that the suitability for wheat cultivation is primarily influenced by climatic factors and that the ≥0 °C accumulated temperature is especially important. The RCP4.5 scenario is more favourable for wheat cultivation, whereas the RCP8.5 scenario is the least favourable. Moreover, land suitability for wheat cultivation increased in Europe, Russia, the United States, Canada, China, and Pakistan, whereas a decreasing trend in suitability was found in Central and Eastern Africa, Australia, and South India. Overall, climate change is predicted to increase land suitability for wheat cultivation in middle- and high-latitude areas, and to decrease suitability in low latitude areas. Although the global distribution of wheat will not significantly alter with climate change, the risks to wheat cultivation may be significantly higher in the future because of high temperatures, heat waves, and droughts caused by climate change., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The extreme temperatures and uneven distribution of rainfall associated with climate change are expected to affect agricultural productivity and food security. A study was conducted to evaluate the impact of climate change on wheat in southeastern regions of Turkey. The CERES-wheat crop simulation model was calibrated and evaluated with data from eight surveyed farms. The four farms were used for calibration and four for evaluation. Climate change scenarios were developed for the middle (2036-2065) and late 21st century (2066-2095) under representative concentration pathways (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5) for study sites in Islahiye and Nurdagi. Model calibration results showed a good agreement between observed and simulated yield with only a 1 to 11% range of error. The model evaluation results showed good fit between observed and simulated values of all parameters with % error ranged from 0.51 to 13.3%. Future climate change projections showed that maximum temperature (Tmax) will increase between 1.6 °C (RCP4.5) and 2.3 °C (RCP8.5), while minimum temperature (Tmin) will increase between 1.0 °C (RCP4.5) and 1.5 °C (RCP8.5) for mid-century. At the end of the century, Tmax is projected to increase from 2 °C (RCP4.5) to 4 °C (RCP8.5) and Tmin from 1.3 °C (RCP4.5) to 3.1 °C (RCP8.5). Climate change impacts results showed that future rise in temperature will reduce wheat yield by 16.3% in mid-century and 16.8% at the end of the century at Islahiye and for Nurdagi, while 13.0% in mid and 14.4% end of the century. The use of climate and crop modeling technique provides useful information in evaluating the climate change impacts and may assist stakeholders to make decisions to overcome the negative impacts in the near and long term.

Increasing nitrogen fertilizer applications have sustained a growing world population in the 20th century. However, to avoid any further associated environmental damage, new sustainable agronomic practices together with new cultivars must be developed. To date the concept of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) has been useful in quantifying the processes of nitrogen uptake and utilization, but we propose a shift in focus to consider nitrogen responsiveness as a more appropriate trait to select varieties with lower nitrogen requirements. We provide a roadmap to integrate the regulation of nitrogen uptake and assimilation into varietal selection and crop breeding programs. The overall goal is to reduce nitrogen inputs by farmers growing crops in contrasting cropping systems around the world, while sustaining yields and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Symptoms of Fusarium crown rot of wheat include premature death of inflorescens (whiteheads), lesions on subcrown internodes, and rotting of crown tissue and lower stem internodes. Each symptom type is influenced by a different set of environmental conditions. Whiteheads are the easiest symptom to quantify and are frequently reported in the Pacific Northwest U.S.A. The objective of this research was to examine factors associated with whitehead expression and relationships with wheat yield and test weight. Incidence of whiteheads differed for inoculations with different isolates of F. pseudograminearum and F. culmorum , and over years due to weather factors. Whiteheads became less as planting dates for winter wheat were delayed until after September, and incidence was increased with increasing nitrogen application rate. Dates of initial and greatest expression of whiteheads differed among cultivars, which was associated in part with the cultivar heading date. Whiteheads were not correlated with subcrown internode lesions or browning of crown tissue. Whiteheads were also not correlated with grain test weight. Whiteheads were sometimes negatively associated with grain yield, but that relationship was variable and could not be considered a reliable, recurrent, or accurate measure of crown rot severity. These results indicate the need for caution in reporting whiteheads as a sole indicator of cultivar susceptibility to Fusarium crown rot.

