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Background The Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) strategy implemented by the World Health Organization (WHO) in Africa has produced a large amount of data on participating countries, and in particular on the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). These data are increasingly considered as unevaluable and, therefore, as requiring a rigorous process of validation before they can be used for research or public health purposes. The aim of this study was to propose a method to assess the level of adequacy of IDSR morbidity data in reflecting actual morbidity. Methods A systematic search of English- and French-language articles was performed in Scopus, Medline, Science Direct, Springer Link, Cochrane, Cairn, Persée, and Erudit databases. Other types of documents were identified through manual searches. Selected articles focused on the determinants of the discrepancies (differences) between reported morbidity and actual morbidity. An adequacy score was constructed using some of the identified determinants. This score was applied to the 15 weekly reported diseases monitored by IDSR surveillance in the DRC. A classification was established using the Jenks method and a sensitivity analysis was performed. Twenty-three classes of determinants were identified in 35 IDSR technical guides and reports of outbreak investigations and in 71 out of 2254 researched articles. For each of the 15 weekly reported diseases, the SIA was composed of 12 items grouped in 6 dimensions. Results The SIA classified the 15 weekly reported diseases into 3 categories or types: high score or good adequacy (value > = 14), moderate score or fair adequacy (value > = 8 and

International audience; To date, there is no effective treatment to cure dengue fever, a mosquito-borne disease which has a major impact on human populations in tropical and subtropical regions. Although the characteristics of dengue infection are well known, factors associated with landscape are highly scale dependent in time and space, and therefore difficult to monitor. We propose here a mapping review based on 78 articles that study the relationships between landscape factors and urban dengue cases considering household, neighborhood and administrative levels. Landscape factors were retrieved from survey questionnaires, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and remote sensing (RS) techniques. We structured these into groups composed of land cover, land use, and housing type and characteristics, as well as subgroups referring to construction material, urban typology, and infrastructure level. We mapped the co-occurrence networks associated with these Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 932 2 of 82 factors, and analyzed their relevance according to a three-valued interpretation (positive, negative, non significant). From a methodological perspective, coupling RS and GIS techniques with field surveys including entomological observations should be systematically considered, as none digital land use or land cover variables appears to be an univocal determinant of dengue occurrences. Remote sensing urban mapping is however of interest to provide a geographical frame to distribute human population and movement in relation to their activities in the city, and as spatialized input variables for epidemiological and entomological models.

International audience; A major forthcoming sanitary issue concerns the apparition and spreading of drug-resistant microorganisms, potentially threatening millions of humans. In low-income countries, polluted urban runoff and open sewage channels are major sources of microbes. These microbes join natural microbial communities in aquatic ecosystems already impacted by various chemicals, including antibiotics. These composite microbial communities must adapt to survive in such hostile conditions, sometimes promoting the selection of antibiotic-resistant microbial strains by gene transfer. The low probability of exchanges between planktonic microorganisms within the water column may be significantly improved if their contact was facilitated by particular meeting places. This could be specifically the case within biofilms that develop on the surface of the myriads of floating macroplastics increasingly polluting urban tropical surface waters. Moreover, as uncultivable bacterial strains could be involved, analyses of the microbial communities in their whole have to be performed. This means that new-omic technologies must be routinely implemented in low- and middle-income countries to detect the appearance of resistance genes in microbial ecosystems, especially when considering the new 'plastic context.'We summarize the related current knowledge in this short review paper to anticipate new strategies for monitoring and surveying microbial communities.

Les maladies à transmission vectorielle constituent une menace sans cesse renouvelée pour la santé humaine. Adaptation des vecteurs, changement climatique, transformation des environnements, mondialisation des échanges, urbanisation, favorisent le maintien voire l’émergence et la diffusion de ces risques infectieux. Au Brésil, l’actualité se focalise autour des arboviroses transmises par les Aedes aegypti, le pays étant confronté à l’essor aussi bien de la dengue, du Zika, que du Chikungunya et la persistance de la fièvre jaune. D’autres maladies vectorielles se maintiennent comme les schistosomoses, autour des périmètres irrigués du rio São Francisco. La dynamique spatiale de ces pathologies souligne le rôle de la structuration des espaces, du fonctionnement des réseaux, de l’essor de l’urbanisation, de l’offre de soins, faisant écho à des études menées autour des maladies vectorielles, en d’autres lieux et sur d’autres continents. En rappelant les enseignements géographiques issus de quelques travaux interdisciplinaires, nous proposons de renouveler le regard porté sur les maladies vectorielles par des confrontations d’expériences de part et d’autre de l’Atlantique, voire des frontières sud-américaines. As doenças transmitidas por vetores constituem uma ameaça incessantemente renovada para a saúde humana. Adaptação dos vetores, mudanças climáticas, transformação do meio ambiente, mundialização das trocas e urbanização, favorecem a manutenção ou mesmo a emergência e a propagação destes riscos infecciosos. No Brasil, a atenção atualmente se focaliza em torno das arboviroses transmitidas pelo Aedes aegypti, o país é confrontado ao incremento igualmente da Dengue, da Zika e do Chikungunya e a persistência da Febre Amarela. Outras doenças transmitidas por vetores persistem como a esquistossomose no entorno dos perímetros irrigados do Rio São Francisco. A dinâmica espacial destas patologias destaca o papel da estruturação dos espaços, do funcionamento das redes, do desenvolvimento da urbanização, da oferta dos cuidados a saúde, fazendo eco a estudos efetuados ao redor destas mesmas patologias, mas igualmente a outras doenças vetoriais, em outros lugares e em outros continentes. Recordando os ensinos geográficos procedentes de trabalhos interdisciplinares, propomos renovar o olhar sobre as doenças transmitida por vetores por meio das confrontações de experiência de um lado e outro do Atlântico ou mesmo das fronteiras sul-americanas. Vector-borne diseases are a constantly renewed threat to human health. Vectors adaptation, climate change, environment modifications, globalization, urbanization, promote the persistence or even the emergence and diffusion of these infectious risks. In Brazil, today’s preoccupations are focused on Aedes transmitted arboviruses. The country is facing the rise of dengue, Zika, Chikungunya and the persistence of yellow fever. Other vector-borne diseases such as schistosomiasis, persist around the irrigated perimeters of Sao Francisco River. The spatial dynamics of these diseases underline the role of the structuring of spaces, the functioning of networks, the growth of urbanization, and the supply of care, echoing studies carried out around vector-borne diseases, in other places and on other continents. By recalling the geographical teachings resulting from some interdisciplinary work examples, we propose to renew the focus on vector-borne diseases by confronting experiences on both sides of the Atlantic, or even then South American borders.

