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Stool collection devices minimizing the exposure of gut bacteria to oxygen are critical for the standardization of further microbiota-based studies, analysis and developments. The aim of this work was to evidence that keeping anaerobiosis has a deep impact on the viability and diversity of the fecal microbiota that is recovered in the laboratory. Recovering certain microbial populations, such as obligate anaerobic bacteria, is particularly critical if the purpose of the study is to envisage personalized therapeutic purposes, such as autologous Fecal Microbiota Transplant. In this study the same fecal specimens were sampled in conventional stool containers and GutAlive, a disposable device that minimizes exposure of the gut microbiota to oxygen. Samples from five healthy donors were analysed and 150 differential colonies were recovered and identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Globally, GutAlive maintained extremely oxygen sensitive (EOS) populations that were lost in conventional stool containers, and thus viability of species such as as Akkermansia muciniphila, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and a novel member of the Clostridiales order was kept. These obligate anaerobes were not recovered using the conventional stool collection device. In conclusion, the use of GutAlive for stool collection and transport optimized the viability and recovery of EOS bacteria in the lab by diminishing oxygen toxicity., Tis work was funded by the project IDE/2016/000282 from IDEPA (“Instituto de Desarrollo Empresarial of the Principality of Asturias”), which is partially supported by FEDER funds, SME-2017-0946-10 from MEIC (Ministry of Economy, Industry and competitiveness), SNEO 20171062 from CDTI (Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology) and a collaboration contract between Microviable Terapeutics SL. and the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científcas (Spanish National Research Council - CSIC).

Bile is a biological fluid synthesized in the liver, mainly constituted by bile acids and cholesterol, which functions as a biological detergent that emulsifies and solubilizes lipids, thereby playing an essential role in fat digestion. Besides, bile acids are important signaling molecules that regulate key functions at intestinal and systemic levels in the human body, affecting glucose and lipid metabolism, and immune homeostasis. Apart from this, due to their amphipathic nature, bile acids are toxic for bacterial cells and, thus, exert a strong selective pressure on the microbial populations inhabiting the human gut, decisively shaping the microbial profiles of our gut microbiota, which has been recognized as a metabolic organ playing a pivotal role in host health. Remarkably, bacteria in our gut also display a range of enzymatic activities capable of acting on bile acids and, to a lesser extent, cholesterol. These activities can have a direct impact on host physiology as they influence the composition of the intestinal and circulating bile acid pool in the host, affecting bile homeostasis. Given that bile acids are important signaling molecules in the human body, changes in the microbiota-residing bile biotransformation ability can significantly impact host physiology and health status. Elucidating ways to fine-tune microbiota-bile acids-host interplay are promising strategies to act on bile and cholesterol-related disorders. This manuscript summarizes the current knowledge on bile and cholesterol metabolism by intestinal bacteria, as well as its influence on host physiology, identifying knowledge gaps and opportunities to guide further advances in the field., This study was supported by MINECO under grant number AGL2013-44761-P. LR is a postdoctoral researcher supported by the Juan de la Cierva Postdoctoral Trainee Program (MINECO, JCI-2015-23196) and NM is the recipient of an FPI Predoctoral Grant (BES-2014-068736).

