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The association of nervous system with skin is well documented. Many common psychiatric disorders can involve skin either directly or indirectly. We found an association of 13 primary psychiatric disorders leading to dermatological diseases, with association of 2 of 13 considered to be idiopathic. Association of the mind and body has long been studied. Several skin problems lead to psychological and psychiatric symptoms, however not all skin problems lead to psychiatric symptoms. On the contrary, many primary psychiatric illnesses appear to have associated skin disorders. RESUMEN La asociación del sistema nervioso con la piel está bien documentada. Muchos trastornos psiquiátricos comunes pueden implicar a la piel directa o indirectamente. Se encontró asociación de 13 trastornos psiquiátricos primarios que llevan a enfermedades dermatológicas, y de las 13, asociación de 2 consideradas idiopáticas. La asociación entre la mente y el cuerpo se ha estudiado durante mucho tiempo. Varios problemas de la piel conducen a los síntomas psicológicos y psiquiátricos, pero no todos los problemas llevan a síntomas psiquiátricos de la piel. Por el contrario, parece que muchas enfermedades psiquiátricas primarias se asocian con trastornos de la piel.

Objective: To highlight the inflammatory and immunological mechanisms involved in depression and psoriasis. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was performed in various databases, in total 145 studies were selected. Results: Depression and psoriasis have an association. Immune mechanisms -the actions of tumor necrosis factor-a, interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-2, IL-10, IL-22, IL-17, interferon-7, IL-1ß, prostaglandin E2, C-reactive protein, IL-6, and IL-8 etc.-, and some genetic changes are involved. Conclusions: A possible bidirectional relationship of psoriasis and major depression exists; i.e. the depression leads to psoriasis, and psoriasis leads to depression. We recommend more studies in the future to get a deeper and better understanding about this relationship. RESUMEN Objetivo: Poner de relieve los mecanismos inflamatorios e inmunológicos involucrados en la depresión y la psoriasis. Métodos: Se realizó en varias bases de datos una búsqueda bibliográfica completa; en total se incluyeron 145 estudios. Resultados: Hay asociación entre depresión y psoriasis y están involucrados mecanismos inmunitarios -las acciones del factor de necrosis tumoral alfa, las interleucinas (IL) 1, 2, 10, 22 y 17, el interferón gamma, la IL-1ß, la prostaglandina E2, la proteína C reactiva, la IL-6 y la IL-8, etc. - y algunos cambios genéticos. Conclusiones: Hay una posible relación bidireccional entre psoriasis y depresión, es decir, la depresión lleva a psoriasis y la psoriasis lleva a depresión. Se recomiendan más estudios en el futuro para obtener una comprensión más profunda y mejor sobre esta relación.

Introduction: The world renowned comedian and four-time Oscar nominated actor Robin Williams died on August 11, 2014. From the outset, the news indicated that his death was believed to be a suicide and this was later confirmed to be true by the autopsy reports. Williams had been suffering from severe depression, which is believed to be the leading contributor to his suicide. In this case study, I will highlight the event of the actor's suicide and the main risk factors along with depression leading to his tragic death. As of the end of 2015, no other case study seemed to have addressed or explored the links between the cause (or causes) and events leading to Robin Williams' suicide. Case description: Robin Williams was suffering from relationship problems, financial problems, drug addiction, and major depression. All of these factors led to his suicide. Comments: The chances of committing suicide drastically increase in the presence of any of the key risk factors. Unfortunately, the actor Robin Williams was dealing with four of the major risk factors all together, which put him at a high risk of committing suicide and eventually led to his tragic death.

Understanding social cognition has become a hallmark in deciphering autism spectrum disorder. Neurobiological theories are taking precedence in causation studies as researchers look to abnormalities in brain development as the cause of deficits in social behavior, cognitive processes, and language. Following their discovery in the 1990s, mirror neurons have become a dominant theory for that the mirror neuron system may play a critical role in the pathophysiology of various symptoms of autism. Over the decades, the theory has evolved from the suggestion of a broken mirror neuron system to impairments in mirror neuron circuitry. The mirror neuron system has not gained total support due to inconsistent findings; a comprehensive analysis of the growing body of research could shed light on the benefits, or the disadvantage of continuing to study mirror neurons and their connection to autism.