Background: Wheat is a cool seasoned crop requiring low temperature during grain filling duration and therefore increased temperature causes significant yield reduction. A set of 125 spring wheat genotypes from International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT-Mexico) was evaluated for phenological and yield related traits at three locations in Pakistan under normal sowing time and late sowing time for expose to prolonged high temperature. With the help of genome-wide association study using genotyping-by-sequencing, marker trait associations (MTAs) were observed separately for the traits under normal and late sown conditions., Results: Significant reduction ranging from 9 to 74% was observed in all traits under high temperature. Especially 30, 25, 41 and 66% reduction was observed for days to heading (DH), plant height (PH), spikes per plant (SPP) and yield respectively. We identified 55,954 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) using genotyping by sequencing of these 125 hexaploid spring wheat genotypes and conducted genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for days to heading (DH), grain filled duration (GFD), plant height (PH), spikes per plant (SPP), grain number per spike (GNS), thousand kernel weight (TKW) and grain yield per plot (GY). Genomic regions identified through GWAS explained up to 13% of the phenotypic variance, on average. A total of 139 marker-trait associations (MTAs) across three wheat genomes (56 on genome A, 55 on B and 28 on D) were identified for all the seven traits studied. For days to heading, 20; grain filled duration, 21; plant height, 23; spikes per plant, 13; grain numbers per spike, 8; thousand kernel weight, 21 and for grain yield, 33 MTAs were detected under normal and late sown conditions., Conclusions: This study identifies the essential resource of genetics research and underpins the chromosomal regions of seven agronomic traits under normal and high temperature. Significant relationship was observed between the number of favored alleles and trait observations. Fourteen protein coding genes with their respective annotations have been searched with the sequence of seven MTAs which were identified in this study. These findings will be helpful in the development of a breeder friendly platform for the selection of high yielding wheat lines at high temperature areas.

In two growing seasons of wheat (2016-2018), a field trial with Jimai 22 as test mate-rial was conducted in Shijiawangzi Village, Yanzhou City, Shandong Province. Under three nitrogen levels of 150 (N 1 ), 180 (N 2 ) and 210 (N 3 ) kg·hm -2 , two irrigation-fertilization methods were designed at jointing as border irrigation and broadcasting of fertilizer (W 1 ), micro spraying irrigation and water-fertilizer integration (W 2 ), to examine the effects of irrigation-fertilization methods on water use, photosynthetic characteristics, and dry matter accumulation and transport of wheat. The results showed that under the same nitrogen level, seven days average soil evaporation of W 2 treatment in filling period was significantly lower than that of W 1 treatment, and that soil water consumption in the 60-160 cm soil layer was significantly higher than that in W 1 treatment. The flag leaf net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance and transpiration rate of W 2 treatment were signi-ficantly higher than W 1 treatment from 14 to 28 days after anthesis. The amount of dry matter in anthesis and maturity stage and the allocation to grain of post-anthesis assimilates of W 2 treatment were significantly higher than those in W 1 treatment. There was no difference in total water consumption between W 2 and W 1 treatments. Grain yield, water use efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency of W 2 treatment were significantly higher than W 1 treatment. The highest grain yield, water use efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency were obtained at the nitrogen level of 210 kg·hm -2 . By comprehensive considerations, under the same nitrogen level, treatment of micro spraying irrigation and water-fertilizer integration was better than border irrigation and broadcasting of fertilizer. The W 2 N 3 treatment under the nitrogen level of 210 kg·hm -2 and with the application of micro spraying irrigation and water-fertilizer integration at jointing was the optimal treatment to save water and fertilizer.

