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Poultry production has experienced a major shift with the prohibition of the use of antimicrobials and antibiotics as growth promoters. The industry in general, and more specifically turkey producers, are facing a changing world in that many consumers have a perception and certain beliefs about food production while the truth maybe something else. Additionally, perception has become a reality when it comes to consumer acceptance, which affects consumer purchasing behavior. In this regard, in many cases and genres, the public perception of antibiotic use in turkey production can be generally negative. The truth that antibiotics and other antimicrobials can be beneficial to both turkeys and consumers is lost. Therefore, turkey producers are accepting the challenge to rear turkey flocks without growth promoting antibiotics or antimicrobials. In some cases and some locales, this has become the law. In other markets, consumer desires and purchasing habits are the driving force for change. Turkey producers are scrutinizing production practices to ascertain and provide the optimal environment for turkey production. In addition, alternatives to antibiotics are being developed, tested, evaluated, and used for turkey production in increasing frequency. These include, but not limited to, probiotics (direct-fed microbials), prebiotics, organic acids, essential oils, spices, and plant and yeast extracts. Researchers are joining forces with turkey producers to develop use plans for these feed additives that, in most cases, are not the same as for antibiotic administration. Turkey producers have become proactive in developing these plans and are preparing to provide exceptional quality products that will meet consumer acceptance. However, more research focusing specifically on turkeys is certainly needed so that these alternative approaches can be optimized to meet the turkey production necessities.

The commercial turkey of today is a descendant of wild, then domesticated, turkeys from North America originating in regions of old Mexico. The modern commercial turkey enjoys a wide range of acceptance in many countries. Turkey production evolved rapidly from 1950 forward with many changes in production and management. Turkey production changed from range rearing to mostly total confinement. Rearing birds under increased density in confinement facilities has created both opportunities and challenges. Once confined, organic materials have been used as bedding (also referred to as litter). There have been many materials evaluated and used for bedding. Availability, cost, and bird performance were early key considerations. More recently, bird health and welfare are now important considerations as well. Optimal management programs of the modern turkey reared in confinement can be elusive and difficult to define. However, controlling litter moisture which aids in reducing ammonia and footpad dermatitis should be a key management component of confinement rearing. Therefore, bedding choice and litter management in turkey production require thoughtful consideration and active management.

Ammonia (NH3) produced inside livestock houses can adversely affect animal welfare and performance and degrade the environment. In broiler houses, NH3 levels are mitigated by applying acidifiers to the litter but acidifiers provide short-term NH3 suppression requiring heavy or repeated applications. Microbial additives may provide longer-term NH3 control through nitrogen (N) immobilization and nitrification. The objective of this 50-d lab study was to evaluate the impact of two microbial additives (Environoc 301 and Environoc 501), 2% glucose, and distilled water (control) treatments applied to broiler litter on NH3 emissions and litter properties. During the first 34 d, glucose significantly but modestly reduced NH3 emissions vs. the other treatments which were not significantly different from one-another. For the entire study, when glucose was excluded (due to lost replicates), the three treatments were not significantly different. The unreplicated glucose treatment had higher final litter nitrate concentration than the other treatments. Litter properties were unaffected by the two microbial additive and control treatments. The effectiveness of glucose in reducing NH3 emission could have been due to greater N immobilization and nitrification vs. the other treatments. More research on cost-effective labile carbon sources and higher application rates to achieve greater NH3 reduction is required.