A rare kind of antibody, known as anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) autoantibody, is found in some patients. The antibody works against the GAD enzyme, which is essential in the formation of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter found in the brain. Patients found with this antibody present with motor and cognitive problems due to low levels or lack of GABA, because in the absence or low levels of GABA patients exhibit motor and cognitive symptoms. The anti-GAD antibody is found in some neurological syndromes, including stiff-person syndrome, paraneoplastic stiff-person syndrome, Miller Fisher syndrome (MFS), limbic encephalopathy, cerebellar ataxia, eye movement disorders, and epilepsy. Previously, excluding MFS, these conditions were called ‘hyperexcitability disorders’. However, collectively, these syndromes should be known as “anti-GAD positive neurological syndromes.” An important limitation of this study is that the literature is lacking on the subject, and why patients with the above mentioned neurological problems present with different symptoms has not been studied in detail. Therefore, it is recommended that more research is conducted on this subject to obtain a better and deeper understanding of these anti-GAD antibody induced neurological syndromes.

Stiff-person syndrome (SPS) is a rare disorder that affects the central nervous system and is characterized by progressive muscle stiffness, rigidity, and spasm of axial and limb muscles. The syndrome is caused by a lack of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), which occurs because of antibodies against glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), an essential enzyme for GABA synthesis. Hence, the patients present with increased muscular activity. In this article, we will discuss two case studies of stiff-person syndrome.

Objectives Earthquakes are unpredictable and devastating natural disasters. They can cause massive destruction and loss of life and survivors may suffer psychological symptoms of severe intensity. Our goal in this article is to review studies published in the last 20 years to compile what is known about posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurring after earthquakes. The review also describes other psychiatric complications that can be associated with earthquakes, to provide readers with better overall understanding, and discusses several sociodemographic factors that can be associated with post-earthquake PTSD Method A search for literature was conducted on major databases such as MEDLINE, PubMed, EMBASE, and PsycINFO and in neurology and psychiatry journals, and many other medical journals. Terms used for electronic searches included, but were not limited to, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), posttraumatic symptoms, anxiety, depression, major depressive disorder, earthquake, and natural disaster. The relevant information was then utilized to determine the relationships between earthquakes and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Results It was found that PTSD is the most commonly occurring mental health condition among earthquake survivors. Major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, social phobia, and specific phobias were also listed. Conclusion The PTSD prevalence rate varied widely. It was dependent on multiple risk factors in target populations and also on the interval of time that had elapsed between the exposure to the deadly incident and measurement. Females seemed to be the most widely-affected group, while elderly people and young children exhibit considerable psychosocial impact. Resumo Objetivos Terremotos são desastres naturais imprevisíveis e devastadores. Eles podem causar destruição em massa e morte, e os sobreviventes podem apresentar sintomas psicológicos severos. O objetivo deste estudo foi revisar estudos publicados nos últimos 20 anos pra compilar o conhecimento disponível acerca da ocorrência de transtorno do estresse pós-traumático (TEPT) após terremotos. A revisão também descreve outras complicações psiquiátricas que podem estar associadas a terremotos, oferecendo aos leitores um melhor entendimento geral sobre o assunto, e discute vários fatores sociodemográficos que podem estar associados com TEPT pós-terremoto. Métodos Foi realizada uma busca de literatura nas principais bases de dados, como MEDLINE, PubMed, EMBASE e PsycINFO, e também em revistas de neurologia e psiquiatria, e vários outros periódicos médicos. Os termos usados nas buscas eletrônicas incluíram, mas não se limitaram a, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), posttraumatic symptoms, anxiety, depression, major depressive disorder, earthquake e natural disaster. As informações relevantes foram então utilizadas para determinar as relações entre terremotos e sintomas de estresse pós-traumático. Resultados A revisão revelou que o TEPT é a condição de saúde mental mais comum em sobreviventes de terremoto. Depressão maior, transtorno de ansiedade generalizada, transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo, fobia social e fobias específicas foram outras condições encontrados. Conclusão A prevalência de TEPT variou bastante. O transtorno foi dependente de múltiplos fatores de risco em populações-alvo e também do intervalo de tempo decorrido entre a exposição ao incidente fatal e a avaliação. As mulheres pareceram ser o grupo mais amplamente afetado, ao passo que idosos e crianças demonstração considerável impacto psicossocial.