Alternaria toxins are mycotoxins produced by various Alternaria species which, besides the Fusarium species, represent the principal contaminants of wheat worldwide. As currently, only limited information on the behaviour of Alternaria toxins during processing of cereals is available, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of the dry milling process of wheat on Alternaria toxins distribution. Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) content were analysed by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in all milling fractions of untreated (control), fungicide-treated, Alternaria tenuissima inoculated and commercial wheat sample. After dry milling process, in last break and milling flows and by-products, increased concentration of examined Alternaria toxins was detected. TeA was quantified in almost all milling fractions in all tested wheat samples, while AOH and AME were detectable mostly in last break and milling flows and by-products. In respect to the contamination with Alternaria toxins, white flour can be considered as relatively safe product. Since Alternaria toxins are concentrated mainly in the peripheral parts of the kernel, a special attention should be given to their content in low-grade flours and milling by-products., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Groundwater irrigation of cropland is expanding worldwide with poorly known implications for climate change. This study compares experimental measurements of the net global warming impact of a rainfed versus a groundwater-irrigated corn (maize)-soybean-wheat, no-till cropping system in the Midwest US, the region that produces the majority of U.S. corn and soybean. Irrigation significantly increased soil organic carbon (C) storage in the upper 25 cm, but not by enough to make up for the CO 2 -equivalent (CO 2 e) costs of fossil fuel power, soil emissions of nitrous oxide (N 2 O), and degassing of supersaturated CO 2 and N 2 O from the groundwater. A rainfed reference system had a net mitigating effect of -13.9 (±31) g CO 2 e m -2  year -1 , but with irrigation at an average rate for the region, the irrigated system contributed to global warming with net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of 27.1 (±32) g CO 2 e m -2  year -1 . Compared to the rainfed system, the irrigated system had 45% more GHG emissions and 7% more C sequestration. The irrigation-associated increase in soil N 2 O and fossil fuel emissions contributed 18% and 9%, respectively, to the system's total emissions in an average irrigation year. Groundwater degassing of CO 2 and N 2 O are missing components of previous assessments of the GHG cost of groundwater irrigation; together they were 4% of the irrigated system's total emissions. The irrigated system's net impact normalized by crop yield (GHG intensity) was +0.04 (±0.006) kg CO 2 e kg -1 yield, close to that of the rainfed system, which was -0.03 (±0.002) kg CO 2 e kg -1 yield. Thus, the increased crop yield resulting from irrigation can ameliorate overall GHG emissions if intensification by irrigation prevents land conversion emissions elsewhere, although the expansion of irrigation risks depletion of local water resources., (© 2018 The Authors. Global Change Biology Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Energy is one of the essential resources for human life and mainly classified as non-renewable resources. Since huge amounts of energy are consumed in the agriculture sector, an energy audit is an essential strategy in countries. Conservation agriculture as a tool for sustainable development can lead to saving agricultural resources. In the current investigation, energy audit for wheat conservation and conventional production systems was performed. For this purpose, 48 farms were selected randomly in 2016, and their energy performance was evaluated and compared. The data were analyzed to calculate energy parameters. Also, data envelopment analysis technique was used to identify the possible ways to achieve higher efficiency in farms. To this end, current and optimum situations and saving energy in different cultivation systems were determined using Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes (CCR) model. The research results showed that the average energy ratio, net energy gain, specific energy, and energy productivity for conservation farms were 4.31, 137,656 MJ ha -1 , 5.56 MJ kg -1 , and 0.18 kg MJ -1 , respectively. Corresponded values for conventional farms were measured to be 3.03, 90,101 MJ ha -1 , 7.69 MJ kg -1 , and 0.13 kg MJ -1 , respectively. Data envelopment analysis results revealed that the highest saving energy in conventional system belongs to diesel fuel and irrigation inputs, and the least amount of energy saving was seen in human labor input. While for the conservation system, the highest and the least amount of energy saving belongs to nitrogen and human labor, respectively.

Agricultural intensification over the last 40 years has increased cereal yields, but there is very limited information on the effects of intensification practices (e.g., nondiverse rotations, mineral NPK fertilizer, and pesticides) on crop health and quality. Results from the study reported here suggest that the use of mineral NPK fertilizers reduces phenolic acid and flavonoid concentrations in leaves and increases the susceptibility of wheat to lodging and powdery mildew, when compared to composted FYM inputs. In contrast, the use of herbicides, fungicides, and growth regulators reduces lodging and foliar disease severity but had no effect on phenolic acid and flavonoid concentrations. The use of composted FYM inputs also resulted in a significant grain yield reduction and not substantially reduced the severity of opportunistic pathogens such as Septoria, which remain a major yield limiting factor unless fungicides are used and/or more Septoria resistant varieties become available.