International audience; This article seeks to recover the origins of health geography, from the production of the first disease maps to the incorporation of new spatial analysis techniques in the last decades. This evolution has also been accompanied by a profound review of paradigms, theories and methods, with a greater emphasis on the relationship between man and the environment, and with approaches that relate socio-spatial structure to health problems at the various scales where they manifest themselves. The current health geography is confronted with the need to articulate the association between the health-disease process and the disease-care binomial, in search of equity, prevention of diseases and diseases and health promotion.; Cet article cherche à retrouver les origines de la géographie de la santé, depuis la production des premières cartes des maladies jusqu'à l'incorporation de nouvelles techniques d'analyse spatiale au cours des dernières décennies. Cette évolution s'est également accompagnée d'une révision en profondeur des paradigmes, des théories et des méthodes, en mettant davantage l'accent sur la relation entre l'homme et l'environnement, et avec des approches qui relient la structure socio-spatiale aux problèmes de santé aux différentes échelles où ils se manifestent. La géographie actuelle de la santé est confrontée à la nécessité d'articuler l'association entre le processus santé-maladie et le binôme maladie-attention, à la recherche de l'équité, de la prévention des maladies et des maladies et de la promotion de la santé.; Este artigo busca resgatar as origens da geografia da saúde, desde a produção dos primeiros mapas de doenças até a incorporação de novas técnicas de análise espacial nas últimas décadas. Esta evolução também foi acompanhada por uma profunda revisão de paradigmas, teorias e métodos, ora com maior ênfase nas relações entre homem e ambiente, ora com abordagens que relacionam a estrutura socioespacial com os problemas de saúde nas diversas escalas em que estes se manifestam. A geografia da saúde atual se defronta com a necessidade de se articular a associação entre o processo de saúde-doença com o binômio doença-atenção, em busca da equidade, da prevenção de doenças e agravos e da promoção da saúde.

Wesselsbron disease is a neglected mosquito transmitted Flavivirus infection that causes abortions and has teratogenic effects on sheep and cattle in Africa. Human can also be infected. The detection of human or animal cases is complicated by the non-specific symptoms close to Rift Valley Fever (RVF) in domestic livestock species or Dengue like syndrome in humans. Then, these detections are usually made during RVF investigations in sheep. These domestic animals should take a role in the life cycle of the virus but some evidences of Wesselsbron virus (WSLV) presence in wild animals suggest that the latter may be involved in the virus maintenance in nature. However, the reservoir status of wild vertebrate in general and rodents particularly for WSLV is only based on an isolation from a Cape short-eared gerbil in southern Africa. Most of WSLV isolations are from southern parts of Africa even if it has been found in western and central Africa or Madagascar. In Senegal, there are serological evidences of WSLV circulation in human since the 1970s and some isolations, the last one of which dates back in 1992. Despite the detection of the virus on mosquitoes until the 2000s in different parts of the country, no new human case has been noted. In this paper, we report the WSLV re-emergence in eastern Senegal in 2013 with 2 human cases and its first isolation from a black rat Rattus rattus. Sequencing analyses show the circulation of the same strain between these humans and the commensal rodent. The putative impact on WSLV transmission to human populations could be more important if the reservoir status of the black rat is confirmed. Focused survey in human populations, specific entomological and mammalogical investigations would permit a better understanding of the life cycle of the virus and its impact on public health., Highlights • Wesselsbron virus (WSLV) re-emerged in eastern Senegal in 2013 with 2 human cases and a black rat Rattus rattus. • Sequencing data showed circulation of the same strain among humans and black rat. • First reported isolation of WSLV from rodent since a Cape short-eared gerbil collected in 1968 in South Africa. • The potential impact on WSLV transmission to human could be more important should R. rattus be confirmed as reservoir. • Surveillance and field investigation on WSLV life cycle should be carried out to assess associated risk and impact of WSL on human health.

International audience; BACKGROUND: Malaria is influenced by a web of individual and ecological factors, i.e. factors relating to people and relating to environment. For a long time analysing these factors concurrently has raised statistical problems. Multilevel modelling provides a new attractive solution, which is still uncommon in tropical medicine. METHODS: Using an actual data set of 3864 individuals from 38 villages of the Highland Madagascar, a two-level modelling process is presented. Individual malaria parasitaemia is modelled step by step according to age (individual factor), altitude, and DDT indoor house-spraying status (village factors). RESULTS: The hierarchical organization of a data set in levels, fixed and random effects, and cross-level interactions are considered. Accurate estimations of standard errors, impact of unknown or unmeasured variables quantified and accounted for through random effects, are the highlighted advantages of multilevel modelling. CONCLUSION: While not denying the importance of understanding an aetiological chain, the authors recommend an increased use of multilevel modelling, mainly to identify accurately ecological targets for public health policy.