[Background] Transcriptomics profiling aims to identify and quantify all transcripts present within a cell type or tissue at a particular state, and thus provide information on the genes expressed in specific experimental settings, differentiation or disease conditions. RNA-Seq technology is becoming the standard approach for such studies, but available analysis tools are often hard to install, configure and use by users without advanced bioinformatics skills. [Methods] Within reason, DEWE aims to make RNA-Seq analysis as easy for non-proficient users as for experienced bioinformaticians. DEWE supports two well-established and widely used differential expression analysis workflows: using Bowtie2 or HISAT2 for sequence alignment; and, both applying StringTie for quantification, and Ballgown and edgeR for differential expression analysis. Also, it enables the tailored execution of individual tools as well as helps with the management and visualisation of differential expression results. [Results] DEWE provides a user-friendly interface designed to reduce the learning curve of less knowledgeable users while enabling analysis customisation and software extension by advanced users. Docker technology helps overcome installation and configuration hurdles. In addition, DEWE produces high quality and publication-ready outputs in the form of tab-delimited files and figures, as well as helps researchers with further analyses, such as pathway enrichment analysis. [Conclusions] The abilities of DEWE are exemplified here by practical application to a comparative analysis of monocytes and monocyte-derived dendritic cells, a study of clinical relevance. DEWE installers and documentation are freely available at https://www.sing-group.org/dewe., This work was supported by the Spanish “Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Inovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad” (grant AGL2013-44039R); the Asociación Española Contra el Cancer (“Obtención de péptidos bioactivos contra el Cáncer Colo-Rectal a partir de secuencias genéticas de microbiomas intestinales”, grant PS-2016); the Consellería de Educación, Universidades e Formación Profesional (Xunta de Galicia) under the scope of the strategic funding of ED431C2018/55-GRC Competitive Reference Group; the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology under the scope of the strategic funding of UID/BIO/04469/2019 unit; and the Asturias Regional Plan I + D + i for research groups (FYCYT-IDI/2018/000236). H. López-Fernández is supported by a post-doctoral fellowship from Xunta de Galicia (ED481B 2016/068-0).

There are strong evidences that probiotics influence the immune status of the host, in a strain-specific manner, acting in the gastrointestinal tract. On the hypothesis that certain extracellular proteins and peptides from gut bacteria may mediate part of this immunomodulation and assuming they are able to diffuse through the mucus layer and interact with immune cells we have developed this work. Our study attempts to understand the immunomodulatory mechanisms of (i) Pext, the extracellular protein fraction of Lactobacillus acidophilus DSM20079T, (ii) HM14, a peptide encrypted in an extracellular glycoside hydrolase from Bifidobacterium longum NCIMB 8809 and (iii) Escherichia coli O111:B4 lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a well-known pro-inflammatory molecule, over human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). An untargeted LC-ESI-QTOF-MS metabolomics approach was applied to reveal intracellular changes in treated-PBMCs isolated from healthy donors. Differences in NADH arrest, NAD+ concentration reduction, as well as increases in palmitic acid and methanephrin were observed in HM14 and Pext treated-cells compared to those stimulated with LPS. This would support an anti-inflammatory molecular mechanism of action of such proteinaceous molecules. Moreover, this methodology has confirms the importance of metabolomics approaches to better understanding immune cell responses to gut bacterial-derived molecules., This work was funded by the Autonomic Investigadores Emerxentes do Sistema Universitario de Galicia (Grant EM2014/046) and the Spanish Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad (Grant AGL2013-44039R). This work has received also financial support from the Xunta de Galicia (Plan de mellora do Centro de Investigacións Agroalimentarias CIA3 do Campus de Ourense).

Introduction: The role of the human intestinal microbiota in the maintenance of a healthy physiological condition, as well as its relation to the development of disease, remains to be clarified. Current evidence suggests that intestinal microbes could be involved in the initiation and amplification of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Despite recent progress in understanding how these microbes influence the pathophysiology of lupus, studies are still limited. Areas covered: In this review, we have tried to summarize the most relevant findings that have contributed to our understanding of the links between the human intestinal microbiota and the development of lupus. We also describe the potential role of individual microbial players in the physiology of lupus, and how they can shape relevant immune responses. Expert commentary: Culture-independent techniques based on massive sequencing represent a powerful tool to unravel the biological activity of gut microbes. Current data demonstrates that, depending on the pattern of intestinal microorganisms or the presence of specific bacteria, different responses related to lupus physiology can be triggered. Fecal microbiota transplantation, live biotherapeutics, or dietary interventions targeting the microbiota will likely become a treatment for SLE.