Increasing both crop productivity and the tolerance of crops to abiotic and biotic stresses is a major challenge for global food security in our rapidly changing climate. For the first time, we show how the spatial variation and severity of tropospheric ozone effects on yield compare with effects of other stresses on a global scale, and discuss mitigating actions against the negative effects of ozone. We show that the sensitivity to ozone declines in the order soybean > wheat > maize > rice, with genotypic variation in response being most pronounced for soybean and rice. Based on stomatal uptake, we estimate that ozone (mean of 2010-2012) reduces global yield annually by 12.4%, 7.1%, 4.4% and 6.1% for soybean, wheat, rice and maize, respectively (the "ozone yield gaps"), adding up to 227 Tg of lost yield. Our modelling shows that the highest ozone-induced production losses for soybean are in North and South America whilst for wheat they are in India and China, for rice in parts of India, Bangladesh, China and Indonesia, and for maize in China and the United States. Crucially, we also show that the same areas are often also at risk of high losses from pests and diseases, heat stress and to a lesser extent aridity and nutrient stress. In a solution-focussed analysis of these results, we provide a crop ideotype with tolerance of multiple stresses (including ozone) and describe how ozone effects could be included in crop breeding programmes. We also discuss altered crop management approaches that could be applied to reduce ozone impacts in the shorter term. Given the severity of ozone effects on staple food crops in areas of the world that are also challenged by other stresses, we recommend increased attention to the benefits that could be gained from addressing the ozone yield gap., (© 2018 The Authors. Global Change Biology Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The profiles of polar metabolites were determined in wholemeal flours of grain from the Broadbalk wheat experiment and from plants grown under organic and low-input systems to study the effects of nutrition on composition. The Broadbalk samples showed increased amino acids, acetate, and choline and decreased fructose and succinate with increasing nitrogen fertilization. Samples receiving farm yard manure had similar grain nitrogen to those receiving 96 kg of N/ha but had higher contents of amino acids, sugars, and organic acids. A comparison of the profiles of grain from organic and low-input systems showed only partial separation, with clear effects of climate and agronomy. However, supervised multivariate analysis showed that the low-input samples had higher contents of many amino acids, raffinose, glucose, organic acids, and choline and lower sucrose, fructose, and glycine. Consequently, although differences between organic and conventional grain occur, these cannot be used to confirm sample identity.

Accelerated soil-nitrifier activity and rapid nitrification are the cause of declining nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) and enhanced nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions from farming. Biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) is the ability of certain plant roots to suppress soil-nitrifier activity, through production and release of nitrification inhibitors. The power of phytochemicals with BNI-function needs to be harnessed to control soil-nitrifier activity and improve nitrogen-cycling in agricultural systems. Transformative biological technologies designed for genetic mitigation are needed, so that BNI-enabled crop-livestock and cropping systems can rein in soil-nitrifier activity, to help reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and globally make farming nitrogen efficient and less harmful to environment. This will reinforce the adaptation or mitigation impact of other climate-smart agriculture technologies., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Foliar Se fertilizers were applied to investigate the effects of Se forms on Se accumulation and distribution in the wheat-maize rotation system and residual concentration of Se in subsequent crops. Sodium selenite, sodium selenate, selenomethionine, chemical nano-Se, humic acid + sodium selenite, and compound fertilizer + sodium selenite were applied once at the flowering stage of wheat (30 g ha -1 ) and at the bell stage of maize (60 g ha -1 ). Compared with the control treatment, foliar Se applications significant increased the grain Se concentration of wheat and maize by 0.02-0.31 and 0.07-1.09 mg kg -1 , respectively. Wheat and maize grain Se recoveries were 3.0-10.4 and 4.1-18.5%, respectively. However, Se concentrations in the grain of subsequent wheat and maize significantly decreased by 77.9 and 91.2%, respectively. The change of Se concentration in soil was a dynamic process with Se depletion after harvest of maize.

Declining yields of the major human food crops, looming growth in global population and rise of populism, and ill-founded bans on agricultural and horticultural crops and foodstuffs which are genetically modified have potentially serious implications. It makes the chance less than otherwise would be the case that agribusiness value chains in the future will meet the growing demand around the world for more and different foods from more and wealthier people. In the agribusiness value chain, transgenic wheat, meeting a consumer "trigger need" also must meet the "experience" and "credence," risk-related criteria of well-informed consumers. Public policy that rejects science-based evidence about the reductions in costs of production and price of genetically modified agricultural products and the science about the safety of genetically modified foods, including transgenic wheat, has imposed significant costs on producers and consumers. If the science-based evidence is accepted, transgenic wheat has potential to improve significantly the well-being of grain growers and consumers all over the world.