Sodium bisulfate (SB) was evaluated on its ability to improve broiler growth and intestinal structure with(out) a coccidia challenge. One thousand two hundred Cobb500 day-old males were randomly assigned within 4 experimental groups with a 2 × 2 factorial design, with (out) SB in the diet and with(out) a day 0 coccidia challenge using a 10× dose of a commercial vaccine. At day 7, oocysts per gram of feces were determined. At day 0, 14, 28, and 41, BW and feed consumption were measured. At day 21, 20 birds per treatment were subjectively scored for coccidia lesions, and jejunal histologic samples were collected for villi measurements. Twenty additional birds were given fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran to determine gut permeability. At day 41, 10 birds per treatment had histologic samples collected. Statistical analysis was conducted in JMP Pro 14 using GLM procedure to compare disease state and diet. Means were separated using Dunnett's test (P ≤ 0.05) with the nonchallenged standard diet treatment that is considered the control. All parameters measured indicated an effect due to the coccidia inoculation. Therefore, effects of diet on (non)challenged treatments were determined using a Student t test (P ≤ 0.05). Limited differences due to diet were seen for the nonchallenged production data. Sodium bisulfate had a thinner villi base width (P = 0.04) on day 21 and greater villi height (P = 0.03), smaller base width (P = 0.04), thicker muscularis (P = 0.03), and lower crypt: height ratio (P = 0.01) on day 41. Challenged SB had similar gut permeability to the nonchallenged control (P = 0.94) on day 21. There was no difference in flock uniformity, feed intake, oocysts per gram of feces, or lesion scores between challenged treatments. Challenged SB had greater BW on day 14 (P < 0.0001), 28 (P < 0.0001), and 41 (P = 0.02). Feed conversion ratio from day 0 to 14 was also lower (P = 0.0002). Challenged SB had smaller crypts (P = 0.02) and therefore a smaller crypt: height ratio (P = 0.03) on day 21. Challenged control had a larger apical width (P = 0.03) and thicker muscularis (P = 0.04) on day 41. Overall, the addition of SB during coccidial enteropathy aided in BW, feed conversion ratio, and villi health with no observed effects on parasite cycling.

Industry standards for turkey stocking densities are variable and may not represent the more rapidly growing strains currently available. Therefore, a study was completed to evaluate 4 stocking densities: a nominal density (0.3525 m2/bird), 10% tighter density (0.3169 m2/bird), 10% looser density (0.3882 m2/bird), and 20% looser density (0.4238 m2/bird) on the effects on large white, commercial male turkeys with regard to performance from 5 to 20 wk of age. Brooding stocking density was fixed for all pens of birds with 60 birds per replicate pen at 0.46 m2/bird to 5 wk of age. Density treatments were applied from 5 to 20 wk by altering pen size with pen population held constant at 60 per pen. There were 4 pens of birds per density treatment. Birds were weighed individually at 0, 5, and 20 wk of age and performance parameters were calculated. There were no differences in bird performance at 5 wk, which was expected because stocking density was fixed. From 5 to 20 wk and at 20 wk, birds that were reared at the nominal standard (0.3525 m2/bird) and 10% tighter density (0.3169 m2/bird) had significantly lower body weight compared with the 10% looser density (0.3882 m2/bird) and 20% looser density (0.4238 m2/bird) (P = 0.03 and 0.01, respectfully). The feed conversion ratio (FCR) tended (P = 0.08) to be improved for birds reared at looser density. In addition, based on linear regression, as stocking density decreased (i.e., m2/bird increased), BW (P

Coccidiosis is a high-prevalence disease that annually entails huge costs for the poultry industry. Control of coccidiosis in poultry production is based on the use of coccidiostats and vaccines. However, along with the problem of drug resistance, there is a concern about food safety and drug residues in poultry products. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of sodium bisulfate (SBS) in comparison with monensin (M) and their combination (SBSM) effects on controlling coccidiosis in broilers. In a randomized design, 300 chickens (Ross 308) were divided into 5 treatments and 4 replications (15 birds per replicate). All birds, except the negative control (NC), were orally inoculated with 4 Eimeria species on 14 D of age. Treatments included were as follows: NC, an unsupplemented basal diet, nonchallenged; positive control, a basal diet unsupplemented, challenged with Eimeria spp; a basal diet supplemented with 5 g/kg of SBS; a basal diet supplemented with 1 g/kg of M; and a basal diet supplemented with 5 g/kg SBS and 1 g/kg M (SBSM). Oocyst shedding per gram (OPG) of the faecal sample from each experimental unit was counted on 5 to 14 D after inoculation. Two chicks from each experimental unit were euthanized to investigate intestinal lesions on day 5 after inoculation. The NC birds showed the highest BW gain and the lowest feed conversion ratio. The birds in the SBSM group had improved feed consumption compared with the M group in the prechallenge period (P < 0.05). All supplemented treatments resulted in a significant decrease in OPG. The M and SBSM treatments showed more efficacy than the SBS group (P < 0.05) in reducing OPG. There was a significant reduction in cecal lesions owing to supplementation with SBS, but the effect of SBS in the upper part of the intestine was lower than the M and SBSM groups (P < 0.05). Based on the results of this study, SBS has protective effects against coccidiosis in ceca, and the combination of M and SBS (SBSM) did not show any further improvement effect compared with M alone on the control of coccidiosis.