In a recent excellent Review1 (Bile acid–microbiota crosstalk in gastrointestinal inflammation and carcinogenesis. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 15, 111–128 (2018)), the connection between human and microbial bile acid (BA) metabolism was described. In this Review, the authors identified possible therapeutic targets from data published in the context of gastrointestinal inflammation and carcinogenesis. From the microbial point of view, BAs are one of the main factors determining probiotic survival through the human gastrointestinal tract, which indeed was the focus of my PhD work

[Background] The wide range of potential applications has made the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) a ubiquitous tool in the field of Molecular Biology. Within this context, it is increasingly appealing to embed BLAST services within larger Web applications. [Results] This work introduces BlasterJS viewer, a new JavaScript library for the lightweight development of Web-based applications supporting the visualisation of BLAST outputs. BlasterJS detaches from similar data viewers by focusing on the visual and interactive display of sequence similarity results and being completely independent of BLAST services. BlasterJS is compatible with the text outputs generated by the BLAST family of programs, namely BLASTp, BLASTn, BLASTx, tBLASTn, and tBLASTx, and works in all major Web browsers. Furthermore, BlasterJS is available through the EBI’s BioJS registry 5, which extends its potential use to a wider scope of bioinformatics applications. [Conclusions] BlasterJS is new Javascript library that enables easy and seamless integration of visual and interactive representations of BLAST outputs in Web-based applications supporting sequence similarity search. BlasterJS is free accessible at http://sing-group.org/blasterjs/., This work was supported by the Spanish “Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Inovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad” (grant AGL2013-44039R to BS and AL); and the Asociación Española Contra el Cancer ("Obtención de pépti-dos bioactivos contra el Cáncer Colo-Rectal a partir de secuencias genéticas de microbiomas intestinales", grant PS-2016 to BS and ABM). This study was also supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the scope of the strategic funding of UID/BIO/04469/2013 unit (AL) and COMPETE 2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006684 to AL). SING group thanks CITI (Centro de Investigación, Trans-ferencia e Innovación) from University of Vigo for hosting its IT infrastructure

Probiotics are used to improve human health due to their capability to induce beneficial effects in gastrointestinal diseases and modulate the immune response. However, scarce information is known about the bacterial active compounds and the metabolic pathways of interaction with immune cells. In the present study, we analyzed the immune response elicited by surface-associated proteins, the whole surface extract (WSE) and the genomic DNA of three strains from the main representative probiotic species for human consumption, L. acidophilus DSM20079T, L. rhamnosus GG, B. longum NCIMB 8809, using an in vitro model of human PBMCs from healthy donors. Eighteen cytokines were quantified using Luminex Technology to understand the immune pathways modulate by bacterial extracts. Overall, the bacterial fractions elicited a different immune response in PBMCs, whereas the isolated DNA was able to induce a higher Th17-like response that could lead to a protective effect in the epithelial barrier function., This work was funded by the Spanish “Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad” (Grant AGL2013-44039R) and the “Fundación Científica Asociación Española contra el Cáncer” (Grant PS-2016).

Bifidobacterium represents a genus within the phylum Actinobacteria which is one of the major phyla in the healthy intestinal tract of humans. Bifidobacterium is one of the most abundant genera in adults, but its predominance is even more pronounced in infants, especially during lactation, when they can constitute the majority of the total bacterial population. They are one of the pioneering colonizers of the early gut microbiota, and they are known to play important roles in the metabolism of dietary components, otherwise indigestible in the upper parts of the intestine, and in the maturation of the immune system. Bifidobacteria have been shown to interact with human immune cells and to modulate specific pathways, involving innate and adaptive immune processes. In this mini-review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on the immunomodulatory properties of bifidobacteria and the mechanisms and molecular players underlying these processes, focusing on the corresponding implications for human health. We deal with in vitro models suitable for studying strain-specific immunomodulatory activities. These include peripheral blood mononuclear cells and T cell-mediated immune responses, both effector and regulatory cell responses, as well as the modulation of the phenotype of dendritic cells, among others. Furthermore, preclinical studies, mainly germ-free, gnotobiotic, and conventional murine models, and human clinical trials, are also discussed. Finally, we highlight evidence supporting the immunomodulatory effects of bifidobacterial molecules (proteins and peptides, exopolysaccharides, metabolites, and DNA), as well as the role of bifidobacterial metabolism in maintaining immune homeostasis through cross-feeding mechanisms., LR is a postdoctoral researcher supported by the Juan de la Cierva Postdoctoral Trainee Program of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO; IJCI-2015-23196). BS and AM thanks MINECO for the funding of the project AGL2016-78311-R and PR-M for the project AGL2015-64901-R. SD is supported by a research contract associated to the project BIO2014-55019-JIN from the Spanish “Plan Estatal de I+D+i”.