To provide theoretical basis for modeling and managing agroforestry systems, the influence of conversion of cropland to agroforestry system on soil physical properties was investigated via a walnut (Juglans regia)-wheat (Triticum aestivum) intercropping system, a wide spreading local agroforestry model in northern Weihe River of loess area, with the walnut and wheat monoculture systems as the control. The results showed that the improvement of the intercropping system on soil physical properties mainly appeared in the 0-40 cm soil layer. The intercropping system could prevent soil bulk density rising in the surface soil (0-20 cm), and the plow pan in the 20-40 cm soil layer could be significantly alleviated. The intercropping system had conti-nuous improvement on soil field capacity in each soil layer with the planting age increase, and the soil field capacity was higher than that of each monoculture system in each soil layer (except 20-40 cm soil layer) since the 5th year after planting. The intercropping system had continuous improvement on soil porosity in each soil layer, but mainly in the 0-20 and 20-40 cm soil layer, and the ratio of capillary porosity was also improved. The soil bulk density, field capacity and soil porosity obtained continuous improvement during the conversion of cropland to agroforestry system, and the improvement on soil physical properties was stronger in shallow soil layer than in deep soil.

Airborne particulate matter (PM) containing fungal spores and pollen grains was sampled within a monitoring campaign of wheat threshing, plowing and sowing agricultural operations. Fungal spores and pollen grains were detected and identified on morphological basis. No studies were previously available about fungal spore and pollen content in agricultural PM in the Po Valley. Sampling was conducted in a Po Valley farmland in Mezzano (Ferrara, Italy). The organic particles collected were examined by scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer. Fungal spores and pollen grains were identified when possible at the level of species. The most frequent components of the organic particles sampled were spores of Aspergillus sp., which could represent a risk of developing allergies and aspergillosis for crop farmers., (Copyright © 2016. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

A field micro-plot experiment was conducted to determine the effect of different placement methods and types of phosphorus (P) fertilizer on winter wheat growth and phosphorus uptake. P fertilizer types included monocalcium phosphate (MCP) and diammonium phosphate (DAP). P fertilizer application methods included: 1) surface broadcasting (S); 2) banding 5 cm below seeds (B 0 ); 3) banding 5 cm below and 3 cm away from seeds (B 3 ); 4) banding 5 cm below and 10 cm away from seeds (B 10 ); 5) mixing with the 20% of the top soil below seeds (M). The result showed that B 0 had the best effect on increasing yield, reached 7.63 t·hm -2 in MCP-B 0 and 7.99 t·hm -2 in DAP-B 0 , which increased 10.3% and 10.7%, respectively compared with surface broadcasting. B 10 had the lowest grain yield (6.60-6.77 t·hm -2 ). The total P uptake by wheat in B 0 and M was at a relatively high level (34.42-35.60 kg·hm -2 ), B 10 performed worst at all growth stages of wheat, while P uptake of DAP-B 10 was 11.9% higher than MCP-B 10 . These results indicated that concentrating P fertilizer in a short distance near the seeds was an optimized application method for winter wheat in this region, and DAP performed better than MCP on P uptake and utilization of wheat under far banding.

The aims of this study were to determine energy requirement and global warming potential (GWP) in low and high input wheat production systems in western of Iran. For this purpose, data were collected from 120 wheat farms applying questionnaires via face-to-face interviews. Results showed that total energy input and output were 60,000 and 180,000 MJ ha(-1) in high input systems and 14,000 and 56,000 MJ ha(-1) in low input wheat production systems, respectively. The highest share of total input energy in high input systems recorded for electricity power, N fertilizer, and diesel fuel with 36, 18, and 13 %, respectively, while the highest share of input energy in low input systems observed for N fertilizer, diesel fuel, and seed with 32, 31, and 27 %. Energy use efficiency in high input systems (3.03) was lower than of low input systems (3.94). Total CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions in high input systems were 1981.25, 31.18, and 1.87 kg ha(-1), respectively. These amounts were 699.88, 0.02, and 0.96 kg ha(-1) in low input systems. In high input wheat production systems, total GWP was 11686.63 kg CO2eq ha(-1) wheat. This amount was 725.89 kg CO2eq ha(-1) in low input systems. The results show that 1 ha of high input system will produce greenhouse effect 17 times of low input systems. So, high input production systems need to have an efficient and sustainable management for reducing environmental crises such as change climate.