Chromium propionate (Cr Prop) is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Veterinary Medicine for supplementation to broiler diets up to 0.20 mg Cr/kg diet. A 49-D study was conducted to: 1) determine the safety of Cr Prop when supplemented at 2 and 10 times (×) the approved feeding level over the normal life span of broilers, and 2) determine the effects of supplementing Cr Prop on Cr concentrations of tissues consumed by humans. On day zero, 216 Ross 708 broilers were stratified by weight within sex and randomly assigned to treatments. Dietary treatments were 0 (control), 0.40, and 2.0 mg supplemental Cr/kg diet from Cr Prop. There were 6 replicate cages each of male and female broilers per treatment. At the end of the study blood was collected for determination of plasma biochemical measurements and tissue samples were collected for Cr analysis. Supplementing 0.40 mg Cr/kg diet (2×) did not adversely affect broiler performance, mortality, plasma biochemical measurements or Cr concentrations in breast muscle, skin with adhering fat, or liver. Chromium propionate supplemented at 2.0 mg Cr/kg (10×) did not affect Cr concentrations in breast muscle or skin with adhering fat, but increased (P0.05) liver Cr concentrations. Supplementing Cr Prop at 10× the approved feeding level decreased feed intake and gain in male but not female broilers from days 21 to 49. Results of this study support the safety of Cr Prop in broiler diets, and indicate that Cr Prop supplementation to broiler diets at 2 or 10× the approved feeding level does not present a human health concern.

Bedding (litter) is essential to poultry performance and health and can have an environmental impact after use in the poultry facility such as a soil amendment or as an alternative energy source. Pine shavings are the most common bedding used for turkey production. However, the increase in its price and its increasing scarcity in some areas have created new research opportunities for reusing litter as bedding. Improvement in feed pellet quality has been reported to improve poultry performance. However, the reports for turkeys are limited and dated. This study's objective was to determine how the improvement of feed pellet quality and the use of biochar added to a combination of used turkey brooder house litter and Miscanthus grass as bedding affects turkey performance, small intestine morphology, and ammonia production. Nicolas Select (Aviagen Turkeys, Lewisburg, WV) male poults (816) were randomly assigned to 48 concrete litter floor pens on the day of hatch. The experiment used a completely randomized block design with a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement of treatments: 2 levels of fines in the feed and 4 bedding treatments. The bedding treatments were a constant level of used turkey brooder house litter combined with a varying combination of biochar and Miscanthus grass. Turkey's body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined. Differences in treatment means were considered to be statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05 using a mixed model in SAS 9.4. Turkeys fed the feed with improved pellet quality had a higher BW from 3 to 17 wk (17.0 ± 0.1 kg) than turkeys fed an increased abundance of fines (16.72 ± 0.1 kg). Turkeys fed feed with increased pellet quality had a lower FI (45.6 vs. 48.1 ± 0.4 kg) and improved FCR (2.20 vs. 2.31 ± 0.01) from 0 to 20 wk. Litter treatment with 20% biochar resulted in higher BW at 20 wk (20.91 ± 0.16 kg) because of increased BWG at 11 wk over the rest of the biochar levels (3.7 ± 0.1 kg). Strategies to reduce the abundance of fines in feed through feed formulation, feed manufacturing, feed transport, and in-house feed management should be considered to increase male turkeys' performance. There may be opportunities to use biochar as a litter amendment to improve turkey health and performance.

High levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids in avian sperm cause more susceptibility to lipid peroxidation. Aging in roosters reduces the antioxidant capacity of sperm and thus fertility. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different levels of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) as a feed supplement to improve the semen quality and fertility parameters of aged broiler breeder roosters and identification of its most effective level. A total of forty-two roosters at 45 wk of age were randomly assigned to 7 treatments (0, 15, 40, 70, 95, 120, and 145 mg ALA/bird per day) for 8 wk. Semen parameters and body weight were assessed biweekly, and testosterone plasma levels were determined in the 8th wk of the experimental period. Artificial insemination was performed at the end of the experiment to evaluate the fertility potential. The dietary administration of ALA had no significant effects on body weight, semen volume, average path velocity, linearity, straightness, wobble, the amplitude of lateral head displacement, beat-cross frequency, sperm concentration, morphology, plasma testosterone level, fertility, or hatchability (P > 0.05). Alpha-lipoic acid supplementations resulted in a significant decrease in seminal malondialdehyde concentration and immotile (type D) sperms (P

Based on research reports, feed characteristics can increase poult growth via several factors. Two rearing experiments (EXP) were conducted to test the effects of feed form and ingredient quality in turkey poults. Bird performance and the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and cecum morphology were observed in both EXP. Poults were reared in battery cages (48 cages in EXP 1 and 72 cages in EXP 2). Four dietary treatments with differing feed form and function factors were evaluated in EXP 1. A completely randomized block design with a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments consisting of 2 levels of fines, 2 soybean meal (SBM) sources, and 2 levels of an enzyme cocktail (Rovabio Advance) was tested in EXP 2. Poult BW, BW gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined in both EXP. Apparent metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen (AMEn) was determined in EXP 2. Differences were considered to be statistically significant at P ≤ 0.05. Feeding increased feed crumble particle size with fewer fines in the starter feed resulted in an increased BWG accompanied by an increased FI. Reduced feed fines reduced AMEn when the dietary enzyme cocktail was not present. The feed formulation with 60% CP SBM resulted in a lower FI and an improved FCR. The enzyme cocktail interacted synergistically with screening and fed SBM source factors on the AMEn and FCR. It was concluded that both the feed form and quality, as used in this study, affect poult performance.

Feed costs represent a significant portion of the cost of poultry production. This study, in 3 experiments, was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a heat-stable xylanase (XYL) as a dietary supplement and its effect on digesta viscosity, nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn), and live performance in broiler chicks. Experiment 1: the objective was to determine the effects of the amount and type of enzyme supplementation on digesta viscosity, AMEn, and bird performance using 7 diets. The dietary treatments were: no supplementation (C), 5 levels of XYL (1 to 16 ppm), or supplementation with a carbohydrase cocktail (CC). Experiment 2: the objective was to determine the interaction of the dietary XYL and the energy content of the feed. There were 2 levels of XYL (0 and 20 ppm) and 3 dietary energy levels (2,770, 2,920, and 3,070 kcal/kg ME). Experiment 3: the objective was to determine the interaction of the dietary XYL and feed form. The treatments were: 5 levels of XYL (0 to 40 ppm) and 2 feed forms (mash and crumble). Broiler chicks were reared in battery cages to 21 d. Statistical analysis of the data was completed using Proc GLM of SAS (9.2) (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).In experiment 1, increasing XYL (0 to 16 ppm) resulted in a decrease in digesta viscosity and an increase in AMEn. The XYL included as low as 1 ppm resulted in a significant increase in AMEn which reached 5% with 16 ppm XYL. In contrast, increase in BWG (4%) above values with the basal diet was greatest with 1 ppm XYL. In experiment 2, the caloric content of the diet influenced the increase in AMEn with inclusion of XYL, 8% and 6% increases with 2,920 kcal/kg and 3,070 kcal/kg diets, respectively. Without addition of XYL, BWG was significantly lower when fed the diet with the highest energy content. In experiment 3, feed form x XYL influenced the effect of XYL on BWG. The BWG was greater when birds were fed the crumble diet with XYL vs when they were fed the mash feed with XYL. The xylanase proved effective for broilers to 21 d when fed the diets used herein with changes in digesta viscosity, increased dietary AMEn, and improved bird performance represented by either BW gain or FCR.