Scientific studies focused on the role of the human microbiome over human health have generated billions of gigabits of genetic information during the last decade. Nowadays integration of all this information in public databases and development of pipelines allowing us to biotechnologically exploit this information are urgently needed. Prediction of the potential bioactivity of the products encoded by the human gut microbiome, or metaproteome, is the first step for identifying proteins responsible for the molecular interaction between microorganisms and the immune system. We have recently published the Mechanism of Action of the Human Microbiome (MAHMI) database (http://www.mahmi.org), conceived as a resource compiling peptide sequences with a potential immunomodulatory activity. Fifteen out of the 300 hundred million peptides contained in the MAHMI database were synthesized. These peptides were identified as being encrypted in proteins produced by gut microbiota members, they do not contain cleavage points for the major intestinal endoproteases and displayed high probability to have immunomodulatory bioactivity. The bacterial peptides FR-16 and LR-17 encrypted in proteins from Bifidobacterium longum DJ010A and Bifidobacterium fragilis YCH46 respectively, showed the higher immune modulation capability over human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Both peptides modulated the immune response toward increases in the Th17 and decreases in the Th1 cell response, together with an induction of IL-22 production. These results strongly suggest the combined use of bioinformatics and in vitro tools as a first stage in the screening of bioactive peptides encrypted in the human gut metaproteome., This work was financed by the Spanish “Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Inovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad” (Grant AGL2013-44039R). Research in our laboratory is funded by the “Fundación Científica Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer” (Grant agreement PS-2016)

Peptidome similarity analysis enables researchers to gain insights into differential peptide profiles, providing a robust tool to discriminate strain-specific peptides, true intra-species differences among biological replicates or even microorganism-phenotype variations. However, no in silico peptide fingerprinting software existed to facilitate such phylogeny inference. Hence, we developed the Peptidomes for Phylogenies (P4P) web tool, which enables the survey of similarities between microbial proteomes and simplifies the process of obtaining new biological insights into their phylogeny. P4P can be used to analyze different peptide datasets, i.e. bacteria, viruses, eukaryotic species or even metaproteomes. Also, it is able to work with whole proteome datasets and experimental mass-to-charge lists originated from mass spectrometers. The ultimate aim is to generate a valid and manageable list of peptides that have phylogenetic signal and are potentially sample-specific. Sample-to-sample comparison is based on a consensus peak set matrix, which can be further submitted to phylogenetic analysis. P4P holds great potential for improving phylogenetic analyses in challenging taxonomic groups, biomarker identification or epidemiologic studies. Notably, P4P can be of interest for applications handling large proteomic datasets, which it is able to reduce to small matrices while maintaining high phylogenetic resolution. The web server is available at http://sing-group.org/p4p., Spanish ‘Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad’ [AGL2013-44039R]; Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the scope of the strategic funding of UID/BIO/04469/2013 unit and COMPETE 2020[POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006684];INOU16-05project from the University of Vigo; Fundación AECC. Funding for open access charge: Spanish ‘Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad’ [AGL2013-44039R]., info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer a health benefit on the host when administered in adequate amounts. Toxicity induced by molecular oxygen significantly affects the viability of probiotic bacteria during biomass generation, product manufacturing and storage also constitute a major challenge for their inclusion in dairy products. Oxygen toxicity is particularly critical in the case of bifidobacteria, which are strict anaerobes. This mini-review aims at compiling the knowledge on the response mechanisms, mainly in this bacterial group, focused on counteracting the deleterious effects of oxygen on probiotic cells. The effect of other technological and microbiological ways to attenuate oxygen toxicity, such as milk deaeration, microencapsulation or co-culture is reviewed. Potential uses of the isolation of better adapted strains of probiotic Bifidobacterium strains, as well as the next generation probiotics such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, are discussed., This work was funded by Grant AGL2013-44039-R from the Spanish ‘Plan Estatal de I+D+I’. Borja Sánchez was recipient of a Ramón y Cajal postdoctoral contract from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness.