Reducing the carbon footprint and increasing energy use efficiency of crop rotations are the two most important sustainability issues of the modern agriculture. Present study was undertaken to assess economics, energy, and environmental parameters of common diversified crop rotations (maize-tomato, and maize-toria-wheat) vis-a-vis traditional crop rotations like maize-wheat, maize + ginger and rice-wheat of the north-western Himalayan region of India. Results revealed that maize-tomato and maize + ginger crop rotations being on par with each other produced significantly higher system productivity in terms of maize equivalent yield (30.2-36.2 t/ha) than other crop rotations (5.04-7.68 t/ha). But interestingly in terms of energy efficiencies, traditional maize-wheat system (energy efficiency 7.9, human energy profitability of 177.8 and energy profitability of 6.9 MJ/ha) was significantly superior over other systems. Maize + ginger rotation showed greater competitive advantage over other rotations because of less consumption of non-renewable energy resources. Similarly, maize-tomato rotation had ability of the production process to exploit natural resources due to 14-38% less use of commercial or purchased energy sources over other crop rotations. Vegetable-based crop rotations (maize + ginger and maize-tomato) maintained significantly the least carbon footprint (0.008 and 0.019 kg CO2 eq./kg grain, respectively) and the highest profitability (154,322 and 274,161 Rs./ha net return, respectively) over other crop rotations. As the greatest inputs of energy and carbon across the five crop rotations were nitrogen fertilizer (15-29% and 17-28%, respectively), diesel (14-24% and 8-19%, respectively) and irrigation (10-27% and 11-44%, respectively), therefore, alternative sources like organic farming, conservation agriculture practices, soil and water conservation measures, rain water harvesting etc. should be encouraged to reduce dependency of direct energy and external carbon inputs particularly in sub-Himalayas of India.

Soil-dwelling insects are severe pests in many agroecosystems. These pests have cryptic life cycles, making sampling difficult and damage hard to anticipate. The management of soil insects is therefore often based on preventative insecticides applied at planting or cultural practices. Wireworms, the subterranean larvae of click beetles (Coleoptera: Elateridae), have re-emerged as problematic pests in cereal crops in the Pacific Northwestern United States. Here, we evaluated two management strategies for wireworms in long-term field experiments: 1) treating spring wheat seed with the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam and 2) replacing continuous spring wheat with a summer fallow and winter wheat rotation. Separate experiments were conducted for two wireworm species--Limonius californicus (Mannerheim) and Limonius infuscatus (Motschulsky). In the experiment with L. californicus, spring wheat yields and economic returns increased by 24-30% with neonicotinoid treatments. In contrast, in the experiment with L. infuscatus, spring wheat yields and economic returns did not increase with neonicotinoids despite an 80% reduction in wireworms. Thus, the usefulness of seed-applied neonicotinoids differed based on the wireworm species present. In experiments with both species, we detected significantly fewer wireworms with a no-till summer fallow and winter wheat rotation compared with continuous spring wheat. This suggests that switching from continuous spring wheat to a winter wheat and summer fallow rotation may aid in wireworm management. More generally, our results show that integrated management of soil-dwelling pests such as wireworms may require both preventative insecticide treatments and cultural practices., (© The Authors 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Climate change is expected to increase future temperatures, potentially resulting in reduced crop production in many key production regions. Research quantifying the complex relationship between weather variables and wheat yields is rapidly growing, and recent advances have used a variety of model specifications that differ in how temperature data are included in the statistical yield equation. A unique data set that combines Kansas wheat variety field trial outcomes for 1985-2013 with location-specific weather data is used to analyze the effect of weather on wheat yield using regression analysis. Our results indicate that the effect of temperature exposure varies across the September-May growing season. The largest drivers of yield loss are freezing temperatures in the Fall and extreme heat events in the Spring. We also find that the overall effect of warming on yields is negative, even after accounting for the benefits of reduced exposure to freezing temperatures. Our analysis indicates that there exists a tradeoff between average (mean) yield and ability to resist extreme heat across varieties. More-recently released varieties are less able to resist heat than older lines. Our results also indicate that warming effects would be partially offset by increased rainfall in the Spring. Finally, we find that the method used to construct measures of temperature exposure matters for both the predictive performance of the regression model and the forecasted warming impacts on yields.

We report directly dated evidence from circa 1400 calibrated years (cal) B.C. for the early use of wheat, barley, and flax as staple crops on the borders of the Tibetan Plateau. During recent years, an increasing amount of data from the Tibetan Plateau and its margins shows that a transition from millets to wheat and barley agriculture took place during the second millennium B.C. Using thermal niche modeling, we refute previous assertions that the ecological characteristics of wheat and barley delayed their spread into East Asia. Rather, we demonstrate that the ability of these crops to tolerate frost and their low growing degree-day requirements facilitated their spread into the high-altitude margins of western China. Following their introduction to this region, these crops rapidly replaced Chinese millets and became the staple crops that still characterize agriculture in this area today.