Parkinson's disease is a widespread neurological illness. However, its psychiatric links have also been discussed lately by many authors, which has brought more depth to the specialized field of neuropsychiatry. Neuropsychiatric complications are commonly seen in Parkinson's patients, including major depression, anxiety, psychosis and hallucination, and cognitive abnormality. Almost all of these complications have a distinct pathophysiology and treatment. In this article we review the most recent studies about the association of these symptoms with Parkinson's disease and highlight the epidemiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment of the neuropsychiatric complications, with more emphasis on the pathophysiology of these complications.

Objective: To highlight the changes in the frontal lobe of the human brain in people with schizophrenia. Methods: This was a qualitative review of the literature. Results: Many schizophrenic patients exhibit functional, structural, and metabolic abnormalities in the frontal lobe. Some patients have few or no alterations, while some have more functional and structural changes than others. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows structural and functional changes in volume, gray matter, white matter, and functional activity in the frontal lobe, but the mechanisms underlying these changes are not yet fully understood. Conclusion: When schizophrenia is studied as an essential topic in the field of neuropsychiatry, neuroscientists find that the frontal lobe is the most commonly involved area of the human brain. A clear picture of how this lobe is affected in schizophrenia is still lacking. We therefore recommend that further research be conducted to improve understanding of the pathophysiology of this psychiatric dilemma. Resumo Objetivo: Descrever as alterações no lobo frontal do cérebro humano em indivíduos com esquizofrenia. Métodos: Esta foi uma revisão qualitativa da literatura. Resultados: Muitos pacientes esquizofrênicos exibem anormalidades funcionais, estruturais e metabólicas no lobo frontal. Alguns pacientes apresentam poucas ou nenhuma alteração, ao passo que outros apresentam mais alterações funcionais e estruturais quando comparados com seus pares. A ressonância magnética é capaz de demonstrar alterações estruturais e funcionais em volume, substância cinzenta, substância branca e atividade funcional do lobo frontal, porém os mecanismos subjacentes a essas alterações ainda não são completamente compreendidos. Conclusão: Quando a esquizofrenia é estudada como um tópico central na área da neuropsiquiatria, os neurocientistas observam que o lobo frontal é a área do cérebro humano mais comumente envolvida. Uma imagem clara de como esse lobo é afetado na esquizofrenia permanece inexistente. Portanto, recomendamos que mais pesquisas sejam conduzidas para melhorar nosso entendimento sobre a fisiopatologia desse dilema psiquiátrico.

The dearth of child psychiatrists in Pakistan is becoming one of the major causes of many cases of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) remain undiagnosed. Some important measures must be taken at the private and the governmental levels, so that the ADHD cases do not remain diagnosed in the future.

A literature search was conducted in different databases to study the topic of liver problems and diabetes. The aim of the study was to explore more about an association of diabetes mellitus with the liver. The study shows that diabetes does indeed have an effect on liver. Similarly, liver problems like chronic liver disease lead to diabetes which is known as hepatogenous diabetes. Common liver problems seen in diabetes patients include but not limited to fatty liver, decreased glycogen levels, risk of liver cancer etc. Like any medical problem, any knowledge about any subject is never enough, therefore we recommend more studies in the near future to broaden our understanding about the association of the liver with diabetes.