Salmonella and Campylobacter are leading human foodborne pathogens commonly associated with poultry and poultry products, and several methods to control these pathogens have been applied to poultry production. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of CALSPORIN, (CSP), a direct-fed microbial (DFM), and yeast cell wall (Saccharomyces cervisiae, IMW50, a mannanoligosaccharide (MOS)-based prebiotic, on performance, levels of Salmonella and Campylobacter in the feces, and intestinal histomorphometry in turkey poults. A 21-day battery cage study was conducted using 4 dietary treatments, including: an unsupplemented basal diet (corn and soybean-based) as negative control (NC); basal diet supplemented with 0.05% DFM; basal diet supplemented with 0.05% MOS; and basal diet supplemented with 0.05% mixture of DFM and MOS at equal proportions. Female Large White turkey poults (n = 336) were randomly distributed in 6 electrically-heated battery cages with 4 treatments and 12 replicates per treatment (7 poults per replicate pen). The first 16 pens were not inoculated with bacteria, while poults in pens 17 to 32 were orally challenged at day 7 with 105 CFU Salmonella Heidelberg and the poults in pens 33 to 48 were orally challenged at day 7 with 105 CFU Campylobacter jejuni. Feed consumption, body weight, and feed conversion ratio were measured weekly and at the end of the experiment. At day 21, fresh fecal samples from each pen were collected for Salmonella and Campylobacter enumeration and ileal tissue samples were collected from 1 bird per pen for histomorphology examination. DFM and MOS supplementation was accompanied with reduced levels of Salmonella shed by the treated birds compared to the control group, and with increased body weight (P ≤ 0.05). The surface area of villi increased in the MOS-supplemented group compared to the control group (P ≤ 0.05). There was a significant difference in V:C ratio between supplemented groups and control group (P ≤ 0.05). Based on these results, there is potential for CALSPORIN and IMW50 to reduce Salmonella shedding in feces, enhance ileal mucosal health, and improve growth performance of turkey poults.

During commercial production, turkeys may be exposed to several different types of stressors related to environmental conditions and management practices. Historically, antibiotics have been used to aid in the alleviation of the impacts of stressful situations, and alternatives to antibiotics related to reducing stress are being researched. This study consisted of three rearing trials and had two objectives: (1) Investigate the effects of common U.S. turkey production practices, including environmental and management induced stress, on turkey hens grown to 63 days, and (2) Determine the response of stressed birds to dietary supplementation with fermentation derived functional metabolites. Treatments consisted of a positive control (stressed but not supplemented), a negative control (non-stressed and not supplemented) and two treatment groups that were stressed and supplemented with different products (Original XPC™ or AviCare™). Supplemental products were administered in a dry (feed) and liquid (drinking water) form, and consisted of fermentation derived functional metabolites. Products were evaluated on their effectiveness to mitigate stress responses and turkey performance. Birds were exposed to some combinations of the following stressors: feed and water withdrawal, cold, heat, and crowding. Although the stressors in this study were applied for less than 24 h, they produced significant physiological responses. Blood corticosterone levels, measured immediately after stress, were significantly higher in positive control birds than in negative control birds. In addition, stressed birds had reduced body weights and increased FCR after stress. Stressed birds, supplemented with products had mixed, but generally positive response as measured by bird performance. Based on the response to stress, as observed by alterations in blood corticosterone levels and differences in performance between the two control groups, researchers induced an effective stress model. The use of supplementary products consisting of fermentation derived functional metabolites shows promise for reducing negative impacts of a mixture of stressors.