Field experiments were conducted to explore the effects of different sewage sludge amendment strategies on the accumulation and translocation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in soil-wheat systems. Two types of application methods (single or annual application) and four annual application rates (5, 10, 20, and 40 t ha(-1) year(-1)) were investigated. BDE 209 was detected in all of the sewage sludge amended soils and different parts of wheat plants collected from the contaminated soils. However, the other seven PBDE congeners (BDE 28, BDE 47, BDE 99, BDE 100, BDE 153, BDE 154, and BDE 183) were not detected or were only observed at very low levels. A single application of sewage sludge in large quantities would likely increase accumulation of BDE 209 in soil and its subsequent uptake and translocation by wheat. The concentrations of BDE 209 in soils, wheat roots and straws increased with the increasing sewage sludge application rate. There is a negative correlation between the root accumulation factors (the ratios of concentrations in wheat roots to those in soils) and soil total organic carbon (R(2)=0.84,P<0.05), demonstrating that the bioavailability of BDE 209 was controlled by the soil total organic carbon. BDE 209 concentrations in the grains from the sewage sludge amended soils were not significantly different from those of the control soils, suggesting that atmospheric deposition was the main source of BDE 209 detected in the grains., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Crop yield in dry environments can be improved with complementary approaches including selecting for yield in the target environments, selecting for yield potential, and using indirect, trait- or genomic-based methods. This paper (i) outlines the achievements of direct selection for yield in improving drought adaptation, (ii) discusses the limitations of indirect approaches in the context of levels of organization, and (iii) emphasizes trade-offs and synergies between nitrogen nutrition and drought adaptation. Selection for yield in the water- and nitrogen-scarce environments of Australia improved wheat yield per unit transpiration at a rate of 0.12kg ha(-1) mm(-1) yr(-1); for indirect methods to be justified, they must return superior rates of improvement, achieve the same rate at lower cost or provide other cost-effective benefits, such as expanding the genetic basis for selection. Slow improvement of crop adaptation to water stress using indirect methods is partially related to issues of scale. Traits are thus classified into three broad groups: those that generally scale up from low levels of organization to the crop level (e.g. herbicide resistance), those that do not (e.g. grain yield), and traits that might scale up provided they are considered in a integrated manner with scientifically sound scaling assumptions, appropriate growing conditions, and screening techniques (e.g. stay green). Predicting the scalability of traits may help to set priorities in the investment of research efforts. Primary productivity in arid and semi-arid environments is simultaneously limited by water and nitrogen, but few attempts are made to target adaptation to water and nitrogen stress simultaneously. Case studies in wheat and soybean highlight biological links between improved nitrogen nutrition and drought adaptation.

Crop simulation models can be used to estimate impact of current and future climates on crop yields and food security, but require long-term historical daily weather data to obtain robust simulations. In many regions where crops are grown, daily weather data are not available. Alternatively, gridded weather databases (GWD) with complete terrestrial coverage are available, typically derived from: (i) global circulation computer models; (ii) interpolated weather station data; or (iii) remotely sensed surface data from satellites. The present study's objective is to evaluate capacity of GWDs to simulate crop yield potential (Yp) or water-limited yield potential (Yw), which can serve as benchmarks to assess impact of climate change scenarios on crop productivity and land use change. Three GWDs (CRU, NCEP/DOE, and NASA POWER data) were evaluated for their ability to simulate Yp and Yw of rice in China, USA maize, and wheat in Germany. Simulations of Yp and Yw based on recorded daily data from well-maintained weather stations were taken as the control weather data (CWD). Agreement between simulations of Yp or Yw based on CWD and those based on GWD was poor with the latter having strong bias and large root mean square errors (RMSEs) that were 26-72% of absolute mean yield across locations and years. In contrast, simulated Yp or Yw using observed daily weather data from stations in the NOAA database combined with solar radiation from the NASA-POWER database were in much better agreement with Yp and Yw simulated with CWD (i.e. little bias and an RMSE of 12-19% of the absolute mean). We conclude that results from studies that rely on GWD to simulate agricultural productivity in current and future climates are highly uncertain. An alternative approach would impose a climate scenario on location-specific observed daily weather databases combined with an appropriate upscaling method., (© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

A broad sampling of the 1959 United States wheat crop has been analyzed for the presence of strontium-90. The level of strontium-90 found in these samples is in general agreement with the findings of other investigators, with the exception that the highest levels of strontium-90 in wheat were found in samples from Oklahoma.