The gastrointestinal tract of mammals hosts a high and diverse number of different microorganisms, known as intestinal microbiota. Many probiotics were originally isolated from the gastrointestinal tract, and they were defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)/WHO as “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host.” Probiotics exert their beneficial effects on the host through four main mechanisms: interference with potential pathogens, improvement of barrier function, immunomodulation and production of neurotransmitters, and their host targets vary from the resident microbiota to cellular components of the gut–brain axis. However, in spite of the wide array of beneficial mechanisms deployed by probiotic bacteria, relatively few effects have been supported by clinical data. In this regard, different probiotic strains have been effective in antibiotic‐associated diarrhea or inflammatory bowel disease for instance. The aim of this review was to compile the molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of probiotics, mainly through their interaction with the intestinal microbiota and with the intestinal mucosa. The specific benefits discussed in this paper include among others those elicited directly through dietary modulation of the human gut microbiota., Research in our lab is funded by Grants AGL2013‐44039‐R and AGL2013‐44761‐P from the Spanish “Plan Estatal de I+D+I.” Part of the authors is also partially funded by the [15VI013] Contract‐Programme from the University of Vigo and the Agrupamento INBIOMED from DXPCTSUG‐FEDER unha maneira de facer Europa (2012/273). B. S. was recipient of a Ramón y Cajal postdoctoral contract from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness.

[Purpose] Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) formation by intestinal bacteria is regulated by many different factors, among which dietary fibre is currently receiving most attention. However, since fibre-rich foods are usually good dietary sources of phenolic compounds, which are also known to affect the microbiota, authors hypothesize that the regular intake of these bioactive compounds could be associated with a modulation of faecal SCFA production by the intestinal microbiota. [Methods] In this work, food intake was recorded by means of a validated Food Frequency Questionnaire. Fibres were determined using Marlett food composition tables, and phenolic compounds were obtained from Phenol-Explorer Database. Analysis of SCFA was performed by gas chromatography–flame ionization/mass spectrometry and quantification of microbial populations in faeces by quantitative PCR. [Results] Klason lignin and its food contributors, as predictors of faecal butyrate production, were directly associated with Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium levels, as well as lignans with Bacteroides. Also, anthocyanidins, provided by strawberries, were associated with faecal propionate and inversely related to Lactobacillus group. [Conclusions] These results support the hypothesis we put forward regarding the association between some vegetable foods (strawberries, pasta, lentils, lettuce and olive oil) and faecal SCFA. More studies are needed in order to elucidate whether these associations have been mediated by the bacterial modulatory effect of the bioactive compounds, anthocyanins, lignans or Klason lignin, present in foodstuffs., This study was financed by the Spanish Plan Nacional de I+D (Grant AGL2010-14952) and by Biópolis SL. within the framework of the e-CENIT Project SENIFOOD from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. The activity of the group is being partly supported through the Grant GRUPIN14-043 from “Plan Regional de Investigación” of Principado de Asturias. Both AGL2010-14952 and GRUPIN14-043 received cofounding from European Union FEDER funds. N. Salazar benefits from a “Clarín” postdoctoral contract (Marie Curie European CoFund Program) co-funded by the “Plan Regional de Investigación” of Principado de Asturias, Spain. B. Sánchez was the recipient of a “Ramón y Cajal” postdoctoral contract from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. The contract of I. Gutierrez-Diaz was supported by grant GRUPIN14-043. We acknowledge the excellent technical assistance of Lidia Alaez, whose contract was partially supported by the Project AGL2010-16525 and by “Plan Regional de Investigación” of Principado de Asturias, through the Grant COF 13-020. We show our greatest gratitude to all the volunteers participating in the study and to “Alimerka Foundation”.