Locomotion problems in meat poultry have multifactorial etiology. A better understanding of normal gait and its influences on biomechanical aspects of leg bones among turkey genetic lines is important to prevent skeletal disorders and locomotion issues. The objective of this experiment was to determine the possible differences in gait kinetic and kinematic parameters of turkey strains and their effects on bone biomechanical properties. Four genetic lines, named A, B, C, and D, were obtained and raised in 48 floor pens with new pine shavings. Leg health issues were classified at 16 and 33 d of age. Fifteen turkeys from each strain with apparent normal legs and gait at 33 d of age were selected for gait analysis. These 15 turkeys were trained to walk on a pressure sensitive walkway and video was recorded to calculate articulation movements. These data also were analyzed to obtain kinetic and kinematic parameters of the gait cycle collected at 47, 84, 107, and 145 d of age. At 20 wk all turkeys were sacrificed, and legs were collected and frozen for analysis. Weights and morphologic measurements of the femur, tibia, and shank were recorded. Bone mineral density (BMD) and content (BMC) were obtained using DEXA. Femur and tibia strength were evaluated by a 4-point bending test and torsion test, respectively. Gait parameters changed as toms aged and some differences were observed among lines. Genetic lines differed on BMD, but not on BMC. Strain D had a higher BMD and smaller diaphyseal angle than strain C, characteristics that were correlated with stronger bones. Strain D also had the lowest incidence of leg problems while strain C had the highest. Furthermore, the D strain had a smaller vertical motion of the toe than strains C and B at 47 d and strain A at 145 d, indicating that the D strain had a more efficient gait. In summary, genetic strains differ significantly on gait parameters, which in turn impacts bone biomechanics.

Corn with naturally occurring aflatoxin (AF), wheat with naturally occurring doxynivalenol (DON), and barley with naturally occurring zearalenone (ZEA) were used to make rations for feeding turkey hen poults to 6 weeks of age. Control rations with equal amounts of corn, wheat, and barley were also fed. The control rations did contain some DON while both sets of rations contained ZEA. Within each grain source, there were 4 treatments: the control ration plus 3 rations each with a different feed additive which were evaluated for the potential to lessen potential mycotoxin effects on bird performance and physiology. The additives were Biomin BioFix (2 lb/ton), Kemin Kallsil (4 lb/ton), and Nutriad UNIKE (3 lb/ton). The mycotoxin rations reduced poult body weight (2.31 vs. 2.08 ± 0.02 kg) and increased (worsened) poult feed conversion (1.47 vs. 1.51 ± 0.01) at 6 wk. Feeding the poults the mycotoxin feed also resulted in organ and physiological changes typical of feeding dietary aflatoxin although a combined effect of AF, DON, and ZEA which cannot be dismissed. The feed additives resulted in improved feed conversion to 6 wk in both grain treatment groups. The observed physiological effect of feeding the additives was to reduce relative gizzard weight for both groups and to lessen the increase in relative kidney weight for the birds fed the mycotoxin feed. In conclusion, the feed additives used in this study did alleviate the effect of dietary mycotoxins to some degree, especially with respect to feed conversion. Further studies of longer duration are warranted.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary chromium (Cr), as chromium propionate, on measures of insulin sensitivity. Liver and muscle glycogen, and plasma glucose and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations were used as indicators of insulin sensitivity. In total, 288 newly hatched male Ross broilers were divided into 4 dietary treatments consisting of 0 (control diet analyzed 0.43 to 0.45 mg Cr/kg), 0.2, 0.4, or 0.6 mg supplemental Cr/kg diet, resulting in 4 treatments with 9 replicate pens per treatment containing eight birds per pen. At d 21, 2 birds per cage were removed based on the greatest deviation from pen mean BW, resulting in each pen containing 6 birds for the final analyses. Final BW were taken on d 40, and on d 42 two birds from each pen were sampled for plasma NEFA, glucose, and muscle and liver glycogen determination at the initiation and termination of a 22 h fast. The remaining 2 fasted birds were sampled after a 30 min refeeding period. No differences were observed in feed intake, BW gain, or feed efficiency on d 21 or d 40. Liver glycogen tended (P=0.10) to be greater in Cr-supplemented chicks in the fed state, and muscle glycogen concentrations tended (P=0.07) to be greater in Cr-supplemented chicks compared with controls following fasting and refeeding. Plasma glucose concentrations were not affected by dietary Cr in the fed, fasted, or refed state. Plasma NEFA levels were not affected by treatment in fed or fasted birds. However, plasma NEFA concentrations were lower (P