Safeguarding the agricultural environment from pollution is one of the most critical challenges facing the world in the context of climate change. The loss of nitrogen fertilizers through agricultural runoff or volatilization in the form of nitrate or ammonia emissions is a significant contributor to pollution. This loss also represents an economic waste that may lead to increased prices of agricultural products. Therefore, finding a solution to this problem has become imperative. An experiment was conducted on wheat plants using various rates of urea coated with slow-release materials. The study aimed to assess the impact of these fertilizers on wheat growth and yield, nutrient uptake, and nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUtE). Results demonstrated that urea fertilizers coated with slow-release materials outperformed conventional fertilizers in terms of wheat growth and yield, uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as NUtE. The most favorable outcomes were achieved using urea-formaldehyde, urea-humic, and urea-biochar fertilizers at 100% of the recommended nitrogen application rate. This resulted in economically viable grain production with high fertilizer efficiency. Based on these findings, we recommend applying either urea-formaldehyde or urea-humic at a rate of 107 kg N ha−1 to produce wheat grain and straw with enhanced NUtE. This approach can help reduce environmental pollution caused by nitrogen losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat is one of the important food crops in the world, and the stability and growth of wheat production have a decisive impact on global food security and economic prosperity. Wheat counting is of great significance for agricultural management, yield prediction and resource allocation. Research shows that the wheat ear counting method based on deep learning has achieved remarkable results and the model accuracy is high. However, the complex background of wheat fields, dense wheat ears, small wheat ear targets, and different sizes of wheat ears make the accurate positioning and counting of wheat ears still face great challenges. To this end, an automatic positioning and counting method of wheat ears based on FIDMT-GhostNet (focal inverse distance transform maps - GhostNet) is proposed. Firstly, a lightweight wheat ear counting network using GhostNet as the feature extraction network is proposed, aiming to obtain multiscale wheat ear features. Secondly, in view of the difficulty in counting caused by dense wheat ears, the point annotation-based network FIDMT (focal inverse distance transform maps) is introduced as a baseline network to improve counting accuracy. Furthermore, to address the problem of less feature information caused by the small ear of wheat target, a dense upsampling convolution module is introduced to improve the resolution of the image and extract more detailed information. Finally, to overcome background noise or wheat ear interference, a local maximum value detection strategy is designed to realize automatic processing of wheat ear counting. To verify the effectiveness of the FIDMT-GhostNet model, the constructed wheat image data sets including WEC, WEDD and GWHD were used for training and testing. Experimental results show that the accuracy of the wheat ear counting model reaches 0.9145, and the model parameters reach 8.42M, indicating that the model FIDMT-GhostNet proposed in this study has good performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed purity assurance is an important aspect of maintaining the quality standards of wheat seeds. It relies significantly on quality parameters, like varietal classification and geographical origin identification. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) has emerged as an advanced nondestructive technique to determine various quality parameters. In recent years, several studies have utilized HSI for varietal classification, although a limited number of varieties were considered. Additionally, no attention has been paid to determining the geographical origin of wheat seeds. To address these gaps, two separate experiments were performed for varietal classification and geographical origin identification. The seeds from 96 varieties grown across 5 different agricultural regions in India were collected. Hyperspectral images of wheat seeds were acquired in the wavelength ranging 900–1700 nm. The spectral reflectance values were obtained from the region of interest (ROI) corresponding to each seed. Subsequently, the deep learning models (convolutional neural networks [CNNs]) were established and compared with two conventional algorithms, including support vector machines (SVMs) and K‐nearest neighbors (KNNs). The experimental results indicated that the proposed CNN models outperformed the SVM and KNN models, achieving an overall accuracy of 94.88% and 99.02% for varietal classification and geographical origin identification, respectively. These results demonstrate that HSI combined with deep learning has the potential to accurately classify a large number of wheat varieties. Moreover, HSI can be used to precisely identify the geographical origins of wheat seeds. This study provides an accurate and nondestructive method that can assist in breeding, quality evaluation, and the development of high‐quality wheat seeds. This study explores the use of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) combined with deep learning for wheat seed quality assessment. We conducted experiments on 96 wheat varieties from five Indian geographical regions, utilizing convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for varietal classification and geographical origin identification. Results showed CNNs outperforming support vector machines (SVMs) and K‐nearest neighbors (KNNs), with accuracies of 94.88% and 99.02%, respectively. Our findings highlight the potential of HSI as an accurate, non‐destructive method for wheat seed quality evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]