Intestinal dysbiosis, characterized by a reduced Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, has been reported in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients. In this study, in vitro cultures revealed that microbiota isolated from SLE patient stool samples (SLE-M) promoted lymphocyte activation and Th17 differentiation from naïve CD4+ lymphocytes to a greater extent than healthy control-microbiota. Enrichment of SLE-M with Treg-inducing bacteria showed that a mixture of two Clostridia strains significantly reduced the Th17/Th1 balance, whereas Bifidobacterium bifidum supplementation prevented CD4+ lymphocyte over-activation, thus supporting a possible therapeutic benefit of probiotics containing Treg-inducer strains in order to restore the Treg/Th17/Th1 imbalance present in SLE. In fact, ex vivo analyses of patient samples showed enlarged Th17 and Foxp3+ IL-17+ populations, suggesting a possible Treg-Th17 trans-differentiation. Moreover, analyses of fecal microbiota revealed a negative correlation between IL-17+ populations and Firmicutes in healthy controls, whereas in SLE this phylum correlated directly with serum levels of IFNγ, a Th1 cytokine slightly reduced in patients. Finally, the frequency of Synergistetes, positively correlated with the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio in healthy controls, tended to be reduced in patients when anti-dsDNA titers were increased and showed a strong negative correlation with IL-6 serum levels and correlated positively with protective natural IgM antibodies against phosphorylcholine., This work was supported by European Union FEDER funds, Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria (PI12/00523), Spanish Plan Nacional de I+D (AGL2010-14952 and AGL2013-44039-R) and Fundación para el Fomento en Asturias de la Investigación Científica Aplicada y la Tecnología (EQUIP09-19). J.R.-C. is a recipient of a FPU grant from the Spanish Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte. B.J. and A.H. are recipients of a Ramón y Cajal postdoctoral contract and a FPI grant, respectively, both from the Spanish Ministerio deEconomía y Competitividad. We thank SLE patients and ALAS (Asociación Lúpicos de Asturias) for their continuous encouragement.

Typical bacterial strain differentiation methods are often challenged by high genetic similarity between strains. To address this problem, we introduce a novel in silico peptide fingerprinting method based on conventional wet-lab protocols that enables the identification of potential strain-specific peptides. These can be further investigated using in vitro approaches, laying a foundation for the development of biomarker detection and application-specific methods. This novel method aims at reducing large amounts of comparative peptide data to binary matrices while maintaining a high phylogenetic resolution. The underlying case study concerns the Bacillus cereus group, namely the differentiation of Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus strains. Results show that trees based on cytoplasmic and extracellular peptidomes are only marginally in conflict with those based on whole proteomes, as inferred by the established Genome-BLAST Distance Phylogeny (GBDP) method. Hence, these results indicate that the two approaches can most likely be used complementarily even in other organismal groups. The obtained results confirm previous reports about the misclassification of many strains within the B. cereus group. Moreover, our method was able to separate the B. anthracis strains with high resolution, similarly to the GBDP results as benchmarked via Bayesian inference and both Maximum Likelihood and Maximum Parsimony. In addition to the presented phylogenomic applications, whole-peptide fingerprinting might also become a valuable complementary technique to digital DNA-DNA hybridization, notably for bacterial classification at the species and subspecies level in the future., This research was funded by Grant AGL2013-44039-R from the Spanish “Plan Estatal de I+D+I”, and by Grant EM2014/046 from the “Plan Galego de investigación, innovación e crecemento 2011-2015”. BS was recipient of a Ramón y Cajal postdoctoral contract from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. This work was also partially funded by the [14VI05] Contract-Programme from the University of Vigo and the Agrupamento INBIOMED from DXPCTSUG-FEDER unha maneira de facer Europa (2012/273). The research leading to these results has also received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/REGPOT-2012-2013.1 under grant agreement n° 316265, BIOCAPS